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8.1

INFILTRATION AND SOIL MOISTURE

Infiltration

When rain falls upon the ground it first of all wets the vegetation or the bare soil. When the surface cover
is completely wet, subsequent rain must either penetrate the surface layers if the surface is permeable, or
run off the surface towards a stream channel if the surface is impermeable. The infiltration characteristics
of soil constitute an important variable that influences the absorption of the part of rainwater in the soil
medium and the consequent runoff of the rest to streams.
If the surface layers are porous and have minute passages available for the passage of water droplets, the
water infiltrates into the sub surface soil. The downward flow of water through the surface layers of the
soil (profile) is called infiltration. Once infiltration water has passed through the surface layers, it
percolates downward under the influence of gravity until it reaches the zone of saturation at the phreatic
surface.
Infiltration is a typical example of non-steady flow of water. The driving force for the water entry is the
gradient of the pressure head between the wetting front, the soil surface and gravity. The gradient of the
pressure head decreases with time, because of the advancing wetting front. When applied at the soil
surface, water changes over time the distribution of water content in the soil profile. The following zones
(Bodman and Coleman, 1944) can be distinguished in the soil profile as shown in Fig 8.1.
The saturated zone is a very thin zone of the soil surface and extends to a depth of a few millimetres.
The transition zone represents a rapid decrease in water content between the saturated zone and the nearly
saturated transmission zone. Its thickness ranges between few millimeters to a few centimeters.
The transmission zone is the conveyance zone for the infiltrating water. In this zone there is little change
in water content. This is a lengthening unsaturated zone with nearly uniform water content. Here the
suction gradients are negligible and water movement is primarily due to gravity.
The wetting zone is a thin zone where water content changes from its initial value to the value of the
transmission zone. The wetting front is the visible limit of water penetration, where the gradient of the
pressure head is very large. It forms a sharp boundary between wet and dry soil.
The volume of water that has infiltrated into the soil, called cumulative infiltration, I, when the volume
fraction passes from i to is of the form:

Where s is the distance in the direction of flow and the integration is done from 0 to infinity. As a result
of decreasing pressure head with time, the rate of infiltration decreases monotonically, up to an
asymptotic value, called steady state infiltration rate. The only driving force is then only gravity. The
infiltration rate may be expressed as:

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Fig 8.1 The four zones of the infiltration profile

Source: (Bodman, Coleman, 1944)

Generally, under ponded conditions, the infiltration is at a high rate at the beginning, decreasing rapidly
and then more slowly until it approaches a constant rate as shown in Fig 8.2. As water moves deeper into
the soil, filling the pores, the hydraulic rate goes on decreasing and hence the infiltration rate. The
dispersion of aggregates, blocking of the cracks and channels, swelling of the colloids also reduce the
infiltration rate. Soil pores are also blocked and the infiltration rate is reduced significantly, when water is
turbid.

Fig 8.2 Rate of infiltration as a function of time under ponded conditions

Source: (Ghildyal and Tripathi, 2005)

In the general progression of the hydrological cycle beginning with atmospheric water vapour and
ensuring precipitation, the top layers of material near the land surface provide the first of the subsurface
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storages. Under soil moisture, consideration is given to water in those layers of the soil near the surface
that contain the rooting zone of vegetation.
The study of soil moisture is of vital interest to the agriculturalist, especially in those countries where
irrigation can improve the yield of food or cash crop. More recently, the role played by soil moisture
content in the management of greater yields and flood control is being more fully appreciated.
8.2
Infiltration Capacity
The intake rate or infiltration capacity of a soil is a measure of its capacity to take and absorb the ponded
water or the water applied. Different types of soil allow water to infiltrate at different rates. Each soil has
a different infiltration capacity, i, measured in mm/h or in/h. For example, rain falling on a gravelly or
sandy soil will rapidly infiltrate and provide the phreatic surface below the ground surface, even heavy
rain will not produce runoff. However a clayey soil will resist infiltration and the surface will become
covered with water even in light rains. The rainfall rate affects how much rain will infiltrate and how
much will run off. Infiltration capacity is usually designated fc and actual rate of infiltration can be
expressed as;
i=ic when I ic
i=I when I ic
8.2.1 Factors affecting Infiltration Rate
The infiltration rate of a soil is the sum of percolation and water entering storage above the groundwater
table.
The infiltration capacity of a soil is affected by surface sealing caused by;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Formation of a thin contact layer on the soil surface

Soil compaction formed due to plough pan
Soil cracking due to drying of soil
Crop rotation
Tillage operation
Presence of salts in soil
Soil erosion which exposes either the less permeable or the more permeable soil from beneath the
ground surface and
viii. Variations in temperature of soil.

8.2.2
Other Factors which Affect the Infiltration Capacity
K is a function of surface texture: if vegetation is present K is small, while a smoother surface texture
such as bare soil will yield larger values. io and ic are functions of both soil type and cover. For example a
bare, sandy or gravelly soil will have high values of io and ic, and a bare clayey soil will have low values
of io and ic, but both values will increase for both soils if they are turfed, ic is a function of:
i. Slope- up to a limiting value (varying between 16% and 24%) after which there is little variation,
ii. Initial Moisture Content- the drier the soil initially, the larger ic will be, but the variation may be
comparatively small, and
iii. Rainfall Intensity- if the intensity is increased, then ic. will increase. This parameter has greater
effect on ic than any other variable
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Infiltration rate appears to be largely controlled by the surface pores. Even just a small increase in the
hydrostatic head over these pores results in an increase in the flow through the soil surface. The
hydrostatic head over the smallest cross-section of a pore continues to increase with the rainfall intensity
until a limiting value is reached, where runoff prevents any further increase. However, it seems unlikely
that this limiting condition is often reached in natural conditions.
Exposed soil can be rendered almost impermeable by the compacting impact of large drops coupled with
the tendency to wash very fine particles into the voids. The surface tends to become puddled and the fc
value drops sharply. Similarly, compaction due to man or animals treading the surface or to vehicular
traffic can severely reduce infiltration capacity.
Dense vegetal cover such as grass or forest tends to promote high value of fc. The dense root systems, all
providing ingress to the subsoil, the layer of organic debris forming a spongelike surface, burrowing
animals and insects opening up ways into the soil cover preventing compaction and the vegetations
transpiration removing soil moisture, all tend to help the infiltration process.
Generally it can be said that infiltration rate is affected by radial moisture content, condition of soil
surface, hydraulic conductivity of soil profile, texture, porosity, vegetative cover as well as degree of
swelling of soil colloids and organic matter.
Other effects that marginally affect infiltration rate are frost heave, leaching out of soluble salts and
drying cracks which increase fo and the entrapping of interstitial air, which affects viscosity and has a
direct effect on resistance to flow. Other things being equal fo and fc will have higher value during the
warmer seasons of the year. The fluid characteristics also come into play; water entering the soil could
contain impurities. Its turbidity is also an important factor since the suspended particles tend to block the
pores and reduce the amount of infiltration. The water temperature affects its viscosity and therefore the
amount of water infiltrating.

8.2.3 Variation of Infiltration Capacity with Time

Figure 8.3 shows the relationship between the infiltration capacity of three different types of soil and
time. It represents the instantaneous rate of water (cm/hr) entering the soil medium, after the start of
rainfall or application of water with respect to time lapsed. The intake rate declines with time.

Fig 8.3 Relationship between the intake rate of soil and time
Source: (USDA, 1964)

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8.2.4 Variation of Total Intake with Time

The relationship between the total intake of soil with time for three different types of soil is shown in Fig.
8.4. It is an expression of the time required for a soil to absorb a specified amount of water. It helps to
determine the speed at which the wet front advances in a field.

Fig 8.4 Relationship between the cumulative intake and time for three soils
Source: (USDA, 1964).

8.3

Methods of Determining Infiltration

8.3.1 Infiltration Indices

i) The index, defined as the average rate of loss such that the volume of rainfall in excess of that rate
will be equal to the volume of direct runoff rate, which the rainfall volume equals the volume of runoff, is
one of the more commonly used method for approximation of infiltration losses. The method assumes a
constant value for the intake rate of rainwater into the soil for the full duration of the rainfall.
Another method known as W-Index considers the initial abstraction, but since determination of the initial
values of abstraction is difficult, this method is not popular. The -index is always equal (for uniform
rain) or greater than the WIndex.
ii) The W-index is the average rate of infiltration during the period when the rainfall intensity exceeds the
infiltration rate and is given by;

W Index

PRS
tf

( 8.1)

where P = total storm precipitation (cm), R = total surface runoff (cm), S = depression and interception
losses (cm), tf = time period (in hours) during which the rainfall intensity exceeds infiltration rate;
sometimes, it is taken equal to the rainfall period, and W = average rate of infiltration (cm/hr).
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The W-index is more accurate than the -index because it excludes the interception and depression losses
which are considered as a part of infiltration in the latter. Thus W-index is always less than -index.
Wmin index, the minimum values of W-index is called Wmin index is obtained, when the soil is very wet. At
that stage, because the effect of the depression storage and interception losses is negligible, W-index and
Q index are approximately equal. It may be noted that both W-index and -index vary from storm to
storm even for the same basin (Arora, 2007).
The index gives the average infiltration of rainwater. The remaining volume of rainfall, which flows
out as surface runoff is called the excess rainfall volume and is considered to be equal to the excess
rainfall runoff volume i.e. the excess runoff volume of a storm hydrograph after separation of the base
flow from it. The time period during which the excess rainfall occurs is called the effective time period (tc)
Procedure for Determination of the Index
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Draw the hyetograph of the storm rainfall and compute the total volume of rainfall
Compute the excess runoff volume from the storm hydrograph by separating the base flow from it
Subtract (ii) from (i) to determine the total intake of rainwater into the soil
Divide the value at (iii) with the effective rainfall period to get the index (cm/hr)
Therefore;

index (cm / hr )

Total int ake of water int o the soil

Effective ra inf all period (t c )

Total inf iltration Infiltration during period when no excess rain occurs
Effective ra inf all period (t c )

Example 8.1
A storm with 13cm precipitation produced a direct runoff of 6.0cm. The time distribution of the storm is
as given in the Table 8.1. Estimate the -index of the catchment..

Table 8.1 Time Distribution of the Storm

Time from start of storm

Incremental rainfall in each
hour

0.45

0.70

1.83

2.50

3.36

2.70

0.97

0.59

Solution
Plot the rainfall hyetograph as in Fig 8.5.

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4.00
3.50
3.00
R ainfall
intensity, 2.50
cm/h
2.00
1.50
1.00
Phi-index = 1.076

0.50
0.00

4
Time, h

Fig 8.5 Rainfall Hyetograph

Total precipitation
P = 13.1 cm
Total Runoff Q = 6.0 cm
W index

P Q 13 . 1 6

tr
8
0 . 89 cm / hr

Since the index should be more than 0.75 (non-uniform rainfall). The rainfall in the first second and
eighth hour is ineffective in producing excess rain. Therefore the effective time period, te = 8 3= 5 hrs.
index

Infiltrati on during effective ra inf all period

te

8 x0 . 89 0 . 45 0 .7 0 . 59
5 .38

5
5
1 .076

Check
The index is marked off on the hyetograph as shown above. The area of the hatched area above the
index line should equal to the given runoff.
= (1.83 1.076) + (2.5 1.076) + (3.36 1.076) + (2.7 1.076)
= 6 cm which is as given
Example 8.2
A catchment area of 25km2 has one recording gauge. During a storm, the mass curve of the rainfall was
recorded in Table 8.2 as follows:
Table 8.2 Mass Curve of Rainfall
Time from start of storm

12

15

18

21
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Accumulated rainfall

10

21

39

50

65

79

100

If the volume of rainfall due to the storm is 1.5 x 106 m3, estimate the index of the catchment.
Solution
Total runoff volume

1.5 10 6 m 3

Catchment area

25km 2

Q Total runoff depth

Total runoff volume

Catchment area

1.5 x 106 m 3
25 x 10 6 m 2
0.06m 60mm

Total Precipitation, P

= 90mm

Total Infiltration P Q 100 60 40mm

W index

P Q 100 60
40

mm / hr
tr
21
21
1 . 9048 mm / hr

Since the index should be greater than the W-index, the index is a little more than 1.9048mm/hr,
therefore causing infiltration to the ground every three- hour interval, more than 3 x 1.9048 = 5.714 mm.
Incremental rainfalls are worked out in the Table 8.3. From the values of incremental rainfall calculated it
can be observed that, no excess rainfall occurred in two out of seven (those values less than 5.714- the
average value of infiltration in three hours). Hence the excess rain must have fallen in 5 x 3 = 15hours.
Hence the effective time period, te = 15hrs.
Table 8.3 Incremental Rainfall
Time from start of storm

Accumulated Rainfall (mm)

Incremental rainfall in each interval

3*

5*

26

18

12

50

24

15

70

20

18

89

19
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21

100

index

11

40 5 3
15

32

15
2 . 133 mm / hr W index 1 . 9048 mm / h
Example 8.3
The following mass curve shown in Table 8.4 was obtained for a 21 hour effective rainfall period that
occurred on the catchment area of 40 km2. Calculate the ordinates of the effective rainfall hyetograph and
the runoff volume, when the index is 0.5cm/hr.
Table 8.4 Mass Curve of rainfall
Time from start of storm (h)

12

15

18

21

Accumulated rainfall

1.5

4.0

6.0

6.5

9.0

12.0

14.0

Solution
A tabular solution of the problem is given Table 8.5. First the incremental rainfall in a time, t is
calculated. The infiltration losses in a given interval are obtained by multiplying the index with the
corresponding time interval. The hyetograph ordinates are then obtained by subtracting the infiltration
losses from the corresponding incremental rainfall in a time t. The ordinates of the rainfall intensity are
obtained by dividing by the time interval.
Table 8.5 Determination of Infiltration Parameters
Time interval
(h)

Accumulated
Rainfall (cm)

Rainfall in
Time (cm)

Infiltration
Losses x
(cm)

Hyetograph
Ordinate(cm)

Rainfall
Intensity
(cm/hr)

0-0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.00

0-3

1.5

1.5

1.5

0.0

0.00

3-6

4.0

2.5

1.5

1.0

0.33

6-9

6.0

3.5

1.5

2.0

0.67

9-12

6.5

3.0

1.5

1.5

0.50

12-15

9.0

1.5

4.5

1.50

15-18

12

1.5

4.5

1.50

18-21

14

1.5

6.5

2.17

Direct runoff volume from the catchment = summation of volumes of runoff during each time period,
from the catchment
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= Area of the hyetograph bars x catchment area

Area of hyetograph bars

= 3hr (0.33+0.67+0.50+1.5+1.5+2.17) cm/h

= 20.01cm
2

= 0.2001m
= 40x106 m2

Catchments area

= 40km

Therefore volume of direct runoff

= (0.2001x40x106) m3
= (8.004x106) m3

8.3.2 Infiltrometers
In this method characteristics of a soil are determined by ponding the water in a metal cylinder after
installing it on the ground surface and then measuring the rate of absorption of ponded water into the
ground surface by registering the fall of water level in the cylinder.
An infiltrometer is a wide diameter, short tube surrounding an area of soil. One ring (infiltrometer) may
be used but this gives a high degree of variability in the measured data due to uncontrolled lateral
movement of water from the cylinder after the wetting front reaches the cylinder bottom. For this reason,
two rings are usually used to minimise the above limitation. This is achieved by ponding water in buffer
area around the first cylinder by providing a concentric cylinder of larger diameter, which also acts as a
guard cylinder. The measurement by cylinder infiltrometers is affected by the thickness of the cylinder
material, the type of beveling of the cylinder bottom, the method of driving the cylinder into the soil and
the depth of cylinder installation.
Method of Measurement
Two concentric cylinders of rolled steel 2mm thick, 25cm height and of diameters 30mm and 50mm are
driven into the ground up to a depth of 15cm with a wooden mallet. A point gauge is fixed on the inner
cylinder for measurement of the depth of water in it as shown in Fig. 8.6.

6 to 12 cm
30 cm

GSL

10 cm
15cm

Fig 8.6 Concentric ring infiltrometers installed in the field.

A measured quantity of water is added to the inner cylinder up to the desired level. To prevent any
puddling or sealing of the ground surface inside the inner cylinder, a jute matting is recommended to be
placed while pouring water. After the cylinder is filled to three-quarters of the height from the ground
surface, the matting is removed. The buffer area between the two cylinders is also filled with water and
the level of water is maintained approximately at the same level in both cylinders. The water depth is
measured at regular intervals and infiltration is calculated for each interval. Care is taken to add water
after each reading in order to maintain a constant head in the inner cylinder, for infiltration. Samples of
the recorded results are shown in Table 8.6.

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Table 8.6 Results from Infiltrometer Measurements

Elapsed time
(min)

Water surface distance from a

Reference level
Before filling
After filling
(cm)
(cm)

Infiltration during elapsed time

Depth
(cm)

Average
(cm/h)

Accumulated
Depth (cm)

10.0

8.3

10.0

1.7

20.4

1.7

10

9.0

10.0

1.0

12.0

2.7

The infiltration rate of the soil for an area is computed by taking measurements at different points of the
soil and then averaging the data collected. Care should be taken to avoid points where there are
abnormalities in the soil like soil crackling, plant roots, surface sealing, etc in the soil.
Such tests give useful comparative results but they do not simulate real conditions and have been largely
replaced by sprinkler test of larger areas. Here the sprinkler simulates rainfall, and runoff from the plot is
collected and measured as well as inflow. The difference is assumed to have infiltrated.
Though rain simulating sprinklers are a good deal more realistic than flooded rings, there are still
limitations to the reliability of results thus obtained, which give higher values of infiltration than natural
conditions do.
8.3.3 Other Methods for Determining Infiltration Capacity
i. Observation from infiltration pits and ponds: By noting the depression in the level of water in the
pits and ponds and deducting the loss due to evaporation, an idea about the infiltration rates in such
soils can be obtained.

ii. Artificial rain simulators on a small area of land of 0.1 to 50m2, water is applied by artificial
showers at a uniform rate. The resulting surface runoff is measured and the infiltration capacity of
the soil is determined (Raghunath, 2006).
8.3.4 Infiltration Models
The methods explained below fall into three main categories and are considered easy to use and yield
scientifically based estimates using soil hydraulic and climatic parameters representative of the prevailing
conditions. The categories are; i) Richardss Equation Models, ii) Empirical Models and iii) Green Ampt
Models.
i) Richards Equation
For flow in a porous medium, part of the cross-sectional area A is occupied by soil or rock strata, so the
ratio Q/A does not equal the actual fluid velocity, but defines a volumetric flux, q, called the Darcy flux.
Darcys law for flow in a porous medium is written as;

Q
q KS f
A

(8.2)

where K is the hydraulic conductivity of the medium.

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In the above equation, Darcys law was developed to relate the Darcy flux, q, to the rate of head loss per
unit length of medium Sf.
Consider flow in the vertical direction and denote the total head of the flow by h; then

S f h / z
where the negative sign indicates that the total head is decreasing in the direction of flow because of
friction. Darcys law is then expressed as;

qK

h
z

(8.3)

Darcys law applies to a cross section of the porous medium found by averaging over an area that is large
compared with the cross section of individual pores and grains of the medium. At this scale, Darcys law
describes a steady uniform flow of constant velocity, in which the net force on any fluid element is zero.
For unconfined saturated flow the suction force binding water to soil particles through surface tension
must also be included.

For unsaturated conditions, Darcys law is;

dh
q K
dz

(8.3a)

The head h of the water is measured in dimensions of height but can also be thought of as the energy per
unit weight of the fluid. In an unsaturated porous medium, the part of the total energy possessed by the
fluid due to the soil suction forces is referred to as the suction head . It is therefore evident that the
suction head will vary with the moisture content of the medium. The total head h is the sum of the suction
and gravity heads
h z
(8.4)
No term is included for the velocity head of the flow because the velocity is so small that its head is
negligible.
Substituting for h in (8.3)

z
z

q K
1
z

q K

(8.5)

(8.6)

Equation 8.6 is sufficient to describe the steady flow of soil moisture.

K
1
z

K D
1
z

(8.6a)

where D is the soil water diffusivity d / d which has dimensions L2 / T .

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A part of the voids is occupied by water and the remainder by air, the volume occupied by water being
measured by the soil moisture content defined as;

volume of water
total volume

(8.7)

Then below is the continuity equation for one-dimensional unsteady unsaturated flow in a porous
medium.

0
t z

(8.8)

The continuity equation is applicable to flow at shallow depths below the land surface. At greater depth,
such as in deep aquifers, changes in the water density and in the porosity can occur as the result of
changes in fluid pressure and these must also be accounted for in developing the continuity equation.
Substituting eqn. (8.6a) into the continuity equation (8.8) gives;

K D
1
t z
z

(8.9)

which is a one-dimensional form of Richards equation, the governing equation for unsteady unsaturated
flow in a porous medium, first presented by Richards (1931).

Example 8.4 (Adopted from Hornberger et al, 1998)

Consider that moisture content in a fine sand is measured to be 0.25 at an elevation 3m above the
local water table and to be 0.15 at an elevation of 3.5m above the water table. Estimate the
direction of flow and magnitude of the flux for the specified soil profile given that the hydraulic
relationships for this particular sand are as follows:
For a moisture content of 0.25, the capillary pressure head is about -0.42m
For a moisture content of 0.15, the capillary pressure head is about -0.45m
K (=0.25) = 5.0 x10 5 ; K (=0.15) = 5.0 x10 6 ; K(=0.20)= 2.0 x10 5
Note: Assume steady flow conditions.
Solution
For Direction of flow;
dh
>0, the flow will be downward (because the calculated specific
dz
dh
discharge q z will be negative). Conversely, if
<0, the flow will be upward. This is in
dz
reiteration of the main point of Darcys law that water flows down a gradient in hydraulic head.

From Equation 8.5a, if

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dh
, we know that h z Therefore;
dz
3.5m 3.5 3.0 3
dh h3.5 h3

dz z (3.5 3.0)
0. 5m

To calculate

But 3.5 = -0.45 and 3 0.42

Thus

dh 3.5 ( 0.45) 3.0 ( 0.42) 0.47

0.94
dz
0.5
0. 5

dh
>0), the water flow is downward.
dz
The specific discharge can be estimated from, Equation 8.5a,
dh
q z K .
dz

Since the calculated hydraulic gradient is positive (

The hydraulic gradient varies with moisture content over the interval 3m to 3.5m. The average
value of hydraulic conductivity can be determined in two ways;
(i)
Getting the average of K (=0.25) and K (=0.15) (Hydraulic conductivity values at
height 3m and 3.5m)
(ii)
Using the value of K(=0.20)
1
Going by the first method, K= ( 5.0 x10 5 + 5.0 x10 6 ) = 2.75 x10 5 ms-1
2
Thus specific discharge q z 2.75 x10 5 (0.94) 2.585 x10 5 ms 1
One of the goals of infiltration research is to develop models, which accurately describe the infiltration
process. Several mathematical expressions describe infiltration into soils. Some are based on the physics
of flow through porous medium while others are empirical. Physically based models are numerical
computer models, meaning that finite difference or finite element methods are used to solve the Richards
type partial differential flow equation.
a) Physical based models
Horizontal infiltration: Boltzmann Transformation
The cumulative infiltration as a function of time may be measured in the field. But such experiments will
not provide information about (s,t). To get such information the Richards equation should be solved.
Due to non-linearity, general analytical solutions of such an equation are unfortunately unavailable. The
equation is only solved using numerical approximations.
For the case of infiltration from a thin layer of water into an homogeneous soil with uniform initial
fraction of water, the initial and boundaries conditions are:
= i for s > 0 and t = 0
= i for s tending to infinity and t >= 0
= 0 for s = 0 and t >= 0 (0 the volume fraction of water at the soil surface).
In the case of horizontal infiltration, z/s = 0, therefore the general flow equation takes the form:
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t s s

(8.10)

This equation may be transformed into an ordinary differential equation by introducing a variable = st
. This is known as the Boltzmann Transformation. The flow equation then becomes:

d
d

d d

d
D

(8.11)

and the boundaries conditions:

= i, for
= o, for = 0
This equation can be solved analytically if D is assumed constant. The result is;

I o I erfc
1
2D 2

(8.12)

Where erfc stand for the complementary error function

b)Vertical Infiltration (Philip Model 1957)
During vertical infiltration, the influence of gravity becomes more important as time progresses. Then the
Richard flow equation, including the gravitational term should be solved. The solution takes the form;
3

s , t a1t 2 a 2 t a3 t 2 a 4 t 2 ... (8.13)

1

Where a1 , a2, . . ., are function of . These coefficients can be evaluated by numerical methods using D()
and k() functions.
The cumulative infiltration obtained by the above technique is given by;
3

I = St 2 + A 1 t + A 2 t 2 + A 3 t 2 +

(8.14)

The infiltration rate can be derived from the above equation with respect to time;

i=

St 2 + A 1 A 2 t 2 + A 3 t 2 +

(8.15)

I and i are usually truncated after the two terms, because for not too large t these series converge rapidly.
In that case,
1

I = St 2 + A 1t and i = 1 2 St 2 + A1

(8.16)

Other equations which provide solutions to Richards equation include Philip1969, Knight 1973, Parlange
1975, Brutesaert 1977, Collis-George 1977, Swartzendruber and Clauge 1989. They are quite restrictive
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since they only describe infiltration from a water ponded surface into a semi finite, homogenous soil with
a uniform antecedent water content (USEPA, 1998).

ii) Empirical Models

Empirical models are usually in the form of simple equations, the parameters of which are
derived by means of curve fitting the equation to the actual measurements of the cumulative
water infiltration. The equations provide estimates of cumulative infiltration and infiltration,
without providing estimates of water content distribution.
a) Kostiakov Model
This Kostiakov (1932) proposed the following equation model and has the form,
I = t-n

(8.17)

where I is the infiltration rate at time t and (>0) and n (0<n<1) are empirical constants
depending on the soil. The constants and n can be determined by curve fitting Eqn 8.17 to
experimental data for cumulative infiltration I. Kostiakovs equation describes the infiltration
quite well at smaller times but becomes less accurate at larger times (Philip, 1957).
b) Hortons Equation
Horton (1940) proposed an infiltration equation to represent the generally observed decrease of
infiltration rate with time, tending to a steady-state value. Although Chow et al, (1988) reported that
Hortons equation can be derived from Richards equation, it can be seen that f is non zero as t approaches
infinity. It does not adequately represent the rapid decrease of f from very high values at small t.
For water supply rate in excess of infitration capacity, refer to Fig 8.7

i ic (i0 ic ) e kt 0 t t d

(8.18)

io ic
Ic

i = Infiltration rate of at anytime t (mm/hr) from start of the rainfall

ic = Final steady state value of infiltration capacity (mm/hr)
io = Initial infiltration capacity at t =0 (mm/hr)
t = Time from the start of the rainfall (min)
td = Total duration of rainfall (min)
Ic= shaded area in Fig 8.7.
k = Constant depending on a particular soil and surface cover (min-1)

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WRE 2010 AR

Infiltration rate

io
Ic
i

ic
Tim e

Fig 8.7 Infiltration curve (Horton)

The determination of io and ic is tedious and difficult although the method has been widely used by
hydrologists, but in practice the equation tends to underestimate the usually very rapid initial decrease of
infiltration rate with time. An example is given below.
Example 8.5
The infiltration capacities of an area at different intervals of time are indicated in Table 8.7. Find the
equation for the infiltration capacity in the exponential form.
Table 8.7: Infiltration Capacities
Time in hours
Infiltration capacity,i (cm/h)

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00

10.4

5.6

3.2

2.1

1.5

1.2

1.1

1.0

1.0

Solution
Using the general curve equation, i ic (i0 ic )e Kt

i ic
kt log 10 e
log 10

i
o
c

1
1
log10 (i ic )
log10 (io ic ) and the separate infiltration parameters are
Hence t
k log10 e
k log10 e
This is also expressed as

plotted in Table 8.8.

Table 8.8 Infiltration Parameters

T (h)
i (cm/h)
i-ic

0
10.4

0.25
5.6

0.5
3.2

0.75
2.1

1
1.5

1.25
1.2

1.5
1.1

1.75
1.0

2
1.0

9.4

4.6

2.2

1.1

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.0

0.0

Log10(i-ic)

0.97

0.66

0.34

0.04

-0.30

-0.70

-1.00

A graph of Time vs Log10 i ic is plotted in Fig 8.8

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Fig 8.8 A Plot of Time vs Log10 (i-ic)

ic = 1.0
The slope of the line =

1
= -0.754
k log10 e
k = 3.05

Hence the equation for Infiltration capacity curve is given as;

i 1 . 0 (10 . 4 1 . 0 ) e 3 . 05 t
i 1 . 0 9 . 4 e 3 . 05 t
c) Holtans Equation
Holtan (1961) developed an empirical infiltration model on experimental data collected at USDA. The
model is based on storage concepts. In fact, the infiltration rate is expressed as a function of the available
storage above an impending layer and a final steady state. This model is given as:

i i c a M I

(8.19)

where M is the storage potential of the soil above the impending layer, and I the cumulative infiltration, a
and n are constant depending on the soil type, surface, and cropping conditions. Holtan found that n is
almost 1.4.This model has been found suitable for catchment modeling because of soli water dependence.
d) Huggins and Monke Equation
Huggins and Monke (1967) modified the Holtan model to give:

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M I

i ic a a
MP

(8.20)

where Ma is the available storage in the control zone and Mp is the total void volume of the control zone.
Huggins and Monke indicated that a was 5 to 6 times the saturated hydraulic conductivity and n could be
approximated by 0.65.
iii) The Green and Ampt Models
Green and Ampt (1911) proposed an approximated method for the calculation of the vertical infiltration. It
was the first physically based infiltration equation and has been the subject of considerable developments in
soil physics and hydrology because of its simplicity and satisfactory performance over a wide range of
hydrological problems.
In its development, the following assumptions are made. See Fig.8.9.
the soil is homogeneous;
at the start of the infiltration, the soil moisture is uniformly distributed;

z ,0 i

with (z,0) the moisture content at level z at time t = 0 and i the initial moisture content;
the infiltration creates a sharply defined infiltration front;
above the infiltration front, the water content is uniformly distributed (near saturation);
(z,t) = s z , t s
with s the water content above the wetting front.

PONDING
0

Zf

SATURATED
Infiltration- front

UNSATURATED

Fig 8.9 The Green and Ampt method

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Under these assumptions, the infiltration rate may be calculated - based on Darcy's law as;

i(t) = K

H 0 + + L f (t)
L f (t)

(8.21)

where
i(t)
K
H0

Lf

= the infiltration rate (mm/h);

= the hydraulic conductivity (m/h);
= the ponding height (m);
= the suction head at the wetting front (m);
= the depth of the infiltration front (m).

Defining

M s i
and

I ML f = the cumulative infiltration amount

and neglecting the ponding height, the equation may be rearranged:

i(t) = K ( 1 +

M
)
I(t)

(8.22)

Integration over time - accounting that I(0) = 0 yields;

I(t) = K t M ln( 1 +

I(t)
)
M

(8.23)

The method is applicable for relatively coarse soils that are initially dry.

Green-Ampt Parameters
The model contains 4 parameters: K, , s and i. Typical values of Ks, e and are given in Table.8.9.
The value of i will strongly depend on the antecedent rainfall conditions. The moisture content above the
wetting front is limited to the effective porosity of the soil, e. Full saturation will however seldom be
observed in the field, due to air entrapment.

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Table 8.9 Typical values of Green-Ampt infiltration parameters (after Rawls et al., 1983)

Sand
loamy sand
sandy loam
Loam
silt loam
sandy clay loam
clay loam
silt clay loam
sandy clay
silty clay
Clay

e
(-)
0.42
0.40
0.41
0.43
0.49
0.33
0.31
0.43
0.32
0.42
0.38

(cm)
5.0
6.1
11.0
8.9
16.7
21.9
20.9
27.3
23.9
29.2
31.6

Ks
(cm/h)
11.78
2.99
1.09
0.34
0.65
0.15
0.10
0.10
0.06
0.05
0.03

For the same reason, the value of the hydraulic conductivity above the wetting front, K, is often set to 0.66
Ks, where Ks represents the conductivity at saturation.
The Brooks-Corey (1964) equation may be used to calculate ;

a
- r
( ) b=

(8.24)

where a and b are parameters, depending on the soil characteristics; r is the residual moisture content of the
soil, after it has been thoroughly drained.
a) The Mein and Larson Model
The Green and Ampt equation allows for the calculation of the infiltration rate, provided that ponding occurs,
i.e.. under the condition that the rainfall intensity is larger than the infiltrability rate. The method has been
extended by Mein and Larson (1973) to account for ponding conditions. Basically, Mein and Larson make a
distinction between periods with ponding and periods without ponding:

during periods without ponding, all the rainfall will infiltrate:

during periods with ponding, the Green and Ampt equations are used

Ponding will occur when the potential infiltration rate is less than or equal to the rainfall intensity. A scheme
for the application of the method under variable rainfall input is given as in the Fig. 8.10.

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At t=0, F=0

At t, F(t) is known

No ponding throughout
interval. F(t+dt)=F(t+dt)

Calculate f(t) from F(t) using

GA
yes

Ponding throughout
interval.
Calculate F(t+dt) by GA

f(t) <= i(t)

no

No ponding at beginning of
interval.
Calculate tentative values

F(t+dt) = F(t) + i(t)dt

f(t+dt) from F(t+dt) using GA
no
f(t+dt)<=i(t)

yes
Ponding starts during interval.
Calculate F(p) from i(t); find dt=(F(p)-F(t)) /
i(t).
Calculate F(t+dt) from F(p) and dt by GA

Fig 8.10 The Mein and Larson Model Application

Source: (Mein and Larson, 1973)

8.3.5 Recent Studies in Uganda

Recent studies on infiltration rate in Uganda provide some interesting results. Infiltration data were
collected from the upper, middle and lower side of the Kyetume ridge at Kabanyolo, Makerere University
and six infiltration models, Green Ampt, Horton, Kostiakov, Philip, Holtan and Collis George tested. The
steady state infiltration, sorptivity, transmissivity and the infiltration decay rates varied considerably, but
infiltration data fitted the Horton, Kostiakov and Collis George within 5%. The Philip model fits the data
for small times, while the Green and Ampt and Holtan did not fit the infiltration data. A modified Holtan
tested on the three soils was similar to three best fit models in terms of bias, but more accurate than
Kostiakov and Collis and George (Majaliwa and Tenywa, 1998). Other studies (Tenywa et al, 2000) on
the hydrological properties on soils along a slope cleared by heavy machinery and subsequently cropped
by two seasons, show that water infiltration was higher at the upper slope and decreased in lower slope
positions, with more negative impacts of continuous cultivation on water infiltration of the middle and
upper segments along the slope. The Kostiakov model gave comparatively better prediction of infiltration
rates than the Green & Ampt and Philip models used in the study.
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8.4

Soil Moisture

8.4.1 Soil Structure and Composition

The structure and composition of the soil (Fig. 8.11) will, to a great extent determine the amount of
moisture a soil can hold. Thus it is important to appreciate the concepts of soil structure and composition.
The original parent material of soil is the soil rock of the earths outer skin. Weathering and erosion break
down the surface layers of the soil geological strata and in many areas large quantities of unconsolidated
material (soil) have been deposited.

Fig 8.11 Soil structure and composition

Thus soil may be a direct product of underlying weathered rocks or may be formed from loose deposits
unrelated to the rock below, but deposited by wind, water, ice etc. Soil deposits and their composition can
therefore be very variable. Another most important constituent of a soil especially in the upper layers is
the organic material derived from decomposition of living plants and other organisms.
8.4.2 Water in the Soil.
Most of the content of a soil comes from rainfall or melting snow infiltrating as seepage water moving by
gravity and surface tension through the pore spaces. Its pathways are smoothed by a thin film of
hygroscopic water, held tightly by electrostatic forces on each of the soil particles and is not easily moved
by other forces including plant roots.
Below the percolating flow, the voids in the soil are filled with air and /or water vapour. This layer is a
zone of aeration with a complex mixture of solids, liquids and gases. With increase in depth, the aeration
zone gives way to a layer of saturated soil with all the pore spaces occupied by water and the saturated
capillary zone water is held by capillary forces between the soil particles and is at a pressure less than
atmospheric. At greater depths in the same zone, the pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure. The surface
over which the pressure equals atmospheric pressure is defined as the water table. The extent of the
capillary zone is dependant on the soil composition and packing of soil particles.This topic is discussed
further under Section 14.1.1. The wetness of the soil can be assessed in the following terms:
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i. Water Content

mW
ms

(8.25)

ii. Water Content,( volume fraction)

VW
Vt

where mw = mass of water in soil sample

ms = mass of dry solids in the soil
Vw = Volume of water in the soil
Vs = Volume of solids in soil sample
Vg = Volume of gas in soil sample

(8.26)

The volume fraction is equivalent to the depth ratio of soil water, that is, the equivalent depth of free
water relative to the depth of soil for a unit plan area. This is useful in relating soil moisture to
precipitation and evaporation depths.
iii. Degree of Saturation.

Vw
V
w
Vw Vg Vvoids

(8.27)

8.4.3 Soil Water Potential

The mineral and organic compounds of soil form a solid (though not rigid) matrix, the interstices which
consist of irregularly shaped pores with a geometry defined by the boundaries of the matrix (Fig.8.12).
The pore space, in general, is filled partly with soil air and liquid vapour and partly with the liquid phase
of soil water.

Fig 8.12 Soil moisture within and suspended between adjacent soil aggregates
Soil serves as the storage reservoir for water. Only the water stored in the root zone of a crop can be
utilized by it for its transpiration and build-up of plant tissues. When ample water is in the root zone,
plants can obtain their daily water requirements for proper growth and development. Attraction forces
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between the soil and moisture molecules, keep the soil and water together. These include surface tension
when soil is wet and adsorption when dry. Surface tension can be defined as the force of attraction that
tends to keep the liquid surface intact by making it as small as possible. This is the degree of firmness
with, which water or moisture is held in the soil; ultimately it is the force per unit area used to extract
water from soil. It is normally influenced by surface tension and adhesion.
The energy of water tension depends greatly on specific surface and structure of the soil as well as the
dissolved salt content. The smaller the pores, the greater the attraction between the hygroscopic water and
the soil particles and the lesser the free energy. Also the more the dissolved solutes, the less the free
energy. Consequently the retention and movement of water in soil is largely dependent on energy effects
(Ghildyal and Tripathi, 2005).
Apart from considering soil water in terms of relative masses or volumes, it can be considered in terms of
the amount of energy needed for its movement (kinetic) or for its retention in the soil (potential). Potential
energy however is the dominant influence (since kinetic energy is very small because water moves very
slowly through a soil) and results from gravity, capillary and adsorptive forces. Hence, the soil water
potential represents the work (energy) required to overcome the forces acting on the soil water if referred
from a given datum to the point of interest. If this energy is represented in terms of energy per unit
volume (j/m3) then;
Total Potential = Gravity potential + capillary potential.

t g p

(8.28)

g z w g where z is the height or the point of interest above some

arbitrary datum as in Fig. 8.13. w is the density of water, and g the gravitational acceleration .The
The gravity potential is given by

capillary potential is exemplified in the Fig 8.14 showing a rise of water in a capillary tube to a height of
above the surrounding water level. Above the meniscus at A, the pressure is atmospheric but just below
the meniscus, the pressure in the water is w g . This is the energy per unit volume at A due to
capillary

i.e. the capillary potential p . Thus the total potential at A is:

t z w g w g z w g h w g

(8.29)

p w g

p = 0
z

Datum

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Fig 8.13 Soil Water Potential

Source: (Shaw, 1994)

Where h, in Fig 8.13 is the height of the water surface above the datum for z in the static water situation
of the figure (z ) is constant (at h) for all points in the water, there are no water movements if there are
no differences in total potential. Water will move through a soil between points of different total potential.
The latter is often written as t w g or the equivalent height of water (energy per unit weight). The
negative capillary pressure potential w g is usually called the suction pressure or tension pressure.

The capillary water potential, p , is of significant importance in the assessment of soil moisture. Here, it
is assumed a sample of non-shrinking (constant volume) soil is saturated and at stage 1 is covered by a

layer of water. The hydrostatic pressure at the soil surface is given by w g and therefore p at or near
the soil surface is greater than atmospheric pressure. In the case of a thin soil, increases in are small to
points within the soil and thus it can be assumed that the soil water pressure is at same positive

potential p . When water is withdrawn from the soil, the water level falls until it reaches the soil surface
at stage 2. At this point the head of water has disappeared and the soil water pressure at and near the soil
surface is zero, although the soil is still saturated. Further withdrawal of water can only take place when
suction pressure is applied and the air-water interface takes on the form of the line of stage 3 with solid
particles in contact with the air. The soil water then experiences surface tension forces seeking to prevent
its removal and the soil water pressure is therefore negative in relation to the atmospheric pressure. With
increased suction, the surface tension in the large pores is overcome, further water will be withdrawn
from the soil at stage 4 and air enters the emptied pores (Shaw, 1994).

Water content,

Water content,
Desorption
(Drying)
Sorption

Clay Soil

(Wetting)
Sandy Soil

Pore water pressure, p

Pore water pressure, p

Fig 8.14a: Soil water retention with

increasing suction

Fig 8.14b: Wetting and drying curves

The Hysterisis Effect

26
Source: (Ghildyal and Tripathi, 2005)

WRE 2010 AR

The relationship between soil water content and water pressure in the pores is shown for contrasting soils
in figure 8.14a. The finely saturated clay soil has higher initial water content owing to a higher porosity,
but with small or moderate soil water tensions, the sandy soil will release more water from its larger
pores. The withdrawal of water from a soil due to increasing tension (the drying process) is called
desorption. The reverse wetting process, the addition of water to an unsaturated soil is called sorption.
The wetting curve does not follow the same relationship as the drying curve as shown in Fig 8.14b. The
water content pore water pressure relationship can be very complex and a family of curves may be
obtained for varying initial states of the soil. The effect is caused by the interaction of the soil pores, the
influence of entrapped air and the changing of soil volume due to shrinking and swelling.

Thus in determining the state of water in the soil, the soil water content and the soil water tension p
should be determined, since there is no single unique relationship between these two variables.The soil
moisture characteristic exhibits hysteresis- a non-unique relationship which depends on the previous
history of wetting and drying.
The Hysteresis Effect
A major factor in the explanation of hysteresis is the so-called ink-bottle effect, which arises due to the
fact that many pores have relatively narrow inlets as shown in Fig 8.15.
r1
r2

Fig 8.15 The ink bottle effect

Source: (Ghildyal and Tripathi, 2005)

2
r1

To empty such a pore, suction has first to overcome surface tension at the narrow throat

. There will

then be a discontinuity as the larger pore empties. If suction is reduced, the water surface has to be drawn
up by surface tension. But to fill the pore, the surface has to rise through the widest part of the pore. To

2
r2

allow this, suction must be reduced to a value corresponding to

, where r2 > r1.

Hence a given water content is achieved at a lower suction on re-wetting.

Air entrapment may also affect the desorption-sorption characteristic. In the sorption phase, for complete
re-wetting to occur, all air must be removed from the pore space. In practise, some will remain trapped
and this can lead to a failure to close the hysteresis loop.
A further contribution to hysteresis is the effect of water movement on the angle of contact ( ) of the
meniscus. Although approaching zero for a clean glass surface, for a rough or coated surface, >0.
When water is withdrawn, tends to decrease and when water rises, tends to increase. These effects
reinforce hysteresis. Finally, hysteresis may occur due to a change of state of a shrinking and/or swelling
soil (Ghildyal and Tripathi, 2005).

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8.4.4

Soil Moisture Characteristics

Moisture in a soil is dependent mostly on texture, soil structure and it can be seen that sandy soils drain
faster at low tension where as clay soil retain moisture a lot more even at high tension such that it is not
available for plants to use. The Fig 8.16 shows moisture available to plants at different tensions.

Fig 8.16 Typical moisture characteristics curves of clay, loam and sandy soils
Source: after (USDA, 1964)

i) Soil Moisture Stress

It is defined as the combination of soil moisture tension and osmotic pressure. Osmotic pressure is the
pressure with which water moves across membranes from an area of higher salts concentration to an area
of lower concentration. Osmotic pressure hinders the use of soil moisture by plants. The higher the
osmotic pressure, the harder it is for the plants to extract the water from the soil.
The rooting characteristics such as depth to which the plant roots extend as well as the proliferation/
density of the roots determine to a large extent the amount of water taken up from the soil by the plant in
addition to other factors such as soil moisture characteristics. The deeper the roots can go the more
access to soil moisture, therefore during favourable growing periods, roots often elongate to deeper levels
in order to be able to use some of the reserved moisture down below during drought periods. Plant roots
vary from species to species for example an annual plant must extend its roots down into the soil to make
available water for its use where as perennial plants already have elongated roots.
Apart from rooting characteristics, other factors also limit the amount of moisture available to the plant
for example high water table, shallow soils, impermeable formation near the surface, fertility and soil
salinity status as well as crop management practices.
ii) Rooting Characteristics and Moisture Use of Crops
The amount of moisture available to crops is dependent on the depth to which plant roots reach, their
ability to spread out in terms of depth and lateral extent sometimes reffered to as their density. The best
way to ensure that plants have enough water/ moisture available to them during their life period is to alter
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their root system such that the roots can reach as far down into the soil layers as possible. This will ensure
that even during the dry periods, the crops can still access the water in the deeper layers of the soil. Some
cultivation practices can be used to alter the root systems for example cutting the top growth at different
physiological stages as well as the cultivation and cutting of surface roots. The soil pattern of an area is
also known to affect the root characteristics for example maize crop has been found to extend as deep as
1.5 meters in medium to coarse soils while in fine soils roots are shallow.
Effective Root Zone is the depth at which the roots of average mature plants are capable of reducing soil
moisture to the extent that it is replaced by irrigation.This is shown in Table 8.10 for some common
crops.
Table8.10: Effective root zone depth of some common crops (grown on very deep, well drained soils)
Source: Gandhi, et al, 1970

Shallow rooted

Moderately deep rooted Deep rooted

Very deep rooted

Depth of root zone

60cm

90cm

120cm

180cm

Rice

Wheat

Maize

Sugarcane

Potato

Tobacco

Cotton

Citrus

Cauliflower

Castor

Sorghum

Coffee

Cabbage

Groundnut

Pearl millet

Apple

Lettuce

Muskmelon

Soyabean

Grapevine

Onion

Carrots

Sugar beet

Safflower

Pea

Tomato

Lucerne

Bean
Chilli
iii) Soil Moisture Capacities
a) Field Capacity: Is the water content of soil (volume fraction) after the saturated soil has drained under
gravity to equilibrium; (usually for about 2 days).
When the soil is saturated, it will hold no more water. After rainfall ceases, saturated soil relinquishes
water and becomes unsaturated until it can just hold a certain amount against the forces of gravity. At this
point, the larger pores are filled with air and the smaller pores are filled with water and the drainage is
slow. It can be determined by ponding the soil surface and allowing it to drain for three days and then
measuring the moisture content of the soil.
b) Soil Moisture Deficit: is the extent to which water is drier than the Field Capacity; difference between
the amount of water in a soil when saturated and the amount of water when drier. A Soil Moisture Deficit
of 40 mm implies that 40 mm of water are required to bring it to Field Capacity.
c) Permanent wilting point: Is the volume of water content of the drying soil beyond which a wilting
plant will not recover when provided again with humid conditions. At this point the water films around
the soil are held so tightly that the plant roots cannot remove a sufficient enough amount of water to
prevent wilting unless more water is added to the soil.
There is much less water available at field capacity in a sandy soil that drains quickly, compared to loam
or clay soil. The higher the clay content of a soil, the greater its retention capability. At the permanent
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wilting point, a clay soil will still contain a significant amount of water, but it is a finely divided state,
held under high tension in the minute pores and absorbed to the surface of the clay particles.Fig 8.17
shows water at different stages in the soil:

Oven dry
U navailable for plants

HYGROSOPIC W A TER

Ultimate
wilting point
Available for survival
Permanent
wilting point
Silt loam
Available for plant
growth

C APILLAR Y W ATER

Sandy loam

Field capacity
Available moisture
for sandy loam

Limited amount
available

GRAV ITA TION AL OR

F REE W ATER

Saturation

Fig 8.17: Water at Different Stages in Soil

Source: (USDA, 1964)

iv) Methods of measuring Soil water Content (Volumetric Fraction)

a) Gravimetric Determination
A soil sample of known volume (Vt) is removed from the soil with a soil auger. The sample is
weighed (mt) and then dried in a special oven at temperatures between 100 and 110C until the
weight is constant (ms). The gravimetric water content is obtained from;

mw mt ms

ms
ms

Calculating the bulk density

b ms Vt
m

content, can be found from:

and knowing w (1 g/cm3), the volumetric water

b
w
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This method can be reliable and accurate if measurements are made precisely. However it is
destructive of the soil. A new sample must be taken for another measurement and all subsequent
samples should be similar to the original sample, thus a large enough sampling area with
homogeneous soil must be selected when siting the sampling points. The main disadvantages are
that it is time consuming and laboratory equipment is required.
b) Neutron Scattering
The technique gives a direct measurement of the volumetric soil moisture content in the field. A
radioactive source is lowered into an augered hole in the soil; the first neutrons emitted are
impeded by the hydrogen nuclei of soil water. The collisions with the hydrogen nuclei (in the
water) cause a scatter of slowed nuclei and a detector senses the density of these, dependent on
the number of hydrogen nuclei present. A reading of the detector of the slow neutrons gives a
measure of the amount of water present in the soil. A compact portable instrument was developed
by a special research team of the Institute of Hydrology. The neutron source and detector are
mounted in the probe, which is lowered down an access tube previously set in the ground at a
selected sampling point. Measurements are made at various depths in the soil so that a water
content profile is obtained. The instrument must be calibrated for different soil types and each site
should have its own probe. The technique is ideal for catchment areas where soil moisture
measurements are required on a regular basis.

v) Methods of measurement of Soil water Potential

a)

The Tensiometer
Tensiometers provide a direct measure of the tenacity with which water is held by soils. They
measure the matric or capillary potential. They can also be used to estimate the soil moisture
content. The tensiometer consists of a porous ceramic cup filled with water which is buried in the
soil at any desired depth and connected to a water filled tube to a manometer or vacuum gauge
(Fig. 8.18). When the Tensiometer is placed in the soil where the tension measurements are to be
made, the bulk water inside the porous cup comes into hydraulic contact and tends to equilibrate
with soil water through the pores in the ceramic cup. When initially placed in the soil, water
contained in the tensiometer is generally at atmospheric pressure. Soil water, being generally at
sub-atmospheric pressure, exercises a suction which draws out a certain amount of water from the
rigid and airtight tensiometer, thus causing a drop in its hydrostatic pressure. This pressure is
indicated by the manometer or vacuum gauge. An increase in soil-water content reduces tension
and lowers the reading.
The main limitation in the use of tensiometers is the fact that at suctions of about 1 bar, air
dissolved in the water comes out of solution and the water column in the tensiometer breaks.
Therefore in practice, tensiometers are only useful up to suctions of about 0.85 bars, which is
comparatively low tension for soils with high clay content. As an irrigation guide therefore,
tensiometers are helpful for crops needing nearly saturated soils and crops grown in sandy or light
loamy soils in which there is little water left when the pore pressures approach this limit.

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Op e n in g t o f il l
wit h wa t e r
Gl a s s t u b e
Me r c u r y c u p
So il s u r f a c e

Co n n e c t in g
t ube

Po r o u s c e r a mic
c up

Fig 8.18 A Tensiometer connected to a mercury manometer

b) Electrical Resistance blocks

These are simple, inexpensive instruments used for measuring soil water potential. A porous
block of gypsum with a pair of electrodes (Fig. 8.19) embedded is buried in the soil. Water from
the soil seeps in to the gypsum until the pore pressures in the soil and block reach equilibrium.
Then the water content of the block is measured by the electrical resistance between the
electrodes. A direct relationship is obtained between the electrical resistance and the water
content, which is dependent on the soil water potential. Electrical resistance blocks are made
commercially and are a useful indicator of irrigation need in crop production. One of the
disadvantages of this method is that the block has a long response time and is dependent on
continuous close contact with the soil. There is also a hysteresis effect between the wetting and
drying curve relationships between electrical resistance and soil moisture tension, but calibration
data are usually given for the drying curve. Gypsum blocks are not long lasting since they are
solution effects and they soon deteriorate in wet soils. Field instruments developed for the
measurement of moisture tension can also be connected to recorders and thus make valuable
monitoring devices for continuous assessment of soil conditions, but many of them are not
accurate and are therefore more adapted to agricultural and engineering requirements rather than
to scientific research of hydrological process.

Fig 8.19 An electrical resistance block

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c) Pressure membrane and plate technique

The apparatus consists of pressure plates contained in an air-tight metallic chamber (Fig. 8.20).
The plates are saturated and soil placed on them and also saturated. The plates are then placed in
the metallic chambers, sealed tightly and a controlled pressure is applied. After a while, water
starts to drip out of soil until equilibrium against the applied pressure is achieved. The moisture
content of the soil sample is then measured at different pressures. The moisture contents can be
plotted against the pressures to obtain soil moisture characteristic curves.

Fig 8.20 Pressure plate apparatus

Summary
The movement of water within the soil is commonly referred to as Infiltration. There are a number of
factors that will influence the process of infiltration and in turn its rate. The soil moisture for any soil is
dependent on this process. Researchers have investigated the variation of infiltration capacity over time
and different methods of determination of infiltration of a soil. These methods include infiltrometers and
infiltration models. This chapter discusses soil moisture, describing the different levels of water stored in
soil such as wilting point and field capacity. The study of such water aspects is important in relation to the
hydrological cycle, agriculture and flood control.

References
1. Arora, K. R. Irrigation, Water Power and Water Resources Engineering, Standard Paublishers,
2007, New Dehli, India.
2. Bodman, G.B., Coleman, E.A., Moisture and Energy Conditions during downward entry of Water
into Soils, 1944, 8 pp116-122 Proceedings Soil Science Society of America,
3. Brooks R.H., Corey A.T., Hydraulic Properties of Porous Media, Hydrology Papers No 3
Colorado State University, 1964, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.
4. Chow V.T., Maidment, D.R. , Mays L.W., Applied Hydrology, McGraw Hill, 1988 New York,USA.
5. Ghandi,R.T., Gupta P.C., Joseph A.P., Rege N.D., Coover J.R., Jones D. F., Phelan J.T. Pope E.J.,
Handbook on Irrigation Water Requirements,1970, Water Management Division, Department of
Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, New Dehli, India.
6. Ghildyal B.P., Tripathi R.P. Soil Physics, New Age Publishers Ltd, 2005, New Dehli, India.
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7. Holtan, R.E., A Concept for Infiltration Estimates in Watershed Engineering, USDA,1961, ARS 4151
8. Hornberger, G.M., Raffensperger, J.P., Wiberg, P.L., Eshelman, K.N., Elements of Physical
Hydrology, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998, USA.
9. Horton R. E., Analysis of Runoff Plant Experiments with varying Infiltration Capacity,Trans
American Geophysics Union, 1939,Vol 20 pp693-711.
10. Huggins L.F., Monke E.J. The Mathematical Simulation of the Hydrology of Small Watersheds, Tech
Report 1, Purdue University Water Resources Centre, 1967, Lafayette, Indiana, USA.
11. Kostaikov,A.N., On the dynamics of the Coefficient of Water Percolation in Soils and on the
necessity of Studying if from a Dynamic Point of View for Purposes of Amelioration, Translated 6th
Communique International Soil Science, 1932, Part A, pp17-21.
12. Majaliwa, J.G.M., Tenywa, M.M. Infiltration Characteristics of Soils of the Kyetume Ridge,
Kabanyolo, Uganda, Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute, Kabanyolo (MUARIK),
Vol 1 pp 57-65,1998.
13. Mein R.G., Larson, C.L. Modeling Infiltration during a Steady Rain, Water Resources Research,
1973, Vol 9, No2 pp384-394.
14. Michael, A.M. Irrigation Theory and Practice, Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd, 2003, New
Delhi, India.
15. Philip. J.R. The Theory of Infiltration in Advances in Hydroscience 1969 ed. Chow,V.T. vol 5 pp215296.
16. Raghunath H.M. Hydrology, Principles, Analysis, Design, New Age International Publishers,
2006, India.
17. Ravi, V., Williams, J.R., Burden, D.S.,Estimation of Infiltration Rate in the Vadose Zone:
Compilation of Simple Mathematical Models, United States Environment Protection Agency, 1998
Ohio, USA
18. Rawls,W.J, Brakensheik, D.L. Miller N., Green- Ampt Infiltration Parameters from Soils Data,
Journal Hydraulic Division, ASCE,1983, Vol 109, No 1 pp 62-70.
19. Richards, L.A., Capillary Conduction of Liquids through Porous Media, Physics,1931, Vol 1pp 318333.
20. Shaw E.M. Hydrology in Practice, Chapman and Hall, 1994, London, UK.
21. Tenywa, M.M., Zake, J.Y.K., Ssessanga, S., Majaliwa,J.G.M., Kawongolo J.B., Bwamiki, D.,
Changes in Water Infiltration along a Catena prior to Mechanised Clearing Operations and after
Two Cropping Seasons, African Crop Science Journal, 2000, Vol 8 No 3 pp233-242.
22. Viessman,Jr.W., Lewis G.L, Introduction to Hydrology, Fourth Edition, Harper Collins College
Publishers, 1996, Florida USA.
23. United States Department of Agriculture, National Engineering Handbook, Section 15. Ch. 1 , Soil
Plant Water Relationships. USDA, SCS, 1960, Washington D.C. USA.
24. United States Department of Agriculture, National Engineering Handbook, Section 15. Ch. 1 , Soil
Plant Water Relationships. USDA, SCS, 1964, Washington D.C. USA.
Further Reading
1. Ayoade J.O., Tropical Hydrology and Water Resources, Macmillan, 1998, London, UK.
2. Garg S.K. Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 1998, Dehli, India.
3. Subramanya, K. Engineering Hydrology, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing, 2001.
4. Wilson, E.M Engineering Hydrology, 4th Edition, Macmillan, 1996, London, UK.

Questions
1. What is infiltration capacity?
2. What are the factors that affect the infiltration capacity of a soil?
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3. Describe two methods of determining the infiltration capacity of a soil?

4. What do you understand by the terms?
i)
Field Capacity
ii)
Soil Moisture deficit
iii)
Root Constant?
iv) Permanent Wilting Point
5 a) Distinguish between
i) -index and W-index
ii) Infiltration capacity and Infiltration rate
b) The average rainfall over 45 ha of watershed for a particular storm was as follows:
Time (hr)
Rainfall (cm)

0
0.00

1
0.50

2
1.00

3
3.25

4
2.50

5
1.50

6
0.50

7
0.00

The volume of runoff from this storm was determined as 2.25 ha-m. Establish the -index.
6.

An infiltration experiment was carried out on a small plot having sandy soil. The resulting
infiltration data was given in the table belowas:

Time (h)
Infiltration
Capacity, f (cm/h)

3.3

2.9

2.5 2.1

1.9

1.6

1.5 1.42

11

13

15

17

19

21

1.31

1.24

1.23

1.2

1.18

1.18

a) Derive and plot the infiltration curve

b) Derive the equation for the curve in a) above
7.

Distinguish between the sorption and desorption process in the relationship of soil water content
and pore water pressure of a soil. Explain the difference between a sandy and clayey soil.

8.

Define soil moisture tension and soil moisture stress. Indicate the relationship between them and
how they affect plant growth.

9.

10.

Describe briefly one method of measuring:

i)
Soil moisture content
ii)
Soil water Potential
Describe the Pressure membrane and plate technique for determining soil moisture potential.

11. (a) Explain the factors that affect the infiltration capacity of a soil.

(b) When two tensiometers were installed at 0.4m and 0.5m above the water table in a
uniform sandy soil, the readings indicated capillary pressure heads of -0.45m and -0.6m
respectively. Assuming that the moisture characteristic and hydraulic conductivity curves for
this particular sand show the following relationship;

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Volumetric Moisture
Content ()
Hydraulic
Conductivity,

0.05

0.1

0.14

0.18

0.25

0.28

0.36

0.4

0.55

6x10-8

0.3x10-6

5x10-6

1.5x10-5

5x10-5

0.4x10-4

2x10-4

2x10-4

2x10-4

-0.60

-0.48

-0.45

-0.43

-0.42

-0.408

-0.36

-0.36

-0.36

-1

K (ms )
Capillary Pressure
head (m)

(i). What is the direction of water movement between the two tensiometers?
(ii). Estimate the magnitude of the specific discharge between the two tensiometers.
12. Discuss the zones of the infiltration profile
13. What are the assumptions for the following types of infiltration models below:
i) Richards Equation ii) Empirical models
iii) Green-Ampt models

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