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National
Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning
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4HIS$IGESTISBASEDONAREPORTPUBLISHEDBYTHE.ATIONAL#ENTERFOR2ESEARCH
ON#ULTURAL$IVERSITYAND3ECOND,ANGUAGE,EARNING 5NIVERSITYOF#ALIFORNIA
3ANTA#RUZh-YTHSAND-ISCONCEPTIONS!BOUT3ECOND,ANGUAGE,EARNING
7HAT%VERY4EACHER.EEDSTO5NLEARN vBY"ARRY-C,AUGHLIN

!STHESCHOOL AGEDPOPULATIONCHANGES TEACHERSALLOVERTHECOUNTRYARE


CHALLENGEDWITHINSTRUCTINGMORECHILDRENWITHLIMITED%NGLISHSKILLS4HUS
ALLTEACHERSNEEDTOKNOWSOMETHINGABOUTHOWCHILDRENLEARNASECOND
LANGUAGE, )NTUITIVEASSUMPTIONSAREOFTENMISTAKEN ANDCHILDRENCAN
BEHARMEDIFTEACHERSHAVEUNREALISTICEXPECTATIONSOFTHEPROCESSOF,
LEARNING AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO THE ACQUISITION OF OTHER ACADEMIC SKILLS
ANDKNOWLEDGE
!SANYADULTWHOHASTRIEDTOLEARNANOTHERLANGUAGECANVERIFY SECOND
LANGUAGELEARNINGCANBEAFRUSTRATINGEXPERIENCE4HISISNOLESSTHECASE
FORCHILDREN ALTHOUGHTHEREISAWIDESPREADBELIEFTHATCHILDRENAREFACILE
SECONDLANGUAGELEARNERS4HISDIGESTDISCUSSESCOMMONLYHELDMYTHSAND
MISCONCEPTIONSABOUTCHILDRENANDSECONDLANGUAGELEARNINGANDTHEIM
PLICATIONSFORCLASSROOMTEACHERS

-YTH#HILDREN,EARN3ECOND,ANGUAGES1UICKLY!ND
%ASILY
4YPICALLY PEOPLE WHO ASSERT THE SUPERIORITY OF CHILD LEARNERS CLAIM
THATCHILDRENSBRAINSAREMOREmEXIBLEEG ,ENNEBERG  #URRENT
RESEARCHCHALLENGESTHISBIOLOGICALIMPERATIVE ARGUINGTHATDIFFERENTRATES
OF,ACQUISITIONMAYREmECTPSYCHOLOGICALANDSOCIALFACTORSTHATFAVOR
CHILD LEARNERS .EWPORT   2ESEARCH COMPARING CHILDREN TO ADULTS
HASCONSISTENTLYDEMONSTRATEDTHATADOLESCENTSANDADULTSPERFORMBETTER
THANYOUNGCHILDRENUNDERCONTROLLEDCONDITIONSEG 3NOW(OEFNAGEL
(OEHLE  /NEEXCEPTIONISPRONUNCIATION ALTHOUGHEVENHERESOME
STUDIESSHOWBETTERRESULTSFOROLDERLEARNERS
.ONETHELESS PEOPLECONTINUETOBELIEVETHATCHILDRENLEARNLANGUAGES
FASTERTHANADULTS)STHISSUPERIORITYILLUSORY,ETUSCONSIDERTHECRITERIA
OFLANGUAGEPROlCIENCYFORACHILDANDANADULT!CHILDDOESNOTHAVE
TOLEARNASMUCHASANADULTTOACHIEVECOMMUNICATIVECOMPETENCE!
CHILDSCONSTRUCTIONSARESHORTERANDSIMPLER ANDVOCABULARYISSMALLER
(ENCE ALTHOUGHITAPPEARSTHATTHECHILDLEARNSMOREQUICKLYTHANTHE
ADULT RESEARCHRESULTSTYPICALLYINDICATETHATADULTANDADOLESCENTLEARNERS
PERFORMBETTER
4EACHERSSHOULDNOTEXPECTMIRACULOUSRESULTSFROMCHILDRENLEARNING
%NGLISHASASECONDLANGUAGE%3, INTHECLASSROOM!TTHEVERYLEAST THEY
SHOULDANTICIPATETHATLEARNINGASECONDLANGUAGEISASDIFlCULTFORACHILD
ASITISFORANADULT)TMAYBEEVENMOREDIFlCULT SINCEYOUNGCHILDREN
DONOTHAVEACCESSTOTHEMEMORYTECHNIQUESANDOTHERSTRATEGIESTHAT
MORE EXPERIENCED LEARNERS USE IN ACQUIRING VOCABULARY AND IN LEARNING
GRAMMATICALRULES
.ORSHOULDITBEASSUMEDTHATCHILDRENHAVEFEWERINHIBITIONSTHAN
ADULTSWHENTHEYMAKEMISTAKESINAN,#HILDRENAREMORELIKELYTOBE
SHYANDEMBARRASSEDAROUNDPEERSTHANAREADULTS#HILDRENFROMSOME
CULTURALBACKGROUNDSAREEXTREMELYANXIOUSWHENSINGLEDOUTTOPERFORM
INALANGUAGETHEYAREINTHEPROCESSOFLEARNING4EACHERSSHOULDNOTAS
SUMETHAT BECAUSECHILDRENSUPPOSEDLYLEARNSECONDLANGUAGESQUICKLY
SUCHDISCOMFORTWILLREADILYPASS

-YTH4HE9OUNGER4HE#HILD 4HE-ORE3KILLED)N
!CQUIRING!N,
3OMERESEARCHERSARGUETHATTHEEARLIERCHILDRENBEGINTOLEARNASECOND
LANGUAGE THE BETTER EG +RASHEN ,ONG  3CARCELLA   (OWEVER
RESEARCHDOESNOTSUPPORTTHISCONCLUSIONINSCHOOLSETTINGS&OREXAMPLE
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ASTUDYOF"RITISHCHILDRENLEARNING&RENCHINASCHOOLCONTEXTCONCLUDED
THAT AFTERYEARSOFEXPOSURE OLDERCHILDRENWEREBETTER,LEARNERS3TERN
"URSTALL (ARLEY  3IMILARRESULTSHAVEBEENFOUNDINOTHER%UROPEAN
STUDIESEG &LORANDER*ANSEN  
4HESElNDINGSMAYREmECTTHEMODEOFLANGUAGEINSTRUCTIONUSEDIN
%UROPE WHEREEMPHASISHASTRADITIONALLYBEENPLACEDONFORMALGRAMMATI
CALANALYSIS/LDERCHILDRENAREMORESKILLEDINDEALINGWITHTHISAPPROACH
ANDHENCEMIGHTDOBETTER(OWEVER THISARGUMENTDOESNOTEXPLAINlND
INGSFROMSTUDIESOF&RENCHIMMERSIONPROGRAMSIN#ANADA WHERELITTLE
EMPHASISISPLACEDONTHEFORMALASPECTSOFGRAMMAR/NTESTSOF&RENCH
LANGUAGEPROlCIENCY #ANADIAN%NGLISH SPEAKINGCHILDRENINLATEIMMER
SIONPROGRAMSWHERETHE,ISINTRODUCEDIN'RADEOR HAVEPERFORMED
ASWELLORBETTERTHANCHILDRENWHOBEGANIMMERSIONINKINDERGARTENOR
'RADE'ENESEE  
0RONUNCIATIONISONEAREAWHERETHEYOUNGER IS BETTERASSUMPTIONMAY
HAVEVALIDITY2ESEARCHEG /YAMA  HASFOUNDTHATTHEEARLIERA
LEARNERBEGINSASECONDLANGUAGE THEMORENATIVE LIKETHEACCENTHEOR
SHEDEVELOPS
4HERESEARCHCITEDABOVEDOESNOTSUGGEST HOWEVER THATEARLYEXPOSURE
TO AN , IS DETRIMENTAL !N EARLY START FOR hFOREIGNv LANGUAGE LEARNERS
FOR EXAMPLE MAKES A LONG SEQUENCE OF INSTRUCTION LEADING TO POTENTIAL
COMMUNICATIVEPROlCIENCYPOSSIBLEANDENABLESCHILDRENTOVIEWSECOND
LANGUAGE LEARNING AND RELATED CULTURAL INSIGHTS AS NORMAL AND INTEGRAL
.ONETHELESS %3,INSTRUCTIONINTHE5NITED3TATESISDIFFERENTFROMFOREIGN
LANGUAGEINSTRUCTION,ANGUAGEMINORITYCHILDRENIN53SCHOOLSNEEDTO
MASTER%NGLISHASQUICKLYASPOSSIBLEWHILELEARNINGSUBJECT MATTERCONTENT
4HISSUGGESTSTHATEARLYEXPOSURETO%NGLISHISCALLEDFOR(OWEVER BECAUSE
,ACQUISITIONTAKESTIME CHILDRENCONTINUETONEEDTHESUPPORTOFTHEIR
lRSTLANGUAGE WHERETHISISPOSSIBLE TOAVOIDFALLINGBEHINDINCONTENT
AREALEARNING
4EACHERS SHOULD HAVE REALISTIC EXPECTATIONS OF THEIR %3, LEARNERS
2ESEARCH SUGGESTS THAT OLDER STUDENTS WILL SHOW QUICKER GAINS THOUGH
YOUNGER CHILDREN MAY HAVE AN ADVANTAGE IN PRONUNCIATION #ERTAINLY
BEGINNINGLANGUAGEINSTRUCTIONIN'RADEGIVESCHILDRENMOREEXPOSURE
TOTHELANGUAGETHANBEGINNINGIN'RADE BUTEXPOSUREINITSELFDOESNOT
PREDICTLANGUAGEACQUISITION

-YTH4HE-ORE4IME3TUDENTS3PEND)N!3ECOND
,ANGUAGE#ONTEXT 4HE1UICKER4HEY,EARN4HE
,ANGUAGE
-ANY EDUCATORS BELIEVE CHILDREN FROM NON %NGLISH SPEAKING BACK
GROUNDSWILLLEARN%NGLISHBESTTHROUGHSTRUCTUREDIMMERSION WHERETHEY
HAVE%3,CLASSESANDCONTENT BASEDINSTRUCTIONIN%NGLISH4HESEPROGRAMS
PROVIDEMORETIMEONTASKIN%NGLISHTHANBILINGUALCLASSES
2ESEARCH HOWEVER INDICATES THAT THIS INCREASED EXPOSURE TO %NGLISH
DOESNOTNECESSARILYSPEEDTHEACQUISITIONOF%NGLISH/VERTHELENGTHOF
THEPROGRAM CHILDRENINBILINGUALCLASSES WITHEXPOSURETOTHEHOMELAN
GUAGEANDTO%NGLISH ACQUIRE%NGLISHLANGUAGESKILLSEQUIVALENTTOTHOSE
ACQUIREDBYCHILDRENWHOHAVEBEENIN%NGLISH ONLYPROGRAMS#UMMINS
2AMIREZ 9UEN 2AMEY  4HISWOULDNOTBEEXPECTEDIFTIME
ONTASKWERETHEMOSTIMPORTANTFACTORINLANGUAGELEARNING
2ESEARCHERSALSOCAUTIONAGAINSTWITHDRAWINGHOMELANGUAGESUPPORT
TOOSOONANDSUGGESTTHATALTHOUGHORALCOMMUNICATIONSKILLSINASECOND
LANGUAGEMAYBEACQUIREDWITHINORYEARS ITMAYTAKETOYEARSTO
ACQUIRETHELEVELOFPROlCIENCYNEEDEDFORUNDERSTANDINGTHELANGUAGEIN
ITSACADEMICUSES#OLLIER #UMMINS  

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)NASCHOOLENVIRONMENT BEHAVIORSSUCHASPAYINGATTENTIONANDPERSIST
INGATTASKSAREVALUED"ECAUSEOFCULTURALDIFFERENCES SOMECHILDRENMAY
lNDTHEINTERPERSONALSETTINGOFTHESCHOOLCULTUREDIFlCULT)FTHETEACHER
ISUNAWAREOFSUCHCULTURALDIFFERENCES THEIREXPECTATIONSANDINTERACTIONS
WITHTHESECHILDRENMAYBEINmUENCED
%FFECTIVEINSTRUCTIONFORCHILDRENFROMCULTURALLYDIVERSEBACKGROUNDS
REQUIRESVARIEDINSTRUCTIONALACTIVITIESTHATCONSIDERTHECHILDRENSDIVERSITY
OFEXPERIENCE-ANYIMPORTANTEDUCATIONALINNOVATIONSINCURRENTPRACTICE
HAVERESULTEDFROMTEACHERSADAPTINGINSTRUCTIONFORCHILDRENFROMCULTUR
ALLYDIVERSEBACKGROUNDS4EACHERSNEEDTORECOGNIZETHATEXPERIENCESIN
THEHOMEANDHOMECULTUREAFFECTCHILDRENSVALUES PATTERNSOFLANGUAGE
USE ANDINTERPERSONALSTYLE#HILDRENARELIKELYTOBEMORERESPONSIVETO
ATEACHERWHOAFlRMSTHEVALUESOFTHEHOMECULTURE

4EACHERSSHOULDBEAWARETHATGIVINGLANGUAGEMINORITYCHILDRENSUP
PORTINTHEHOMELANGUAGEISBENElCIAL4HEUSEOFTHEHOMELANGUAGEIN
BILINGUALCLASSROOMSENABLESCHILDRENTOMAINTAINGRADE LEVELSCHOOLWORK
REINFORCESTHEBONDBETWEENTHEHOMEANDTHESCHOOL ANDALLOWSTHEMTO
PARTICIPATEMOREEFFECTIVELYINSCHOOLACTIVITIES&URTHERMORE IFTHECHILDREN
ACQUIRELITERACYSKILLSINTHElRSTLANGUAGE ASADULTSTHEYMAYBEFUNCTIONALLY
BILINGUAL WITHANADVANTAGEINTECHNICALORPROFESSIONALCAREERS

-YTH#HILDREN(AVE!CQUIRED!N,/NCE4HEY#AN
3PEAK)T
3OMETEACHERSASSUMETHATCHILDRENWHOCANCONVERSECOMFORTABLYIN
%NGLISHAREINFULLCONTROLOFTHELANGUAGE9ETFORSCHOOL AGEDCHILDREN
PROlCIENCYINFACE TO FACECOMMUNICATIONDOESNOTIMPLYPROlCIENCYIN
THEMORECOMPLEXACADEMICLANGUAGENEEDEDTOENGAGEINMANYCLASSROOM
ACTIVITIES#UMMINS CITESEVIDENCEFROMASTUDYOF IMMIGRANT
CHILDRENIN#ANADAWHOREQUIREDMUCHLONGERAPPROXIMATELYTOYEARS
TO MASTER THE DISEMBEDDED COGNITIVE LANGUAGE REQUIRED FOR THE REGULAR
%NGLISHCURRICULUMTHANTOMASTERORALCOMMUNICATIVESKILLS
%DUCATORSNEEDTOBECAUTIOUSINEXITINGCHILDRENFROMPROGRAMSWHERE
THEYHAVETHESUPPORTOFTHEIRHOMELANGUAGE)FCHILDRENWHOARENOTREADY
FORTHEALL %NGLISHCLASSROOMAREMAINSTREAMED THEIRACADEMICSUCCESSMAY
BEHINDERED4EACHERSSHOULDREALIZETHATMAINSTREAMINGCHILDRENONTHE
BASISOFORALLANGUAGEASSESSMENTISINAPPROPRIATE
!LLTEACHERSNEEDTOBEAWARETHATCHILDRENWHOARELEARNINGINASECOND
LANGUAGEMAYHAVELANGUAGEPROBLEMSINREADINGANDWRITINGTHATARENOT
APPARENTIFTHEIRORALABILITIESAREUSEDTOGAUGETHEIR%NGLISHPROlCIENCY
4HESEPROBLEMSINACADEMICREADINGANDWRITINGATTHEMIDDLEANDHIGH
SCHOOLLEVELSMAYSTEMFROMLIMITATIONSINVOCABULARYANDSYNTACTICKNOWL
EDGE%VENCHILDRENWHOARESKILLEDORALLYCANHAVESUCHGAPS

#ONCLUSION
2ESEARCHONSECONDLANGUAGELEARNINGHASSHOWNTHATMANYMISCON
CEPTIONSEXISTABOUTHOWCHILDRENLEARNLANGUAGES4EACHERSNEEDTOBE
AWAREOFTHESEMISCONCEPTIONSANDREALIZETHATQUICKANDEASYSOLUTIONS
ARENOTAPPROPRIATEFORCOMPLEXPROBLEMS3ECONDLANGUAGELEARNINGBY
SCHOOL AGEDCHILDRENTAKESLONGER ISHARDER ANDINVOLVESMOREEFFORTTHAN
MANYTEACHERSREALIZE
7ESHOULDFOCUSONTHEOPPORTUNITYTHATCULTURALANDLINGUISTICDIVERSITY
PROVIDES$IVERSECHILDRENENRICHOURSCHOOLSANDOURUNDERSTANDINGOF
EDUCATIONINGENERAL)NFACT ALTHOUGHTHERESEARCHOFTHE.ATIONAL#ENTER
FOR2ESEARCHON#ULTURAL$IVERSITYAND3ECOND,ANGUAGE,EARNINGHASBEEN
DIRECTEDATCHILDRENFROMCULTURALLYANDLINGUISTICALLYDIVERSEBACKGROUNDS
MUCHOFITAPPLIESEQUALLYWELLTOMAINSTREAMSTUDENTS

2EFERENCES
#OLLIER 6 (OWLONG!SYNTHESISOFRESEARCHONACADEMICACHIEVE
MENTINASECONDLANGUAGE4%3/,1UARTERLY   
#UMMINS * 4HECROSS LINGUALDIMENSIONSOFLANGUAGEPROlCIENCY
)MPLICATIONSFORBILINGUALEDUCATIONANDTHEOPTIMALAGEISSUE4%3/,
1UARTERLY   
#UMMINS * 4HEROLEOFPRIMARYLANGUAGEDEVELOPMENTINPROMOT
INGEDUCATIONALSUCCESSFORLANGUAGEMINORITYSTUDENTS)N3CHOOLINGAND
LANGUAGEMINORITYSTUDENTS!THEORETICALFRAMEWORK,OS!NGELES#ALIFORNIA
3TATE5NIVERSITY%VALUATION $ISSEMINATION AND!SSESSMENT#ENTER
&LORANDER * *ANSEN - 3KOLEFORSGIENGELSK #OPEN
HAGEN$ANISH)NSTITUTEOF%DUCATION
'ENESEE & ,EARNINGTHROUGHTWOLANGUAGES3TUDIESOFIMMERSIONAND
BILINGUALEDUCATION.EW9ORK.EWBURY(OUSE
(EATH 3" 7AYSWITHWORDS,ANGUAGE LIFE ANDWORKINCOMMUNITIES
ANDCLASSROOMS.EW9ORK#AMBRIDGE
+RASHEN 3 ,ONG - 3CARCELLA 2 !GE RATE ANDEVENTUALATTAIN
MENTINSECONDLANGUAGEACQUISITION4%3/,1UARTERLY   
,ENNEBERG %( 4HEBIOLOGICALFOUNDATIONSOFLANGUAGE.EW9ORK
7ILEY
.EWPORT % -ATURATIONALCONSTRAINTSONLANGUAGELEARNING#OGNI
TIVE3CIENCE   
/YAMA 3 !SENSITIVEPERIODFORTHEACQUISITIONOFNONNATIVEPHO
NOLOGICALSYSTEM*OURNALOF0SYCHOLINGUISTIC2ESEARCH   
2AMIREZ *$ 9UEN 3$ 2AMEY $2 ,ONGITUDINALSTUDYOFSTRUC
TURED%NGLISHIMMERSIONSTRATEGY EARLY EXITANDLATE EXITTRANSITIONALBILINGUAL
EDUCATIONPROGRAMSFORLANGUAGEMINORITYCHILDREN&INAL2EPORT6OLUMES
3AN-ATEO #!!GUIRRE)NTERNATIONAL
2OGOFF " !PPRENTICESHIPINTHINKING#OGNITIVEDEVELOPMENTINSOCIAL
CONTEXT.EW9ORK/XFORD
3NOW #% (OEFNAGEL (OEHLE - 4HECRITICALPERIODFORLANGUAGE
ACQUISITION%VIDENCEFROMSECONDLANGUAGELEARNING#HILD$EVELOPMENT
  
3TERN (( "URSTALL # (ARLEY " &RENCHFROMAGEEIGHTORELEVEN
4ORONTO/NTARIO)NSTITUTEFOR3TUDIESIN%DUCATION

-YTH!LL#HILDREN,EARN!N,)N4HE3AME7AY
-OSTTEACHERSWOULDPROBABLYNOTADMITTHATTHEYTHINKALLCHILDREN
LEARN AN , IN THE SAME WAY OR AT THE SAME RATE 9ET THIS ASSUMPTION
SEEMSTOUNDERLIEAGREATDEALOFPRACTICE#ULTURALANTHROPOLOGISTSHAVE
SHOWNTHATMAINSTREAM53FAMILIESANDFAMILIESFROMMINORITYCULTURAL
BACKGROUNDS HAVE DIFFERENT WAYS OF TALKING (EATH   -AINSTREAM
CHILDRENAREACCUSTOMEDTOADEDUCTIVE ANALYTICSTYLEOFTALKING WHEREAS
MANY CULTURALLY DIVERSE CHILDREN ARE ACCUSTOMED TO AN INDUCTIVE STYLE
53SCHOOLSEMPHASIZELANGUAGEFUNCTIONSANDSTYLESTHATPREDOMINATEIN
MAINSTREAMFAMILIES,ANGUAGEISUSEDTOCOMMUNICATEMEANING CONVEY
INFORMATION CONTROLSOCIALBEHAVIOR ANDSOLVEPROBLEMS ANDCHILDRENARE
REWARDEDFORCLEARANDLOGICALTHINKING#HILDRENWHOUSELANGUAGEINA
DIFFERENTMANNEROFTENEXPERIENCEFRUSTRATION
3OCIALCLASSALSOINmUENCESLEARNINGSTYLES)NURBAN LITERATE ANDTECH
NOLOGICALLYADVANCEDSOCIETIES MIDDLE CLASSPARENTSTEACHTHEIRCHILDREN
THROUGH LANGUAGE 4RADITIONALLY MOST TEACHING IN LESS TECHNOLOGICALLY
ADVANCED NON URBANIZED CULTURES IS CARRIED OUT NONVERBALLY THROUGH
OBSERVATION SUPERVISED PARTICIPATION AND SELF INITIATED REPETITION 2OG
OFF   4HERE IS NONE OF THE INFORMATION TESTING THROUGH QUESTIONS
THAT CHARACTERIZES THE TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS IN URBAN AND SUBURBAN
MIDDLE CLASSHOMES
)NADDITION SOMECHILDRENAREMOREACCUSTOMEDTOLEARNINGFROMPEERS
THANFROMADULTS#AREDFORANDTAUGHTBYOLDERSIBLINGSORCOUSINS THEY
LEARNTOBEQUIETINTHEPRESENCEOFADULTSANDHAVELITTLEINTERACTIONWITH
THEM)NSCHOOL THEYARELIKELYTOPAYMOREATTENTIONTOWHATTHEIRPEERS
AREDOINGTHANTOWHATTHETEACHERISSAYING
)NDIVIDUAL CHILDREN ALSO REACT TO SCHOOL AND LEARN DIFFERENTLY WITHIN
GROUPS3OMECHILDRENAREOUTGOINGANDSOCIABLEANDLEARNTHESECONDLAN
GUAGEQUICKLY4HEYDONOTWORRYABOUTMISTAKES BUTUSELIMITEDRESOURCES
TOGENERATEINPUTFROMNATIVESPEAKERS/THERCHILDRENARESHYANDQUIET
4HEYLEARNBYLISTENINGANDWATCHING4HEYSAYLITTLE FORFEAROFMAKING
AMISTAKE.ONETHELESS RESEARCHSHOWSTHATBOTHTYPESOFLEARNERSCANBE
SUCCESSFULSECONDLANGUAGELEARNERS

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