SPE 93666

Impact of Gas Flaring on Soil Fertility

R.E. Akpojivi, SPE, and P.E. Akumagba, SPE, Petroleum Training Inst., Effurun

Copyright 2005, Society of Petroleum Engineering Inc

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 14th SPE Middle East Oil & Gas show and
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Abstract
Gas flaring is employed by oil production companies in
Nigeria as a means of getting rid of associated gas. Low flare
stacks are employed bringing the flare into close proximity
to nearby vegetation and soil. This study investigated the
impact of oil sector gas flaring activity in Nigeria on some soil
fertility parameters. Gas flaring impacts adversely on soil
fertility; air/soil temperature becomes higher, soil becomes
more acidic and total organic carbon, nitrate, and phosphate
content of the soil decreases. No clear relationship was
observed between soil potassium and gas flaring.
Introduction
Gas flaring is the burning of natural gas and other petroleum
hydrocarbons in flare stacks by upstream oil companies in oil
fields during operation. 1A category of natural gas (casinghead
gas) is tied to reserviors containing crude oil and produced as
associated natural gas during oil production from oil wells.2
Although the composition of associated gas varies from
location to location at fields, the basic components include
methane, ethane, propane, isobutane, n-butane, isopentane, n
pentane, n-hexane, C02, H2S, He and N2 . 3
Modern technology and commercial opportunities have
permitted industrialized nations, which hitherto flare natural
gas at the early history of oil production, to now process it for
commercial sale or re-injected into the reserviors.4 However
several sub-Saharan African nations including Nigeria stil
l apply gas flaring as a method of getting rid of associated
gas during oil sector operations ostensibly because gas
infrastructure is extremely low.5 For example, despite efforts
to expand the gastoliquid industry in Nigeria, 6 oil sector
companies in the year 2002 alone flared a total of 774,108
Bscf (Billion standard cubic feet) of natural gas at 176
locations. This represents 45% of the total associated gas
produced by all oil companies in Nigeria put together. 7

Because of its composition, flaring of associated gas

results in the release of emissions rich in carbon oxides,
nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides and soot.8,9 These proven acid
gases are carried downwards as acid deposition (wet and dry
depositions) onto vegetation, soil and water bodies in
communities close to the flare sites.10 Also intense heat and
continuous illumination (day and night) are associated with
gas flaring. The low height of flare stacks in use at oil
locations, in Nigeria for example, ensures local pollution at
ground level and nearby dry deposition,11,12 as well as close
heating of surrounding vegetation and soil.
Likely acid deposition and intense heat from gas flares are
likely to have deleterious effects on the fertility of the
surrounding soils at gas flare locations. The obvious signs of
this can be noticed in the poor vegetation growth and scorched
soils around gas flare location.13
Acid deposition results in soil acidification greatly
decreasing the soil pH of the surface soil.14 However the
impact of acid deposition on a particular soil ecosystem is
influenced by such factors as its acid sensitivity, its
neutralization capability, the concentration and composition of
acid reaction products, and the amount of acid added to the
system15. It is generally conjectured that acidification of soil
impoverishes soil through any of the following effects: 16-18 (1)
The basic cations (Ca2+, mg2+, k+) on soil exchange are
replaced by hydrogen ions or solubilized metals and are lost
through leaching.(2) Reduce the activity of soil
microorganisms sensitive to low pH and thus decrease
decomposition of plant residues and recycling of essential
plant nutrients. (3) Upsurge in the concentration of trace metal
ions in soil solution including aluminium, copper, iron, zinc,
boron, manganese, chromium, and nickel to levels that may be
phytotoxic. (4) Phosphorus in soil now become composed
mostly of aluminium and iron (Fe) phosphates resulting in a
reduced availability of plant phosphorus (5) Reduce plant
uptake of molybdate. (6) Nitrification by the main autotrophic
genera involved (Nitrosononas and Nitrobacter) is inhibited.
Thus NH4+ is the main form of nitrogen taken up by plants
instead of N03.- (7) Reduced symbiotic nitrogen fixation by
legumes except the Rhizobium strain present is acid-tolerant.
A second consideration concerning gas flaring that could
impact surrounding soil is the great amount of intense heat
released by the combustion process into the immediate
surrounding air and soil environments. Soil temperature is
influenced by the radiant heat that impact the soil surface and,
the thermal and latent exchange process that occurs through
the soil surface.19 The following are important when
considering the temperature of field soils: 20 (1) Dark coloured
soils absorb a greater amount of radiant heat compared to light

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SPE 93666

coloured soils. (2) Soils with vegetation cover and surface

mulches are cooler than are fallow soils. (3) Dry soils warm
more rapidly than wet soils. Soil temperature governs,
amongst other things, the rate and direction of soil physical
processes, evaporation, the type and rates of chemical
reactions that occur in the soil and biological processes such
as microbial activity, seed germination/seedling emergence as
well as seedling growth and root development/respiration.21
An increased temperature level of the surrounding air
environment near gas flare stacks has a direct heating and an
increased water loss (by transpiration) effect on nearby plants
with severe wilting and death ensuing.22 Nearby vegetation
cover dwindles over the years leaving the soils bare and
exposed to elements of erosion and evaporation; the soil
becomes scorched, parched, and show a dearth of organic
matter since there is no further return or a reduced return of
plant residues into the soil which thus becomes increasingly
impoverished.
There is a dearth of literature on the effect of associated gas
flaring on soil fertility. This study was conducted to find out
the impact of gas flaring activities on soil fertility.
Specifically, it is an investigation into the effect of gas flaring
activity on some parameters that are determinants of soil
fertility, viz soil pH, temperature, total organic carbon (TOC)
nitrate (N03-), phosphate (P043-), and potassium (K+). The
study was informed by the fact that there is an enormous
amount of gas flaring activity, in terms of quantity flared and
flare sites, in Nigeria and the import of the likely effects of
their emission products (acid deposition, heat, night and day
time illumination) on soil and plant life based on literature.
This study would provide information on the effect of
flaring on soils close to flare sites. This shall provide an
impetus for stakeholders to formulate a stringent progressive
associated gas flaring policy to put an end to it. Also, it is
hoped that the outcome of the study would stimulate the
initiation of a soil renewal plan to restore fertility to the soil
when flaring eventually stops.
Materials And Methods
Three Gas plant/ flow stations engaged in gas flaring were
selected as locations for the study. They are located in the
rainforest vegetation region of Nigeria with fertile soils that
supports thick forest vegetation and farm crops.
Soil samples were collected from the A-Horizon (0-15cm
depth} at distances of 60m, 100m, 500m and 1000m from the
flare stack.
Air Temperature. Ambient air temperatures were taken at
sampling point-using mercury in glass thermometer. The
thermometer was held upright at eye level for about five
minutes and the temperature was recorded.
Soil Temperature. The soil temperature was obtained by
dipping the bulb of mercury in glass thermometer about 3cm
into the soil and recording the temperature after about five
minutes.
Soil pH. Air-dried soil samples were finely ground using
mortar and pestle and thereafter sieved to remove coarse
particles. 20g of sample was weighed into a clean 50ml beaker
followed by the addition of 20ml distilled water. The mixture

was left for 30 minutes with occasional stirring using glass

rod.
The pH was determined using pH meter calibrated with
buffers 4, 7 and 10.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC). Walkley-Black method was
used for the determination of TOC in the soil samples.
1g of 0.5mm sieved air dried soil sample was weighed into
250ml Erlenmeyer flask followed by 10ml N K2Cr2O7 and
20ml concentrated H2SO4. The suspension was swirled gently
and left standing on an asbestos sheet for 30 minutes. 100ml
of distilled water was introduced to the mixture follow by 3- 4
drops of ferroin indicator. The mixture was titrated against
0.5N FeSO4 solution and the titre value recorded.
The blank sample was similarly treated but without the soil
sample.
% Organic C in Soil =

( m e K 2 Cr2 O 7 m e FeSO 4 ) 0.003 100 F

g ( Soil )

m e = Normality of solution x ml of solution used.

%Organic matter in soil = %Organic carbon in soil x 1.729.
F = Correction factor = 1.33
Nitrate In Soil. Soil nitrate was determined by using
Spectrophotometeric method. Standard Nitrate solutions were
prepared and the Beer Lambert graph obtained at 410nm after
developing colour in alkaline medium. The Nitrate in soil
sample was extracted using sodium acetate and acetic acid
solution. The nitrate extracts were similarly treated as the
standard solutions and their absorbance read at the same
wavelength of 410nm. The nitrate concentrations were
determined using standard method.
Phosphate In Soil. The method adopted for the determination
of phosphate in soil was the Ascorbic acid method. Standard
phosphate solutions in the range found in typical soil were
prepared and their absorbance read after adding reducing
agents at 880nm. A blank solution was treated in like manner
and its absorbance read at the same wavelength. A calibration
graph of absorbance against concentration was determined.
The concentration of phosphate in the soil samples was
determined after reading the absorbance and after subjecting
them to the same treatment given to the standard solutions.
Potassium In Soil. The soil samples were acid digested using
standard procedures. The potassium in digested samples was
determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.
Presentation Of Data And Result
Flare stacks at the three locations were observed to be about
two (2) meters in height from the ground level or in some
cases low-lying burning in enclosed pit area, which is
indicative of their close proximity to the soils. The results of
the study on the selected soil parameters (60m 1000m from
the flare stack) are presented herein.

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persistently high soil temperatures is the evaporation and loss

of water from the soil surface. This drying-up effect leaves the
surface soils close to the flare stack parched, which is not
conducive to plant life23 and soil microbial activity. 24

50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0

pH of Soil

Air Temperature ( C )

SPE 93666

0.0
60

100

200

500

1000

Distance From Flare Stack (meters)

o

Fig.1 Air temperature ( C) at the gas flare location

Location A

Location B

7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
60

Location C

100

200

500

1000

Distance From Flare Stack (meters)

Fig.3 pH of Soil at the Gas Flare Locations
Location A

40.0

Location B

Location C

The results (fig.3) indicate that soils in all three flare

locations are generally acidic. However, soil pH values
obtained suggest a comparatively acidic soil at points closest
to the flare stack for all locations. As generally presented in
literature, this acidic condition would adversely affect the soil
chemistry of the soils closest to the flare stack in respect of
plant nutrient availability and trace metal toxicity. 25, 26
It would also inhibit most microorganisms involved in
decomposition/nutrient recycling except for a few acidtolerant microbes.27-29 Also, acidic soil conditions (<pH 5.5)
are reported to inhibit autotrophic nitrification process.30

30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
60

100

200

500

1000

Distance From Flare Stacks (meters)

Total Organic Carbon

Content (%)

Soil Temperature (oC)

The air temperatures in all three locations were relatively

higher near the flare stack compared to areas farther away
(fig.1) from it. Much heat generated from the flare accounts
for this. This shall impact on the environment by raising the
temperature of the surrounding soils, increase evaporation of
water from the soils, and cause plant wilting or death through
excessive water loss in plants by transpiration. Dry and bare
soils will emanate from this in the long run.

2.0000
1.5000
1.0000
0.5000
0.0000
60

Fig.2 Soil Temperature( C) at the Gas flare Location

100

200

500 1000

Distance From flare Stack (meters)

Location A

Location B

Location C

Soil temperature was higher, in all three locations, at points

close to the flare stack relative to points farther away (fig. 2).
The observed range was between 44.4oc at 60m and 30.40c at
1000m distances from the flare stack. Soils absorbing portions
of the intense heat emanating from the flare may be
responsible for this. An initial short-term effect could be a
rapid increase in the metabolic activity of mesophilic soil
microorganisms using up available soil organic matter that is
not be replenished at a commensurate pace because of low
vegetation cover. A likely long-term effect, however, of such

Fig.4 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) Content (%) of

Soil at Flare Locations
Location A
Location B
Location C

The data for TOC (a measure of soil organic matter

content) for soils in the three flare locations are presented in
figure 4. The TOC values are comparatively lower in soils
closest to the flare stack (0.5187%-location A, 0.7382%location B and 0.4973% location C at 60m distance) and
increased in content as the distance from the flare stack
increased (1.3965%-location A, 1.4763%-location B and
0.9077%-location C at 1000m distance). The low return of

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SPE 93666

plant residue (because of low vegetation cover in the area

resultant from destruction by flare heat) into soils closer to
the flare stack may account for this. Return of nutrients to the
soil is therefore reduced resulting in an impoverished soil.
Organic matter in soils is considered to be a store of N, P and
S, which are plant macronutrients.31 In terrestrial ecosystems,
most soil organisms that are important in soil nutrient
replenishment and aeration are dependent on plant residues.32

Potassium Content
(Meg/kg)

8.0000
6.0000
4.0000
2.0000
0.0000
60

100

200

500 1000

Nitrate (PPM) Content

Distance From Flare Stack (meters)

1.0000

Fig.8
7 Potassium (K ) (Meg/kg) Content of Soil at
Gas Flare Locations
Location A
Location B
Location C

0.8000
0.6000
0.4000
0.2000
0.0000
60

100

200

500

1000

Phosphate (PPM) Content of Soil

Distance From Flare Stack (meters)

Fig.5 Nitrate (NO3) PPM Content of Soil at Flare
Locations
Location A
Location B
Location C

Conclusion
Flaring of associated gas during oil production impacts
adversely on soil fertility; air/soil temperature becomes higher,
soil becomes more acidic and total organic carbon, nitrate and
phosphate content of the soil decrease. The resultant balance
sheet of continued flaring is an impoverished infertile soil.
The outcome of this study draws attention to the ecological
damage inflicted on the soil environment by oil companies in
Nigeria who flare instead of adopting never methods of
handling associated gas during oil production.

0.7000
0.6000
0.5000
0.4000
0.3000
0.2000
0.1000
0.0000
60

100

200

500

Potassium content of soils in the three locations is

presented in figure 7. There was no clear pattern of
relationship between potassium content of soils and distance
from the flare stack in all three locations.
The acidic condition of the soils closer to flare stacks as
observed in this study (fig. 3) may encourage leaching out of
k+ ions from the surface soils as advanced in literature.35
However, absence of a clear soil K+ content and flare
distance relationship is suggestive of factors not related to
flaring activity.

1000

Distance From Flare Stack (meters)

3-

Fig.6 Phosphate (PO4 ) PPM Content of Soil at

Flare Location
Location A

Location B

Location C

Acknowledgment
We wish to acknowledge the contribution of Mr Benjamin
Emuze who assisted in the collection and analysis of the soil
samples.
References

Nitrate (N03-) and phosphate (P043-) content at different

points at the three flare locations are presented in figures 5 and
6 respectively. The trend, which is similar in all three
locations for N and P shows on increase in quantity as the
distance from the flare stack increases. This suggests an
adverse effect on N and P content of soils by flaring
activities. The low soil organic matter content, the acidic
condition of the soils, and reduced decomposer microbial
activity in this flare zone soils could be responsible for this
observation. Nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur in soil are
derived mostly from organic matter in soil as a result of
mineralization activity of microorganisms.33

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SPE 93666

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