1062
3, MARCH 2009
Adaptive Differentially Coherent Orthogonally Multiplexed
Orthogonal Phase Modulation over Flat Fading Channels
Wei-Lun Lin and Char-Dir Chung, Fellow, IEEE
Abstract—A constant-power adaptive transmission technique
adopting differentially coherent orthogonally multiplexed or-
thogonal phase modulation (DOMOPM) signals is studied for
flat fading channels. Numerical results show that the constant-
power adaptive DOMOPM system significantly outperforms the
constant-power adaptive noncoherent frequency shift keying
system in average spectral efficiency.
Index Terms—Adaptive modulation, differentially coherent de-
tection, orthogonally multiplexed orthogonal phase modulation,
average spectral efficiency, fading channels.
I. I NTRODUCTION
A DAPTIVE modulation has emerged as a promising tech-
nique to improve spectral efficiency by adapting the
transmission parameters, such as constellation size, transmis-
sion power, and bit error rate (BER), according to channel
status [1]-[4]. In addition to providing high system throughput,
adaptive modulation is also applied to deal with a power-
saving scenario to maintain a reliable communication link with
low transmission outage. The applications for such a scenario
primarily focus on the communication units with limited
power budget or on the capability to reach far-end commu-
nication units. In [4], the power-efficient modulation family,
noncoherent frequency shift keying (NC-FSK), is adopted
in a constant-power adaptive modulation system. Under a
preassigned BER upper bound, constant-power adaptive NC-
FSK adapts the number of frequency N according to channel
status in a way that larger N with higher power efficiency
copes with worse channel status at the expense of signal
bandwidth increase when the symbol interval is fixed [4].
However, a large portion of spectrum is left unused when
smaller N is used, which results in inefficient utilization of
spectrum and thus lowers system throughput. In order to
provide higher average spectral efficiency under a power-
saving scenario, particularly at moderate to high carrier-to-
noise power ratios (CNR’s), other power-efficient modulations
which provide high spectral efficiencies as well are solicited
for adaptation in this letter.
Manuscript received October 19, 2007; revised April 2, 2008; accepted
July 20, 2008. The associate editor coordinating the review of this paper and
approving it for publication was D. Huang.
W.-L. Lin is with the Graduate Institute of Communication Engineer-
ing, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 10617 (e-mail: weilun-
lin@ntu.edu.tw).
C.-D. Chung is with the Department of Electrical Engineering and the
Graduate Institute of Communication Engineering, National Taiwan Univer-
sity, Taipei, Taiwan 10617 (e-mail: cdchung@cc.ee.ntu.edu.tw).
This work was supported by the ROC National Science Council under
Contract 95-2221-E-002-087-MY3. This letter was presented in part at
the IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio
Communications, Athens, Greece, September 2007.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TWC.2009.071160
1536-1276/09$25.00 
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 8, NO.
Fig. 1. The adaptive DOMOPM system model.
Recently, the differentially coherent orthogonally mul-
tiplexed orthogonal phase modulation (DOMOPM) family
[5] was proposed to unify several conventional and unex-
ploited multidimensional modulations enabling differentially
coherent detection. As indicated in [5], the 2N -dimensional
(2N -D) DOMOPM signals constructed by a single-carrier
multiple-pulse basis set Ω3 (N/2) are free from the carrier
phase offset caused by propagation delay. When Ω3 (N/2)
is adopted, some DOMOPM signals can even outperform
the rectangularly-pulsed N -ary frequency shift keying/K-ary
differentially-encoded phase shift keying (N FSK/KDPSK)
signal and the rectangularly-pulsed N -ary NC-FSK signal in
both power and spectral efficiencies [5]. In addition to the
distinguished trends on spectral and error performance char-
acteristics, the DOMOPM signals constructed from Ω3 (N/2)
are suited for fast Fourier transform (FFT) implementation
and can be detected by a simple receiver without performing
phase tracking. These merits motivate this letter to study
the adaptive constant-power DOMOPM based on Ω3 (N/2)
with an attempt to outperform the constant-power adaptive
rectangularly-pulsed NC-FSK [4] in average spectral effi-
ciency.
II. S YSTEM M ODEL
The DOMOPM signal [5] is constructed from a basis set of
2N orthonormal basis signals, and is generally expressed by
multiplexing M orthogonal and independent (2N/M )-D com-
ponent signals. The component signal is formed by grouping
L orthogonal differentially-encoded phase-shift-keying signals
with phases taking value in a K-ary alphabet. For convenience,
the modulation elements in the 2N -D DOMOPM family are
indexed by the parameter triplet (M, L, K). Fig. 1 depicts
the considered 2N -D adaptive DOMOPM system. In the i-
th signaling interval of length T seconds, the supersymbol
c 2009 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 8, NO. 3, MARCH 2009 1063

TABLE I
T HE MAPPING AND DEMAPPING ALGORITHMS OF ADAPTIVE DOMOPM SCHEME . N OTE THAT x DENOTES THE INTERGER PART OF x AND δx (y) = 1
IF x = y AND 0 OTHERWISE .

Modulation
Parameter Algorithm
Condition
    
(l) (l+L/2)
BlNp /L+α,i = δα (a0,i ) cos 2π K
b0,i + δα (a0,i ) sin 2π K
b0,i
Mapping     
(l+L/2) (l)
−j δα (a0,i ) cos 2π b
K 0,i 
− δα (a0,i ) sin 2π b
  K 0,i 
(l) (l+L/2)
BN−1−(lNp /L+α),i = δα (a0,i ) cos 2π K
b0,i − δα (a0,i ) sin 2π K
b0,i
    
M =1 (l+L/2) (l)
+j δα (a0,i ) cos 2π b
K 0,i
+ δα (a0,i ) sin 2π b
K 0,i
for α ∈ ZNp /L , l ∈
⎧ ZL/2
 

⎨ 1 RlN /L+a ,i + R L
2  p 0,i N−1−(lNp /L+a0,i ),i  , l ≤ 2
− 1
DlNp /L+a0,i ,i =
Demapping ⎩ j RlN /L+a ,i − R L
2 p 0,i N−1−(lNp /L+a0,i ),i , l > 2 − 1
for l ∈ ZL
      
(l) (l)
BmNp +lNp /L+α,i = δα (am,i ) cos 2π K
bm,i + δα am+M/2,i sin 2π K
bm+M/2,i
Mapping       
(l) (l)
−j δα am+M/2,i cos 2π b
K m+M/2,i
− δα (am,i ) sin 2π K
bm,i
      
(l) (l)
BN−1−(mNp +lNp /L+α),i = δα (am,i ) cos 2π K
bm,i − δα am+M/2,i sin 2π K
bm+M/2,i
      
M ≥2 (l) (l)
+j δα am+M/2,i cos 2π b
K m+M/2,i
+ δα (am,i ) sin 2π b
K m,i
for α ∈ ZNp /L , m ∈ ZM/2 ⎧, l ∈ Z
 L 
⎨ 1 RmN +lN /L+a ,i + R M
2  p p m,i N−1−( mNp +lNp /L+am,i ),i  , m ≤ 2
−1
DmNp +lNp /L+am,i ,i =
Demapping ⎩ j RmN +lN /L+a ,i − R M
2 p p m,i N−1−( mNp +lNp /L+am,i ),i , m > 2
−1
for m ∈ ZM , l ∈ ZL

mapper converts the independent and identically distributed where P is the signal transmission power, ω0 is the center
(i.i.d.) binary input data stream into M i.i.d. parallel su- frequency which is an integer multiple of ωd , and p (t) is
persymbol streams, with the m-th supersymbol denoted by defined by p (t) = 1 if −T /2 ≤ t < T /2 and p (t) = 0
(0) (1) (L−1)
Ψm,i  [am,i , dm,i , dm,i , ..., dm,i ], m ∈ ZM , where am,i elsewhere.3 By monitoring the channel information fed back
(l)
and {dm,i |l ∈ ZL } represent the embedded data symbols that from the receiver, a two-stage mapper in Fig. 1, i.e. super-
are used to determine the signaling basis signals and phases, symbol mapper and differential encoder and mapper, operate
(l)
respectively.1 The symbol alphabets for am,i and dm,i ’s are adaptively so that appropriate DOMOPM signals are used
(l) in accordance with channel status. Note that the signal in
given by am,i ∈ ZNp /L with Np  N/M and dm,i ∈ ZK ,
(3) is an embodiment of the DOMOPM signal based on
respectively. Here, the modulation parameters N , M , L, and N/2−1
Ω3 (N/2) = {pcn (t) exp{jω0 t}, psn (t) exp{jω0 t}}n=0 [5]
K are assumed to be integer powers of two and constrained
which is constructed from a single
 center frequency ω0 and N
by N ≥ 2, K ≥ 2, 1 ≤ M ≤ N , and 1 ≤ L ≤ Np . The data 1
(l) (l) pulse functions
 with p c
n (t)  4/T cos((n + 2 )ω d t)p(t) and
symbols dm,i ’s are differentially encoded to bm,i ’s [5] as
psn (t)  4/T sin((n + 12 )ωd t)p(t), and the expression in
  (3) can also be efficiently realized by an OFDM-typed inverse
(0) (L−1) (0)
bm,i = bm,i−1 + dm,i mod K, l = 0 (1)
  FFT (IFFT) architecture as depicted in Fig. 1. A signaling
(l) (l−1) (l)
bm,i = bm,i + dm,i mod K, l = 1, 2, ..., L − 1 (2) example is given in Fig. 2 for the 16-D DOMOPM signal with
parameter triplet (2, 2, 4). As shown in the figure, the (2N =)
(L−1) 16 basis signals are partitioned into (M =) 2 subsets (indexed
where bm,i−1 serves as the reference symbol.2 After differen-
(l) by m = 0 and m = 1), and each subset is further partitioned
tial encoding, {am,i , bm,i |m ∈ ZM , l ∈ ZL } are mapped to into (L =) 2 groups (indexed by l = 0 and l = 1), each with
N transmitted complex symbols {Bn,i |n ∈ ZN } as in Table (Np /L =) 2 basis signals, respectively. In the i-th signaling
I. Then, {Bn,i |n ∈ ZN } are modulated in parallel with N interval, a component signal for the m-th subset is formed by
subcarriers, uniformly spaced by ωd  2π/T , and multiplexed grouping two (K =) 4-ary differentially-encoded phase-shift-
to form the Ω3 (N/2)-based DOMOPM signal [5] as keying signals constructed on two basis signals with pulse
 N −1 functions indexed by am,i and Np /L+am,i which have phases
P (0) (1)
s (t) = Re Bn,i 2πbm,i /K and 2πbm,i /K, respectively.
ML
i
  
n=0
   As also shown in [5], the Ω3 (N/2)-based DOMOPM signal
N −1 can be differentially coherently demodulated, provided that
· exp j ω0 + − n ωd t
2 the received signal is perfectly synchronized in pulse timing
·p (t − iT ) (3) and center frequency by the receiver. As shown in Fig. 1, the

1 Wedenote ZI  {0, 1, ..., I − 1} throughout. 3 The signal s(t) in (3) can be realized based on a typical orthogonal fre-
2 Thereference symbol at the initial time instant can be arbitrarily specified quency division multiplexing (OFDM) transmitter architecture, as illustrated
without affecting the differential detection at the receiver. in Fig. 1.

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1064 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 8, NO. 3, MARCH 2009

 m,i |m ∈ ZM } as
{Π
 i L−1

 m,i 
Π = arg max  DmN +l Np +a ,k
Πm,i  p L m,k
k=i−1 l=0
 2
2π (l) 
· exp −j φm,k  , m ∈ ZM (5)
K
(l)
Here, Πm,i is defined by {am,k |k ∈ {i − 1, i}} ∪ {dm,k |l ∈
(0)
ZL , k ∈ {i − 1, i}} excluding dm,i−1 . We also define
(l) L−1 (l)
 l 
( l) (l)
φm,i  ( l=0 dm,i−1 + l=0 dm,i ) mod K and φm,i−1 
l (l) (0)
l=0 dm,i−1 mod K, with φm,i−1 = 0 by default.
{Dn,i |n ∈ ZN } are the complex symbols transformed
from {Rn,i |n ∈ ZN } as shown in Table I. The decision
algorithm in (5) requires (4L + 2)κ real multiplications
per bit and (6L − 1)κ real additions per bit with κ 
N 2 K 2L−1 /[M 2 L2 (log2 (N/(M L)) + L log2 K)]. The imple-
Fig. 2. A signaling example for Ω3 (N/2)-based 16-D DOMOPM with
parameter triplet (2, 2, 4). mentation complexity is moderate when N 2 K 2L−1 is not
large.

III. A DAPTATION S CHEME

receiver can also be efficiently realized by an OFDM-typed
FFT demodulation process to yield {Rn,i |n ∈ ZN }. Here,
Rn,i is the received complex symbol on the n-th subcarrier in
the i-th signaling interval, and is given by
 as a set of Q DOMOPM’s where λq represents a modulation
gP T
Rn,i = Bn,i exp {jθ} + Wn,i
ML
√
where θ is the channel phase, g is the flat fading gain,
and {Wn,i |n ∈ ZN } are the complex additive white Gaussian
noise (AWGN) samples which are independent, circularly
symmetric, and identically distributed with mean zero and
variance N0 . By monitoring the complex received symbols,
the channel status estimator estimates the instantaneously
received CNR γ  gP T / (N · N0 ) and passes the estimate
to the decision algorithm in the receiver and also to the
transmitter through an ideal error-free feedback channel.4 In
this letter, two-supersymbol differential detection is considered
for adaptive DOMOPM, which uses two signaling observation
intervals for data detection. Assume further that the fading is
slow in a way that fading gain and channel phase over two
Under the constraints that the transmission power is constant
and that instantaneous BER is not larger than a target BER
bound (BERT ), adaptive DOMOPM chooses a modulation
from a modulation set Λ for transmission according to the in-
stantaneous value of CNR. Here, we denote Λ  {λq |q ∈ ZQ }
(4) element and is arranged in such an index order that λp has
higher power efficiency but lower spectral efficiency than λq
if p < q. For the modulation element λq , the power efficiency
Υλq is defined by the CNR value γ required to achieve
BERT , and the spectral efficiency Φλq is defined by the
−1
inverse of normalized bandwidth (CTb ) required to capture
a preassigned fraction ℘ of total power within a bandwidth C
Hz occupied by the λq -modulated signal, with Tb being the bit
time.6 Therefore, λq becomes more power-efficient when Υλq
is smaller and more spectrally efficient when Φλq is larger.
Because Υλp < Υλq and Φλp < Φλq for p < q, a constant-
power adaptive DOMOPM system based on Λ transmits λq
when γ ∈ [Υλq , Υλq+1 ) and sends no signal when γ < Υλ0 ,
with ΥλQ = ∞ by default.7 This adaptation scheme yields
the average spectral efficiency η
Q−1
    
consecutive observation intervals are both constant.5 When the η= Φλq Fγ Υλq+1 − Fγ Υλq bits/sec/Hz (6)
received CNR’s are perfectly measured by the channel sta- q=0
tus estimator, the maximum-likelihood differential-detection
algorithm that has been designed in [5] for the AWGN where Fγ (·) denotes the cumulative distribution function of γ.
√
channel can be applied to determine the detected supersymbols In this letter, γ is assumed to follow Nakagami-m statistics
as  
4 In practice, the CNR estimate can be obtained by certain parameter
estimation approaches, e.g., maximum-likelihood estimation [6], minimum-
mean-squared error estimation [7], etc. When the estimate is not perfect or
when there is a significant feedback delay, the adaptive system performance
may be nonnegligibly degraded. Such effect is, however, beyond the scope of
this letter.
5 The analysis based on such a fading model can also be applied to multipath
fading channels where the coherence time is much longer than two signaling
supersymbol times and the coherence bandwidth significantly exceeds the
signal bandwidth [2].
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  Γ m, Υλq m γ
Fγ Υλq = 1 − (7)
Γ (m)
6 The power and spectral efficiencies can be numerically computed through
the approximate BER expressions and the power spectral density expression
of the Ω3 (N/2)-based DOMOPM signals provided in [5], respectively. Note
that the approximate BER expressions can provide tight BER estimates when
the true BER is less than 10−3 .
7 In the adaptation scheme, Υ ’s serve as the threshold values for CNR. In
λ
other words, when γ ∈ [Υλq , Υλq+1 ), the modulation element λq is chosen
to guarantee that the instantaneous BER is not larger than BERT .
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 8, NO. 3, MARCH 2009 1065

  TABLE II
T HE CHOSEN MODULATION SETS FOR Λ = λq |q ∈ ZQ IN ADAPTIVE DOMOPM WITH Lmax = 2 AND Kmax = 4 AND ADAPTIVE NC-FSK SYSTEMS
IN ASSOCIATION WITH THE POWER EFFICIENCY ( IN D B) FOR BERT = 10−5 AND THE SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY ( IN BITS / SEC /H Z ) FOR ℘ = 0.99: (A)
N = Nmax = 32. (B) N = Nmax = 8. T HE PARAMETER TRIPLET (M, L, K) WITH ASTERISK REPRESENTS N FSK/K DPSK.

Adaptive DOMOPM with N = 32, Lmax = 2, and Kmax = 4

q λq , (M, L, K) Υλ q Φλ q q λq , (M, L, K) Υλ q Φλ q
0 (1, 2, 2) −1.00 0.17 7 (4, 1, 4) 5.37 0.58
1 (1, 1, 4)∗ −0.57 0.20 8 (8, 2, 2) 7.29 0.70
2 (1, 2, 4) 1.29 0.23 9 (8, 1, 4) 8.46 0.93
3 (2, 2, 2) 1.78 0.29 10 (8, 2, 4) 10.57 1.16
4 (2, 1, 4) 2.36 0.35 11 (16, 1, 4) 11.64 1.39
5 (2, 2, 4) 4.37 0.41 12 (16, 2, 4) 13.70 1.86
6 (4, 2, 2) 4.54 0.46 - - - -
Adaptive NC-FSK with Nmax = 32
q λq Υλ q Φλ q q λq Υλ q Φλ q
0 32-ary NC-FSK −0.73 0.15 1 16-ary NC-FSK 2.06 0.17
(A)

Adaptive DOMOPM with N = 8, Lmax = 2, and Kmax = 4

q λq , (M, L, K) Υλ q Φλ q q λq , (M, L, K) Υλ q Φλ q
0 (1, 2, 2) 4.54 0.19 4 (2, 2, 4) 10.57 0.46
1 (1, 1, 4) 5.37 0.23 5 (4, 1, 4) 11.64 0.56
2 (2, 2, 2) 7.29 0.28 6 (4, 2, 4) 13.70 0.74
3 (2, 1, 4) 8.46 0.37 - - - -
Adaptive NC-FSK with Nmax = 8
q λq Υλ q Φλ q q λq Υλ q Φλ q
0 8-ary NC-FSK 4.84 0.14 - - - -
(B)

IV. N UMERICAL R ESULTS

Fig. 3. Average spectral efficiency for adaptive DOMOPM with Lmax = 2
and Kmax = 4 and adaptive NC-FSK in the considered Nakagami-m fading
channels with ℘ = 0.99 and BERT = 10−5 .
where γ denotes the average CNR, Γ (m) is the Gamma
function [8], and Γ (m, x) is the complementary
∞ incomplete
Gamma function defined as Γ (m, x)  x e−t tm−1 dt [8].
Fig. 3 compares the average spectral efficiency character-
istics for BERT = 10−5 and ℘ = 0.99 between adaptive
DOMOPM based on Ω3 (N/2) and adaptive rectangularly-
pulsed NC-FSK in flat Nakagami-m fading channels, where
Lmax and Kmax are the maximal values for modulation
parameters L and K in adaptive DOMOPM. The underlined
modulation sets for adaptive DOMOPM and adaptive NC-
FSK chosen based on the modulation selection rule in [3]
are listed in Table II where Nmax represents the maximal
adaptable number of frequencies for adaptive NC-FSK.8 As
shown in Fig. 3, both adaptive DOMOPM and adaptive NC-
FSK provide higher average spectral efficiency as larger Nmax
is adopted, respectively. This reveals that more modulation
elements are desirable in order to achieve higher spectral
efficiency. As also indicated in Fig. 3, adaptive DOMOPM
outperforms adaptive NC-FSK when γ is large enough. This
performance improvement results from the fact that the DO-
MOPM family offers many modulations which are more
efficient in spectrum than NC-FSK while providing sufficient
power efficiency to achieve BERT . The improvement is more
8 For rectangularly-pulsed N -ary NC-FSK with ℘ = 0.99, both power
and spectral efficiencies are numerically found to increase with N when
N ≤ 16, while increasing N results in increasing power efficiency but
decreasing spectral efficiency when N ≥ 32. Similar trend can also be found
for rectangularly-pulsed N FSK/4DPSK in [5, Table III]. Due to this trend,
only 8-ary NC-FSK is chosen when Nmax = 8, and 16-ary and 32-ary
NC-FSK’s are chosen when Nmax = 32, as shown in Table II for adaptive
rectangularly-pulsed NC-FSK. Note that an on-off signaling adaptation is used
for rectangularly-pulsed NC-FSK with Nmax = 8.

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1066 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 8, NO. 3, MARCH 2009

TABLE III
A DAPTATION GAIN OVER NON - ADAPTIVE DOMOPM FOR ADAPTIVE DOMOPM WITH Lmax = 2 AND Kmax = 4 IN THE CONSIDERED N AKAGAMI -m
FADING WITH N = 32, BERT = 10−5 , AND ℘ = 0.99.

γ (in dB) for Fixed γ (in dB)

η (in Adaptation
m Adaptive DOMOPM for Fixed
bits/sec/Hz) Gain
DOMOPM λ, (M, L, K) DOMOPM λ
1 0.95 45.33 44.38
2 0.17 0.75 (1, 2, 2) 19.02 18.27
20 0.06 0.21 0.15
1 5.98 45.95 39.97
2 0.46 5.51 (4, 2, 2) 22.34 16.83
20 4.95 5.63 0.68
1 8.69 46.90 38.21
2 0.7 8.15 (8, 2, 2) 24.32 16.17
20 7.74 8.40 0.66
1 15.34 50.02 34.68
2 1.39 13.66 (16, 1, 4) 27.59 13.93
20 12.16 12.41 0.25

significant when N is larger in that the DOMOPM signals
provide higher spectral compactness when a larger N is used
[5]. Therefore, a larger value of N is desirable as long as the
considered fading model holds good. Furthermore, when γ is
larger than Υλ0 (i.e., the power efficiency of the most power-
efficient modulation element), the average spectral efficiency
for adaptive DOMOPM increases as m increases. However,
the trend is reversed when γ < Υλ0 . The latter phenomenon
is primarily due to the fact that increasing m results in higher
probability of transmitting no signal (i.e., higher Fγ (Υλ0 )
value in (6)) when γ < Υλ0 , and, hence, the average spectral
efficiency inevitably decreases.9
Adaptive DOMOPM also outperforms fixed DOMOPM in
power efficiency when the required average spectral efficiency
is fixed. The improvement of power efficiency for adaptive
DOMOPM versus fixed DOMOPM can be appropriately char-
acterized by the adaptation gain [2], which is defined by
the increase in γ that is required to achieve the same level
of average spectral efficiency for both adaptive and fixed
DOMOPM when fixed DOMOPM is required to provide
the average BER given by BERT . As illustrated in Table
III, the adaptation gain for adaptive DOMOPM versus fixed
DOMOPM is large in the considered Nakagami-m fading with
small m. For larger m, the adaptation gain becomes smaller,
because the Nakagami-m fading channel tends to the AWGN
channel where adaptive DOMOPM provides the same average
CNR and average spectral efficiency as fixed DOMOPM.
Although high spectral efficiency is achieved, the proposed
adaptive DOMOPM system is vulnerable to imperfect channel
gain estimation. The sensitivity analysis on imperfect channel
gain as well as mitigation approach will be considered in the
future research work.
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V. C ONCLUSION
In this letter, adaptive DOMOPM constructed by a single-
carrier multiple-pulse basis set is studied in flat fading
channels when the channel gain is perfectly known to the
transmitter. This adaptive DOMOPM system can provide
significantly better average spectral efficiency than constant-
power adaptive rectangularly-pulsed NC-FSK, because more
spectrally efficient and sufficiently power-efficient multidi-
mensional modulations are available for adaptive transmission.
9 This phenomenon is also observed in [2] for the adaptive quadrature
amplitude modulation schemes.

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