Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
AIAA 2011-5936
The paper presents the design and performance analysis of an 800 lbf LOX/propylene
rocket engine, designed to power the upper stage of a Nanosat Launch Vehicle (NLV). A
precursor version of this engine with relaxed requirements was static fire tested twice and
has undergone the first recorded flight test of a LOX/propylene engine by a team at
California State University, Long Beach back in 2009. The revised engine has an expansion
ratio of 70 with a targeted specific impulse of 342 s, and combustion and nozzle efficiencies
of 95% or greater. The injector features a LOX-centered split triplet with a center-mounted
TEA-TEB igniter. A single piece Cf/SiCm ceramic matrix composite is used for radiation
cooling of the thrust chamber. Fuel film cooling (FFC) is added to lower the chamber wall
temperature to the 2200-2400C range near the throat, maintaining the C/SiC structural
integrity and minimizing throat erosion. Computational Fluid Dynamics analyses indicate
that 10% FFC is sufficient to achieve this goal while almost meeting the targeted specific
impulse. A proof-of-concept version of this engine with relaxed requirements designed for
near sea-level testing is presented.
Nomenclature
c*
CMC
Cf /SiCm
CNC
GHe
GN2
Isp
L*
LOX
MC
O/F
PC
TEA/TEB
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1,2,3
4
Copyright 2011 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.
I. Introduction
everal launch vehicles currently used to launch large satellites into orbit typically cost up to hundreds of million
dollars. Since the size of scientific
instruments continues to shrink with
improvements in technology, there is a
rapidly increasing interest in nanosatellites,
small satellites weighing 10 kilograms or
less. Recent US military focus on
Operational Responsive Space shows a
demand for more responsive launch
vehicles to deliver smaller payloads to low
earth orbit for a cost much less than that of
traditional launch vehicles. Instead of
relying on secondary or tertiary payload
opportunities, a dedicated Nanosat Launch
Vehicle (NLV) can provide the needed
flexibility in operations and targeted orbit.
The NLV being developed by Garvey
Spacecraft
Corporation
(GSC)
in
partnership
with
California
State
University, Long Beach would provide a
method of flying nanosatellites at a fraction
of the time and cost of a typical launch
program. Figure 1 shows the layout of the
proposed GSC NLV.1,2,3 The initial Nanosat
Launch Vehicle concept was proposed to
use LOX/propane or LOX/methane as
propellants, however recent trade studies
show that the use of LOX and chilled, or
Figure 1. NVL Baseline design (dimensions in cm.)
densified, propylene offers an increase in performance over ethanol and methane1.
The envisioned NLV will utilize key technologies such as composite propellant tanks, ceramic matrix
composites, or CMC, for thrust chambers and densified propylene as fuel2. One way to increase performance in a
liquid rocket engine is the choice of high energy propellant. While some recent research has shown testing and
development of engines using LOX/methane4,5,6 the NLV baseline design uses LOX/ densified propylene because
recent trade studies7 have shown that it offers an 11% increase in performance over methane, and a 4% increase over
propane. While the specific impulse of propylene is slightly lower than that of methane, by chilling the propylene
thus densifying it, smaller propellant tanks can be used to achieve the same required performance, ultimately
allowing the NLV to lift a greater payload mass.
Several static fire engine tests have been conducted and flight tests have been conducted of several full scale,
low to medium fidelity, first stages3;4;5;6. Initial ambient-temperature static fire tests and flight tests have been
conducted using propylene8. A design for an enhanced upper stage engine of the NLV is presented in this paper. The
requirements and constraints of the upper stage engine are driven by the baseline NLV requirements which include
the use of LOX and densified propylene as propellants, to fit within the 60 cm diameter interstage of the NLV, and
the ability to mount a thrust vector control unit to the engine, while providing 3560 N (800 lbf) of thrust at a targeted
specific impulse of 342 s.
The next section gives an overview of the engine design and engine sub-systems.
2
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
3
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Engine O/F
2.6
At
0.0017 m3
70
PERFORMANCE
373.1
Combustion Temperature
3470 K (6270 F)
Targeted *
c
0.95
Targeted
0.98
0.291
0.756
losses)
346.3
The mass distribution of the engine components is summarized in Table 2. The estimated and calculated masses of
each of the subsystems/components and margin are applied based on AIAA standards.19 A growth factor of 15%
was applied to calculated category components which were calculated with various analysis tools and a 30% growth
factor was applied to components whos mass were estimated. The LOX/chilled propylene engine with mass margin
weighs 4.32 kg and has a thrust to weight of 84.
Table 2. Mass Breakdown
Component
Mass (kg)
Growth Category
Growth Factor
Chamber
1.86
Calculated
15%
Injector
1.89
Calculated
15%
Igniter
0.01
Estimated
30%
Engine Thrust-to-Weight Ratio = 86
Total
Mass w/ Growth
2.14
2.17
0.01
4.32
B. Injector
To account for injector losses, a single discharge coefficient is applied to characterize the combination of various
losses and is assumed to be 0.8. The pressure drop across the injector is set to be 20% of the 1.03MPa chamber
pressure (0.206 MPa) which is between the upper and lower bound of the desired pressure drop for this type of
injector based on experimental engines.13
In order to maintain high performance and minimize weight, an impinging jet design which is relatively simple
to manufacture and is well characterized from previous experiments is selected. This design has been characterized
from previous tests and missions to provide good overall propellant mixing and atomization, and thus higher
efficiencies. A split triplet configuration was chosen for this impinging injector because the increase in number of
orifices allows for smaller diameter of orifices providing better mixing and atomization of the propellants while
4
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
allowing film cooling orifices in the outer plenum The injection angles were calculated such that the resultant
momentum directs the impingement of the streams to converge just above the throat. This convergence is a critical
aspect in CMC engine design to minimize chamber burn through and hot spots. 14
The flat head injector body is fabricated from Inconel 625. The injector has 36 sets of split triplet orifices that
create an impingement pattern that converges just upstream of the throat. The triplet geometry consists of two sets of
straight LOX jets being impinged by outer and inner fuel jets, with fuel film cooling orifices along the outer
diameter to cool the chamber wall. Figure 4 shows the flow of propellants and mixing patterns in the injector. The
plenums in the injector are sealed by welding a top plate which will also serve as the brazing surface to the chamber
wall. The injector also utilizes film cooling orifices which inject fuel along the thrust chamber wall, creating a
gaseous layer of unmixed fuel that serves as a cooling barrier. This further protects the CMC chamber from the
intense heat of combustion which will reach 3470 K. The distance between the outer fuel, outer LOX, inner LOX,
and inner fuel is 4.331, 3.657, 2.793, and 1.928mm. The distance between the film cooling orifices are 15.959 mm.14
Figure 5 shows the configuration of the split triplet, film cooling, and TEA/TEB igniter orifices on the injector face.
5
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Outer
Angle
= 21.67
Inner
Angle
= 6.21
Resultant
Angle
= 8.86
C. Thrust Chamber
The engine thrust chamber features a bell-shaped nozzle produced from carbon-fiber-reinforced silicon carbide
matrix (Cf /SiCm). The C/SiC can withstand temperatures up to 2,473-2,673 K (2200-2400 C) without much
ablation/erosion. The chamber is
made by forming carbon fiber to the
chamber geometry and using
chemical vapor infiltration where
gases are diffused into the molded
carbon. The C/SiC CMC material
also has great tensile strength and
its density is less than that of
typically used refractory metals.
The C/SiC combustion chamber
and throat sections are 3 mm in
thickness and are primarily
radiatively cooled. The nozzle is
tapered in thickness from 3 mm to 1
mm since the nozzle is subjected to
less internal pressure; shedding
weight off the engine. The 3 mm
chamber thickness is designed to
withstand the structural strains
Figure 7. Thrust chamber top down design
resulting from the chamber
pressure as well as the temperatures of the hot combustion gasses.
The key design parameters for the combustion chamber are the characteristic length, L* and the chamber Mach, M c.
For LOX/hydrocarbon engines, a common L* is between 0.8 and 1.0 meters. The efficiency of the vaporization,
burning, and mixing also depends on the propellant choice. Engines with larger L* values have greater mixing
efficiencies, but are larger in size and have greater pressure and heat losses, however engines with L* values too low
poorly mix and burn propellants. Here the L* was selected to be a slightly aggressive at 0.75 m, just below the
common range. When selecting a design chamber Mach number, the goal is to design the combustion chamber
pressure as close as possible, ideally equal, to the stagnation pressure. A smaller Mach number is ideal because the
low velocity allows more time for the propellants to mix and chemically react. Here a chamber Mach number, Mc, of
0.15 was selected.13 Figure 7 shows the process for the design of the thrust chamber geometry following design
methods from Space Propulsion Analysis and Design13.
Due to the composite CMC chamber, interfacing the injector is difficult and is a critical process which will
consist of brazing the two components using Cusil-ABA.18 This braze will consist of a 10 micron braze foil that will
be heated in a vacuum furnace to a temperature above the liquid temperature of the braze foil and create a seal and
join the CMC chamber to the injector
D. Igniter
The ignition method uses triethylaluminum/triethylborane (TEA/TEB), a pyrophoric liquid combination, to react
with LOX starting combustion. This system features a cartridge that injects the TEA/TEB into the chamber through
the center of the injector; this method is a lightweight system and provides the TEA/TEB with direct impingement
of the LOX for more reliable combustion. This is done independently of the propylene feeds because TEA freezes at
-50 C20, and TEB freezes at -93 C21, and the densified propylene is at -150 C.
7
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
8
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(1)
To calculate the Isp of the coolant gas, a hot propylene temperature of 2200K was assumed from the CFD model
to find the characteristic exhaust velocity, c*, which was then used to determine its corresponding Isp knowing its
thermochemical properties at engine operating conditions described in earlier sections. The Isp of the core gas was
calculated taking into account a mixing efficiency from the split triplet injector of 97%, based on test data from
similar style injectors.14 With these two calculated specific impulses, and the corresponding flow rate, Equation 1
was used to obtain the actual Isp of the engine with associate losses due to FFC show in Table 3.
FFC %
5%
10%
12.5%
15%
Since FFC levels between 10.0% and 12.5% yield a CMC temperature at operating conditions mostly well below
2,473 K (2,200 C) and only very locally near 2,673 K (2,400 C), the Isp of the engine would be between 337 and
341s which just falls short of the targeted Isp of 342 s. Since this analysis is based on preliminary CFD results,
further analysis with a more refined model that takes into account combustion of propellants to better capture the
real physics and heat transfer of inside the engine.
10
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
10%
10%
Units
MPa
MPa
N
kg/s
kg/s
-
The engine uses a convergent-divergent bell nozzle that has been previously manufactured and will be furnished
by the customer. The diameter of the combustion chamber, and thus the injector face is 7.6 cm, 2 cm smaller than
that of the reference engine. The injector is made of aluminum 7075 to reduce cost and improve the
manufacturability of the injector over Inconel 625 ; however, there will be an Inconel 625 ring that seals the
plenums and will be used to verify the brazing chamber integration. The main valves on the engine will control the
feed of both the propellants will be mounted to the injector with standard Army-Navy, AN-6 fittings. A small
commercial off the shelf (COTS) solid grain rocket motor will be used as an igniter that will be center mounted and
ignited by an electric match. The engine configuration can be seen in Figure 11 below and compared with the
general size of the designed engine.
11
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
12
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Figure 14. Sea Level LOX/Propylene Static Fire Test Conducted by CSULB Students in Nov. 20087
V. Conclusion
With technology constantly growing, the demand for small nanosatellites to be launched is increasing while only
expensive large launch opportunities exist in the market. The development of high performance rocket engines, such
as the upper stage rocket engine designed here, using LOX and chilled propylene as propellants provides the
opportunity to launch satellites at a fraction of what launches would cost.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank their peers in the Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering department at CSULB and
their colleges in the CALVEIN rocket program for all their help.
13
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
References
1
J. Garvey and E. Besnard, "LOX-Propylene Propulsion testing for a Nanosat Launch Vehicle,"AIAA Paper No. 05-4294,
presented at the Joint Propulsion Conference, Tucson, AZ, July 2005.
2
J. Garvey and E. Besnard, "Ongoing Nanosat Launch Vehicle Development for Providing Regular and Predictable Access
to Space for Small Spacecraft," Paper No. SSC05-X-2, 19th AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan, UT, Aug. 2005.
3
J. Garvey and E. Besnard, "Initial Results of Nanosat Launch Vehicle Developmental Flight Testing," AIAA Paper
2005-6641, presented at the Space 2005 conference, Long Beach, CA, Aug. 2005.
4
J. Garvey and E. Besnard, "Initial Results from the Demonstration and Analysis of Reusable Nanosat Launch Vehicle
Operations," presented at the 54th
5
A. Delamata, E. Besnard and C. Bostwick, "Fuel Trade Study for a Nanosat Launch Vehicle Upper Stage,"
presented at AIAA Student Conference, unpublished.
6
J. Garvey and E. Besnard, "RLV Flight Operations Demonstration with a Prototype Nanosat Launch Vehicle," AIAA
Paper 2006-4787, presented at the 42nd Joint Propulsion Conference, Sacramento, CA, July 2006.
7
K. Gemba, D. Verma and E. Besnard, "Development and Testing of a Prototype LOX/propylene Upper Stage Engine,"
AIAA Paper No. 2008-4839, July 2008
8
K. Gemba, and D. Verma, "Flight Testing of a Prototype LOX/propylene Upper Stage Engine," February 2009
9
Judd, D. Craig, et al. "Development Testing of a LOX/Methane Engine for In-Space Propulsion." 42nd
AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit. Sacramento: AIAA 2006-5079, 2006.
10
Melcher IV, John C., and Jennifer K. Allred. "Liquid Oxygen / Liquid Methane Test Results of the RS-18 Lunar Ascent
Engine at Simulated Altitude Conditions at NASA White Sands Test Facility." 45th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion
Conference & Exhibit. Denver: AIAA 2009-4949, August 2009.
11
A. Wilson, C. Bostwick, E. Besnard, & R. J. Shinavski (2009). Ceramic Matrix Composite as Liners for Improved
Ablative Chambers. 45th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit . Denver, Colorado: AIAA 20095478
12
Hunzel, Dieter K. (1992). "Modern Engineering for Design of Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines."Volume 147, Washington
DC: AIAA
13
Humble, Ronald W. (1995) "Space propulsion Analysis and Design" 1th edition, New York: McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc.
14
NASA SP-8089 (1976) "Liquid Rocket Engine Injectors" NASA Space Vehicle Design Criteria (Chemical Propulsion)
15
"NIST Chemistry Web Book". 19 January, 2010 http://webbook.nist.gov
16
Olhurst, Craig, Wallace Vaughn, Ronald Lewis, and Alvaro Rodriguez. "Emissivity Results On High Temperature Coatings
for Refractory Composite Materials." N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Mar 2011.
17
R. Carl Stechman,Design Criteria for Film Cooling for Small Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines February 1969
18
American Welding Society, Brazing Handbook Miami, Florida 4th Edition, 1991
19
Brown, Charles D., Elements of Spacecraft Design 1st Edition, AIAA 2002
21
Triethylaluminum MSDS, Sigma-Aldrich
22
Triethylborane MSDS, Sigma-Aldrich
14
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics