SIX MONTH INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

COMPLETED AT
OCM INDIA LTD
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR AWARD OF DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Submitted by
Navjot Kaur (100030412289)
Preeti Mittal (100030412303)
Satnam Kaur (100030412315)
Shaina Chhabra (100030412317)
Simerjeet Kaur (10030412319)

AMRITSAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,

AMRITSAR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
DECEMBER, 2013

DECLARATION CERTIFICATE
1

We hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the report entitled
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by SHAINA CHHABRA, NAVJOT KAUR,
SATNAM KAUR, PREETI MITTAL, SIMERJEET KAUR in partial fulfillment of
requirements for the award of degree of B.Tech. (ECE) submitted to Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering at Amritsar College Of Engineering And
Technology, Amritsar under PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, JALANDHAR is an
authentic record of my own work carried out during a period from _________ to _________.

Signature of the Students

ABSTRACT

The Textile Sector in India ranks next to Agriculture. Textile is one of Indias oldest industries
and has a formidable presence in the national economy in as much as it contributes to about
14 per cent of manufacturing value-addition, accounts for around one-third of our gross
export earnings and provides gainful employment to millions of people. OCM is one of the
leading textile industry in india. Our work was associated with The Instrumentation and
Control Department of the Industry. This department deals with all the instrumentation and
machinery installed in the mill and various control systems designed to have an effective
control over the whole system.
We studied the use and working of various machinery used in the process of fabric making.
We also studied the control systems installed to make sure the smooth working of different
departments and work areas in the mill.
The experience of six months in the instrumentation department was helpful to make us
familiar with the working of an industry with the latest technology in the control systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my profound gratitude to the ALMIGHTY with whose grace and blessings,
I have been able to complete another chapter of my life. I would like to extend my
appreciation to my industrial supervisor, Mr Harjeet Kumar for his advices and patiently
guiding me through while I working here as a trainee. Not forgotten for all the staffs working
at OCM INDIA LTD. I very much appreciate for their entire kindness helping and teaching
me when I'm working there. I am very lucky to have such a helpful colleagues and I never
felt left out in any situation.
I am entrusted to undergo my industrial training at OCM Amritsar for six months before I
can complete my subject course in order to graduate. The motive of this action is to expose
students and let them experience the environment of the real world of working before
graduating. It is also to prepare us to face the real challenge and learn how to find solution
when problem encountered besides completing the course. This exposure not only
prepare us but it is also a great opportunity to gain knowledge at industry. Besides that, it can
prepare us on how to polish more their soft skill especially on how to communicate with
others and learn to do work in a group. I have learnt a lot of valuable things while working
here. I realize that learning theoretical is never the same when it comes to practice. There are
a lot more to master than just learning from book. .
I am thankful to Professor Dr. Vijay Kumar Banga (Principal and Head (ECE), ACET
Amritsar) for making arrangements for the training and supporting with all means during my
training period.
I am thankful to Mr. Gaurav Soni, (Associate Professor, ECE), for the positive and cooperative response with time, energy and valuable suggestions . He gave me to fulfill the
task. His knowledge and know-how were of extreme importance throughout the work, as well
as his advice, help and guidance. His dedication and opinion were useful not only for the
completion of the training, but also for the professional life ahead of me.
I find no words to acknowledge the sacrifice, love, help and inspiration rendered by my
parents to take up this study.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
4

CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Company profile

1.1.2 History(brief)

1.1.3 Year Of events

21

1.2 Necessity

25

CHAPTER 2
2.1 Electrical Department
2.1.1 Detail about Motors Used
2.2 Machines used at OCM
2.3 Electronic Department

26
34
41

CHAPTER 3
3.1 Electrical Substation at OCM

62

3.2 Manufacturing Process and Machines

3.3 Evaluation of Industrial Control System
3.3.1 SCADA systems
3.3.2 PLC

80
87
92
98

CHAPTER 4
4.1 Conclusion

99

4.2 References

100

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1.3 Years of Events..21

Table 2.2.1 Machines and their functions..35
Table 2.3.1 Specifications of Automatic voltage stabalizers.53
Table 2.3.2 Features of ACS 150...58

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1.1.1 Induction Motor..26
Figure 2.1.1.2 Stepper Motor..29
Figure 2.2.1

Donier Machine at OCM.35

Figure 2.2.2

Working of Dornier.37

Figure 2.2.3

Sulzer Machine at OCM..38

Figure 2.3.1

Transistor.43

Figure 2.3.2

Circuit Diagram of FET...44

Figure 2.3.3

Inductive Sensor .47

Figure 2.3.4

PLC......49

Figure 2.35

EPROM....51

Figure 2.3.6

SMPS...54

Figure 2.3.7

Inverter Driver.56

Figure 2.3.8

Motor Inverter Driver..57

Figure 2.3.9

Circuit Diagram of Radix Sensor60

Figure 3.1.1

Electrical Substation at OCM..62

Figure 3.3.1

ICS operation...89

Figure 3.3.1.1 SCADA systems..94

Figure 3.3.1.2 Basic SCADA communication topologies..95
Figure 3.3.1.3 SCADA system implementation..97
Figure 3.3.2.1 PLC ..98

Chapter 1
7

1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 COMPANY PROFILE

(An ISO 9001:2000 Certified Company)

LOVE LIFE & VICE
VERSA..

About Us
8

Since its inception in 1924 as a manufacturer of hand-knotted carpets, OCM has come a long
way to become one of the largest worsted suiting producers, the first one to implement a
customized textile ERP solution.
A completely vertically integrated plant, OCM has in-house production facilities to convert
tops to finished fabrics through dyeing, spinning, weaving and finishing using state-of-the-art
machinery. All the materials and processes pass through stringent checks at every stage and
help in delivering outstanding quality.
At present the companys capacity includes 34064 Spindles and 182 high speed shuttle less
Looms thereby giving spinning capacity of 12000 kgs yarn and weaving capacity of 25000
Mtrs of fabric per day. The spinning preparatory is from NSC, France, Spindles from Zinser,
Germany, Autoconers from Schlhafhorst, Germany, TFOs from Leewha, Korea and looms
from Lindaeur Dornier, Germany, Sulzer, Switzerland and Picanol, Belgium. Apart from this,
colour continuity is tested on colour matching system from Gretag Macbreath, UK and fabric
gets final finish on KD from Biella Shrunk, Rotary Press of Mario Crosta, Italy, Continuous
Diarising from Speretto Rimar, Italy, Super finish from M-Tec, Germany and Shearing
machine from Xetma Vollenweider, Switzerland.

1.1.2 HISTORY OF OCM

The images on the following pages illustrate OCM's evolution from a large company in a
small Turkish town to an Oriental carpet giant in the City of London, controlling a huge
network stretching over Asia.
The images on the following pages illustrate OCM's evolution from a large company in a
small Turkish town to an Oriental carpet giant in the City of London, controlling a huge
network stretching over Asia.
OCM - in the minds of many people among the most British of companies - began life based
in the market town of Smyrna, a famous centre for the making of Turkish carpets, but
otherwise a million miles from anywhere. This was the OCM headquarters in Smyrna's main
square:

The famous photo (in the Oriental carpet world at least) on the right shows locally made
Turkish carpets being brought in by local village weavers to the giant new company that had
suddenly sprung up in their midst. Most of the carpets comprised the ubiquitous red and blue
'Turkey' carpets still in use in many English town and country homes. With its standardised
design, two basic colours and quickly-made but highly durable quality, OCM created in the
Turkey Carpet the first-ever widely affordable handmade Oriental carpet. When it almost
immediately became one of Europe's biggest selling types of carpet, handmade or machine
made, OCM reached a level of success that went far beyond anyone's wildest expectations.

OCM (London) Limited

With its massive early success, OCM quickly moved its core operation from Smyrna to
London - at that time the center of the world Oriental carpet trade.
The London headquarters were established in a showroom/warehouse in Newgate Street, in
the heart of the City of London, adjoining the Old Bailey law court.
What began as a quaint single showroom based upon an English country house interior
rapidly developed into the largest Oriental carpet building in London, comprising five floors
of showroom space accessed from the Warwick Square side of the OCM building and the
only privately owned Bonded Warehouse for Oriental carpets in London that was reached via
the original Newgate Street entrance.

10

The original OCM showrooms in Newgate Street, City of London - circa 1908

OCM bonded warehouse in Newgate Street, City of London - circa 1950

11

The layout of OCM's London showrooms symbolised the company's increasing domination
of carpet production in the East - an entire floor was devoted to each of major producing
countries

The Chinese Carpets on the 3rd Floor of the OCM London Showrooms

The Persian Carpets on the First Floor of the OCM London Showroom

12

Huge Bales of Carpets arriving from India at OCM London's Newgate Street
warehouse. Keeping the global importation and distribution hub that OCM London
had rapidly become supplied was the vast infrastructure of OCM's presence in the
producing countries. Nowhere was this presence more extensive than in India.

The Persian Carpets on the First Floor of the OCM London Showroom
India - the Jewel in the OCM Crown
13

While starting out as the dominant manufacturers in Persia and Turkey, it was OCM's revival
of India as a major Oriental carpet origin that first provided the company with the volume of
merchandise and control over designs and colors upon which its success in the Western
markets depended.

Girl weavers at OCM's Amritsar workshop making the finest quality of Indian carpets.

The huge wool spinning machines installed by OCM at their Amritsar manufactory in India

14

The huge wool spinning machines installed by OCM at their Amritsar manufactory in India

OCM carpets on the first leg of their journey back to London and from there to America
While it was OCM's Persian and Turkish carpets that enjoyed the greatest popularity in the
Old World of Britain and Europe, it was the far larger output of these exclusively designed
Indian items, and subsequently the company's huge Chinese production, which served to gain
them market leadership in Canada and the USA.
During the 1920s and 1930s, OCM reached the zenith of its fame, prestige and world-wide
influence. In this period the USA and Canada became the company's biggest customers.
OCM's unique ability to meet the rapid growth in demand and highly specific decorative
requirements of the North American market were the key elements of its success in this
golden era of its long history.
15

The American Dream The decision to target and develop the huge American market was
made by OCM's managing director during these years, A. Cecil Edwards, later to author the
most famous of all Oriental carpet books - The Persian Carpet - published in 1953.
Fritz and La Rue Under his guidance, the company went into partnership with Fritz and La
Rue, which had been one of the 'Big Three' Oriental carpet importers and wholesalers in the
USA since the beginning of the century. Benefiting from the huge OCM supply, Fritz and La
Rue supplied virtually every major department store chain in the United States in the years
leading up to World War II. Most especially, they completely dominated in the supply of the
new styles of handmade carpets coming from OCM's initiative in India. These brought a new
level of affordability to the Oriental carpet, and soon outsold all other origins, including
Persia....and then Canada OCM also set up OCM (Canada) Ltd during this era, which was
immediately established as the foremost importers of Oriental carpets for the Canadian
market. Biggest in America By 1939, North America had become OCM's largest market:
OCM rugs could be found in every top store in the United States including Macys, Marshall
Fields and B. Altmans, and their ability to quickly respond to changing tastes in colour and
design was helping to increase their market share daily. Then came the outbreak of the
Second World War. Impact of World War 2 As a company so closely associated with the
British Empire, and one so dependent upon Britain's colonial power, OCM suffered more
than most from the ending of the Empire that World War II made inevitable.
While on the surface OCM remained the dominant force in the British Oriental carpet trade
throughout the frugal post-war years, they were increasingly unable to sustain the global
presence

they

had

been

building

so

effectively

in

the

pre-war

era.

Despite this, they remained the most famous Oriental carpet company in the world, and
continued

to

attract

both

management

and

customers

of

the

highest

calibre.

Then, in 1985, OCM was acquired by the huge investments company Scottish Heritable Trust
plc and was merged with its oldest UK competitors Eastern Kayam (formerly Eastern Carpets
Ltd) to became Eastern Kayam OCM - the largest Oriental carpet company in history...

16

The most authoritative book on Persian carpets of the past hundred and fifty years, The
Persian Carpet was written by A. Cecil Edwards, Managing Director of OCM London, based
upon his experiences while OCM's senior representative In Persia during the 1930s. It is
undoubtedly among the most famous of all Oriental carpet publications.

Succeeding A.Cecil Edwards as OCM's senior buyer in the producing countries, P.R.J. Ford
further emulated his achievements by writing Oriental Carpet Design, among the most
comprehensive of all Oriental carpet books and a world best seller since its publication in the
1980s.
17

Eastern Kayam OCM Limited

A Giant is Born
The 1985 acquisition of OCM by Scottish Heritable Trust plc and its subsequent merger with
erstwhile competitors Eastern Kayam (formerly Eastern Carpets, founded 1912) resulted in
the creation ofby far the largest Oriental carpet company in history
This giant company was named Eastern Kayam OCM
Also known as EKOCM
The New Giant Eastern Kayam OCM Ltd - EKOCM - not only encompassed the two huge
British companies after which it was named, but also the largest Oriental carpet company in
the USA, Amiran Inc., the largest Oriental carpet company in France, CNA Tapis, the most
successful Oriental carpet washing company in the world, Oundjian Ltd. and the Indian
carpet manufacturing subsidiary of OCM, E. Hill & Co. No business remotely so large or so
powerful had ever been created in the world of the handmade Eastern carpet.
Its magnificent new headquarters at the Palace of Industry in London's Wembley Stadium
complex was filled with millions of dollars worth of the finest goods...
The Impact of EKOCM No other company had ever succeeded so fast, so decisively:

The first and only Oriental carpet company ever quoted on the London Stock
Exchange

Appointed as Preferred Suppliers to Harrods, Libertys, The House of Fraser,

Debenhams, The John Lewis Partnership, Selfrides and even Marks & Spencers

Creators of many high profile branded and trademarked decorator designs and styles which
enjoyed widespread sales success and recognition - e.g. Kangri (Nepalese rugs), Kaimuri
(high calibre Indo-Persian carpets) Indo-Gabbeh (Low priced Indian rugs in modern Abstract
designs)

A Multi-Million Dollar Inventory

18

A vast stock of hand-knotted, hand-woven and hand-tufted merchandise from all the major
producing countries, in every conceivable size, style and color, filled the enormous EKOCM
headquarters at the Palace of Industry in Wembley. Huge areas within this massive building comprising an entire wing of Wembley Stadium - were given over to the choicest goods from
each of the major knotting origins...

The Kangri Area inside EKOCM's Palace of Industry - these exclusive Nepalese designs
were among EKOCM's most successful lines.

OCM INDIA LTD.

Industry is the soul of a country, which reflects in itself as to where on a country with
regard to its development, technology and economy is standing. It contributes a vital role in
the economy of a country, because its product, if exported, ears foreign currency for the
country where in it is located, which make the country capable to have a hold upon the world
market. Hence, it would not be out of place to mention over here in that industry is backbone
of the country.
OCM is one of the industrial establishments of India, which has provided a remarkable
identification of India, with international market.OCM, the inceptive name of which was
ORIENTAL CARPET MANUFACTURER, was established in 1924 by a British Citizen in
the holly city AMRITSAR. Formerly, it was manufacturing superior quality of carpets and
with passing of time it started manufacturing superior quality of woollen cloth which has an
effective grip not only over the Indian Market but also over the global market.
In 1971, the OCM is taken over by BIRLA GROUP OF INDUSTRIES and its name was
changed as BIRLA VXL (P) LTD. (OCM WOOLEN MILLS) and from 2007 The Company
19

has been taken over by WL ROSE and till date it is run and controlled by him with the help
of CEO GK.SHINGHAL. Its products are largely exported which earn foreign currency for
India. The International Trade mark allotted is ISO9001.The full form of ISO is international
Organization for Standardization and at ISO level, the establishment has touched such an
apex of quality, which has done the establishment as first rank in the global market.
OCM India limited manufacturer wool blended, poly wool, polister, woollen and linen
textiles and fabrics. It also provides suits, safaris, uniforms, tweets and jacket, troserand
specialities, as well as shawls, blankets and lohis. The company exports its products in
Europe, United States and Asia. OCM India ltd. was formerly known as the east India carpet
co.ltd.and changed its name in January 1989. The company was incorporated in 1922 and its
headquarters are in New Delhi, India. OCM India ltd. Operate as a former subsidiary of dig
jam ltd. Since 1946 OCM recanzone S.R.L., located in Biella, produce and export high
quality industrial doors
OCM always propose all their customers the best quality-price ratio available on market.
Customer can choose between several different types of products, all extremely durable, such
as high speed pack-away or rollup-doors, partition walls, strip curtains, polyethylene doors
and much more.
While using OCM product you can save both money and energy. This is one of our main
aims such as the constant research of safe guarding our planets and surroundings.
Moreover, OCM technical team help customer to consider which would be the best door to
install in there plant that gives them all the information and details they need in order to make
up their mind.

OUR VISION:
While using OCM product you can save both money and energy. This is one of our main
aims such as the constant research of safe guarding our planets and surroundings.

OUR MISSION:
Moreover, OCM technical team help customer to consider which would be the best door to
install in there plant that gives them all the information and details they need in order to make
up their mind.
20

1.1.3 Years of Events

YEAR

EVENTS

S
1948

The Company was incorporated on 15 March, at Mumbai. The company

manufacturer all kinds of woollen and worsted yarns and piece goods.

1980

A letter of intent was received for 1,200 NMM worsted spindles which
were installed and commissioned

1981

8, 38,796 Bonus shares issued in prop.1:1.

1982

The Company received Govt. approval to further expand the spinning

capacity. One more diesel generating set of 750KVA was added.
During November the Company issued 1,60,000-13.5% secured
convertible debentures of Rs 125 each of foe a total amount of Rs 2 crore
out of which 95,000 debenture were offered to the public.
Out of each debenture Rs 45 was convertible into 3 equal shares of Rs 10
each of at of premium of Rs 5 per share on 1st July 1983. The balance Rs
80 per debenture was to be redeemed at par in three annual instalments of
Rs 25, Rs 25and Rs 30 commencing from the end of the 8 th year from the
date of allotment.

1983

The company undertook to set up a modern vegetable oil extraction plant

at Harda in the District Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh
The Oriental Carpet Manufacturer Ltd. (OCM) and Universal Electric
Ltd. were amalgamated with Shree Digvijya Woollen Mills ltd. with effect
from 1st July. Consequent upon this amalgamation shareholder of OCM
were to be allotted 8, 33,468 No. of equal share of Rs 10 each in the
PROP. Of 1 equal share of Rs 1575 No. of equal share of held in OCM
and 15000-11% preference share of Rs 100 each in the Prop. Of 1
preference share of SDM for every 10 preference share held in OCM.
The shareholder of UEL were to be allotted 7, 90,778 No. of equal share
21

of Rs10 each in the prop. Of 1equal share of SDM for every 2025 equal
share held in UEL and 8,100-6.5% preference share of Rs 100 each in the
Prop. Of 1 preference share of SDM for every preference share held in
UEL.
Out of these, 15000-11% preference share holder of OCM and UEL were
allotted during 1985-86. Allotment of 8,100-6.5% preference share for the
preference share holder of UEL and 1, 23,661 No. of equal shares to the
equal share holder of OCM and UEL was pending.
4, 79, 925 shares allotted in conversation of deb. Prem. Rs 5 per share.
1984

The company proposal to take up a modernization programme at the

Jamnagar and Amritsar Units
Land, building, plant and machinery and vehicles of Mujesan
(Ahmedabad) unit were revaluing and net surplus of Rs 263.15 lakhs
arising out of this was credited to capital reserve.

1985

Some shuttle less looms were installed at the Dig jam and the OCM
woollen Mills division
The name of the company was changed from Shree Digvijay Mills ltd. to
the one which is at present. During 1994-95 the company name was again
changed from VXL India Ltd. to the present one.
Authorised capital reclassified, 15000-11% Pref. and 15, 00,585 No. of
equal shares issued without payment in cash as per the scheme of merger.
The company considered a proposal to manufacturer ready to wear mens
suits.
The company proposed to expand its business in high-tech electronic
equipment in Universal Engineering, high protein soya-based meals and
fields in Sidharth Oils
An agreement was entered into with the Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
in connection with export of components and protection panels
manufactured by the company.
22

Authorised capital increased 37, 81,763 bonus shares issued in prop.1:1.

1989

The company installed 15 high speed sulzer looms.

A letter of content was received for the manufacture of the microwave
components and connectors.
Also an agreement was entered into with Landis and Gyr a Swiss
company for jointly setting up facilities in India to manufacture a superior
range of electricity meters and test benches with a substantial export
commitment.
Landis and Gyr also agreed to subscribe to the quality capital of VXL to
the extent of S.Fr. 2 million
During February-March ,the company offered 15,50,000-12.5% secured
redeemable partly convertible of Rs 100 each on Right basis in the
proportion 1 debenture 5 equal share held(all were taken up). Additional
2,32,500 debentures were allotted to retain over-subscription.
During the same period, the Company issued through a prospectus
14,50,000-12.5% partly convertible debentures of Rs 100 each out of
which the following debentures were reserved for preferential allotment:
23

(i)1,50,000-12.5%

to

employees

(including

Indian

working

directors)workers on equitable basis (only 11,790 debentures taken up)

and (ii)3,00,000 debenture to NRIs on repatriation basis(all were taken
up).
The balance 10,00,000 debentures along with 1,38,210 debentures not
taken up by the employee were offered to the public. Additional 2,17,500
debentures were allotted to retain over subscription(45,000 debentures to
NRI and 1,72,500 debentures to the public.)
Rs 50 of the face value of each debenture was to be converted to equal
share of Rs 10 each at a premium of Rs 15 per share on the expiry of 6
months from the date of allotment of debentures.
The remaining of the Rs 50 of the face value of the each debenture was to
be redeemed in the pair at 3 annual instalments of Ra 17,Rs 17 and Rs 16

Table 1.1.3 Years of events

1.2 NECESSITY
Instrumentation Department:
Instruments play a big role in industry. Now almost in every industry automation system is
introduced. So during running time of plant we have to set some control in input and output
and also during processing. These all are done in auto now a days. So we have to measure
24

some parameters like level, pressure, flow and temperature. While automation system is
running we look all these parameters carefully so that production are not hampered, otherwise
we may face to a big problem or loss.

Control Systems:
Industrial control system (ICS) is a general term that encompasses several types of control
systems, including supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, distributed
control systems (DCS), and other control system configurations such as skid-mounted
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) often found in the industrial sectors and critical
infrastructures. ICS are typically used in industries such as electrical, water and wastewater,
oil and natural gas, chemical, transportation, pharmaceutical, pulp and paper, food and
beverage, and discrete manufacturing (e.g., automotive, aerospace, and durable goods.)
Moreover Control system ensures the proper working of the various workshops in the
industry .

Chapter 2
2.1 ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT
2.1.1 Details about Motors used:
AC MOTORS
25

INDUCTION MOTORS
An induction or asynchronous motor is a type of AC motor where power is supplied to the
rotor by means of electromagnetic induction. These motors are widely used in industrial
drives, particularly polyphase induction motors, because they are robust and have no brushes.
Their speed can be controlled with a variable frequency drive.

Figure 2.1.1.1 Induction motor

Operation and comparison to synchronous motors

In a synchronous AC motor, the rotating magnetic field of the stator imposes a torque on the
magnetic field of the rotor, causing it to rotate steadily. It is called synchronous because at
steady state, the speed of the rotor matches the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the
stator. By contrast, an induction motor has a current induced in the rotor; to do this, stator
windings are arranged so that when energized with a polyphase supply they create a rotating
magnetic field that induces current in the rotor conductors. These currents interact with the
rotating magnetic field, causing rotational motion of the rotor.
For these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the
stator's rotating magnetic field (ns), or the magnetic field would not be moving relative to the
rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. If this happens while the motor is
operating, the rotor slightly slows down, and consequently a current is induced again. The
ratio between the speed of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor (slip speed) and the speed
of the stator's rotating field is unitless and it is called slip. For this reason, induction motors
26

are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors. An induction motor can be used as

induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form the linear induction motor which can
directly generate linear motion.
Induction motors are also called as asynchronous motors. Induction motors may be single
phase or three phases. The single phase Induction motors are built in small sizes and these
motors are also called fractional horse power motors. The three phases Induction motors are
the most commonly used in the O.C.M. industry, because they have simple and rugged
construction, low cost, high efficiency, reasonably good power factor, self-starting torque.
These motors are require little maintenance almost more than 90% of the mechanical power
used in the industry is provided by three phase Induction motors.

CONSTRUCTION

FEATUERS

OF

THREE

PHASE

INDUCTION MOTORS:There are two main parts of motors:1. STATORIt is stationary part of motors. It has three parts:
1. Outer frame
2. Stator core
3. Stator
(A). OUTER FRAME:It is Outer body of the motors. Its function of two supports
protect the inner parts of the machine.

the stator core winding and to

(B). STATOR CORE:The Stator core is to carry the alternating magnetic field which produces hysteresis and eddy
current losses, therefore core is built up of high grade silicon steel stampings. These are
stampings are insulated from each other.
(C). STATOR WINDING:-

27

Stator core carries a three phase winding which is usually supplied from a three phase supply
system. The six terminal of the winding are connected in the terminal box of the machine.
The stator of the motor is wound for definite no. of poles the exact number being find by the
requirement of speed. The three phase winding may be connected in star or delta externally.
The winding is designed to be delta connected for normal running.
2. ROTORS:It is rotating parts of the motor. There are two types of rotors. Which are employed in
three phase Induction Motors
(A). SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR:The motor employing these types of rotor is known as squirrel cage induction motor.
Most of the induction motor is of these types because simple of rugged construction of
the rotor. A squirrel cage rotor consists of laminated cylindrical core having semi closed
circular slots at outer periphery. Copper and aluminium bars are inserted in these slots are
joined at each end by copper and aluminium rings called short circuiting rings. Thus
winding is permanently short circuited and it is not possible to add any external resistance
in the rotors circuit. The slots are usually not parallel to the shaft but are skewed because
of humming magnetic locking, resulting smoother torque, and increases rotor resistance.
(B).PHASE WOUND ROTORS:These types of rotor is called slip ring rotor and the motor employing this types of rotor is
known as phase wound and slip ring rotor. Slip ring rotor consist of laminated cylindrical
core having semi closed circular slots at outer periphery and carries a three phase insulated
winding the rotor is wound for same no poles as that of stator. The finishing terminals are
connected together and the three start terminals are connected to the three copper slip ring
fixed on the shaft. In the case depending upon requirement any external resistance can be
added in the rotors circuit.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERTION:When three phase supply is given to the stator of three phase wound induction, rotating field
is set up in the stator. The stationary rotor conductors cut the revolving and by induction
e.m.f. is induced in the conductors. As the rotors conductors are short circuited, current flow
through them in the direction of revolving flux rotors current carrying conductors set up a
resultant field. By the alignment of the field an electromagnetic torque is developed in the
anti-clockwise direction. Thus the rotors start rotating in the same direction in the same in
which stator field is revolving.

STEPPER MOTOR
28

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, electric motor that can divide a full rotation
into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely without any
feedback mechanism (see Open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the
application. Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors (which are very large
stepping motors with a reduced pole count, and generally are closed-loop commutated).

Figure 2.1.1.2 Stepper Motor

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is
applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple
"toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The
electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To
make the motor shaft turn, first, one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's
teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are aligned to
the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next
electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the
next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a
"step", with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be
turned by a precise angle.

TYPES:
There are four main types of stepper motors:
Permanent Magnet Stepper (can be subdivided in to 'tin-can' and 'hybrid', tin-can being a
cheaper product, and hybrid with higher quality bearings, smaller step angle, higher power
density)

Hybrid Synchronous Stepper

29

Variable Reluctance Stepper

Lavet type stepping motor

Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and operate on the
attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator electromagnets. Variable
reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and operate based on the principle that
minimum reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the rotor points are attracted toward
the stator magnet poles. Hybrid stepper motors are named because they use a combination of
PM and VR techniques to achieve maximum power in a small package size.

DC MOTOR
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. The dc motors is
an electro chemical energy device which convert electrical power into mechanical power.
Battery is prime source of D.c motors. The main constructional features of D.c motors are
given below:

Magnetic frame or yoke

Pole core and pole shoes

Fields coil or exciting coil

Armature core

Armature winding

Commutator
30

Brushes

End housing or covers

Bearing

Shaft etc.

MAGNETIC FRAME:
The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter poles are fixed and by mean of
which the machine is bolted to the foundation plate is called the yoke or magnetic frame.
POLE CORES AND POLES SHOE:
The Pole core and pole shoes are fixed to magnetic frame or yoke by bolts.
FIELDS COILS OR EXICTING COILS:
The fields coils consist of copper wire or strip. The fields is wound on the former and placed
around the pole core.
ARMATURE CORE:
It is a cylindrical in shape. It is rotating parts of motors keyed to the shaft at the outer
periphery there are slots which accommodate the conductors.

ARMATURE WINDING:
The armature winding is a heart of D.C motors. The insulated conductors housed in the
armature slots are suitably connected.
COMMUTATORS:
It is connected the rotating armature conductor to the stationary external circuit through
brushes. It converts alternative torque to the unidirectional torque produced in the motor
action.
BRUSHES:
These are rubbing upon the commutator and from the connecting link between the armature
winding and the external circuit. They are usually made up of high grade carbon because
carbon is conducting material and at same time in powdered from provide lubricating effect
on the commutator surface.
END HOUSING:
31

These are attached to the ends on the main frame and supports bearings.

BEARINGS:
The function of bearings is to reduce between rotating and stationary parts of rotor.
SHAFT:
The mechanical energy comes on the shaft of the motor.

TYPES:
DC motors are of two types:
1. Brushed DC electric Motor:
The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the
motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanent or electromagnets), and
rotating electrical magnets.
Like all electric motors or generators, torque is produced by the principle of Lorentz force,
which states that any current-carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field
experiences a torque or force known as Lorentz force. Advantages of a brushed DC motor
include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are
high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly
replacing the brushes and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or
replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for transferring electrical power
from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor.
2. Brushless:
Brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet or soft magnetic core in the rotor, and
stationary electrical magnets on the motor housing. A motor controller converts DC to AC.
This design is simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of
transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. Advantages of brushless
motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency. Disadvantages
include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed controllers. Some such brushless
motors are sometimes referred to as "synchronous motors" although they have no external
32

power supply to be synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC synchronous
motors

2.2 MACHINES USED AT OCM

WARPING MACHINES:
Name of machines

Makers

BANNIZER WARPING

SWITZERLAND

S.F WARPING

GERMAN

B.M WARPING

INDIAN

RABATEX

INDIAN

KNOTTING MACHINE:
Name of machines

Makers
33

STABULI KNOTTING MACHINE

SWITZERLAND

WEAVING MACHINE:
Name of machines

Makers

CIMMCO DORNIER

INDIAN

H.T.V.S DORNIER

GERMAN

PICANOL G.T.X

BELGIUM

SULZER P.U

SWITZERLAND

GC-14 GILL BOXES (4 SET M/Cs)

NSC, FRANCE

PB-31 COMBIER

NSC, FRANCE

GC-14, GC-14 A/BOLLING

NSC, FRANCE

FM-7 FLYING ROVER

NSC, FRANCE

BM-14 ROVER

NSC, FRANCE

ZINSER RING FRAME 421(44 NOSAL MACHINE)

NAME OF MACHINES
NEW K.D

FUNCTION
DECATIZING

NEW WOOLEN
WEIDER
SUPER FINISH

ROTATRY

SHEARING /
CROPPING
DECATIZING /
PREESING
PREESING

CONTIBLOW

DECATIZING

HARISH STATER
TURBO MAT

HEAT SETTING
SCOURING

ZINSER, GERMANY
MAKER
BIELLA SHRUNK
PROCESS (ITALY)
VOLLEN WEIDER
(SWITZERLAND)
M.TECH (GERMANY)
MARIO CROSTA
(ITALY)
SPORETTO RIMAR
(ITALY)
HARISH (ITALY)
M.A.T (ITALY)

Table 2.2.1 Machines and their functions

DORNIER MACHINE

34

Figure 2.2.1 Dornier Machine in OCM

Filling Insertion
Filling insertion with positively controlled center transfer is the heart of the P1 rapier
weaving machine .The filling is picked up and transferred precisely and reliably through the
open shed and held securely until bound in. The human hand as the model With positive
center transfer, the rapier motion is precisely controlled via complementary cam gear
boxes. The open left-hand clamp of the left hand rapier grips the yarn presented by the filling
selector needle before entering the shed. After controlled closure of this clamp, scissors cut
off the filling at the fabric side. Filling transfer from left-hand to right-hand rapier is effected
positively in the center under full control. Following the pick transfer, the taker rapier brings
the filling to the right-hand fabric edge. The shed remains open throughout the entire
insertion phase. The filling is released by the controlled rapier clamp only when it is firmly
secured by the catch selvedge. Rapier motion and function during filling insertion are similar
to baton changing between two athletes during a relay race.

The DORNIER-specific filling insertion system

1. Yarn pick-up by the left-hand rapier before entry into the shed.
35

2. Filling yarn transfer in the fabric center.

3. Release of the inserted filling by the righth and rapier only after being secured by the
catch selvedge.
Filling insertion with positively controlled center transfer is the heart of the P1 rapier
weaving machine.
The filling is picked up and transferred precisely and reliably through the open shed and held
securely until bound in.

36

Figure 2.2.2 Working Of Dornier

SULZER MACHINE
Sulzer machine is also called a shutless loom. In this projectile are used for weft pattern two
boxes are used.

Picking box

Receiving box

In the weft thread comes from picking side and receives from receiving box. In this
accommodators are used to give continues supply of weft according to requirement of weft.
SETTING IN THE SULZER

Picking is done at 150 degree.

Revision is done at 80 degree.

Monthly is done at 80 degree.

Saviour is cutting thread done at 10 degree.

Needles setting at 190,240,270 degree for selvedge.

Gap between pripper and projectile 4mm and setting at 325 degree.

37

Figure 2.2.3 Sulzer machine at OCM

BREAK
Break is used to stop the automatic machine. Automatic break is used in sulzer machine when
any wrap thread or weft thread break machine is automatically stopped.
Setting of the break is done are -:.1mm, .2mm, .3mm, .4mm. It can be easily checked with
the help of the gauge. It can be easily move in the break. We can easily open the parts of the
machine at 80 degree monthly also done at the setting of 80 degree.
PARTS OF THE BREAK
1. DRUM
2. TWO PULLEYS
3. FOUR BELTS
4. SETTING OF BREAK .1MM, .2MM, .3MM, .4MM

PARTS OF PICKING SIDE

FEEDER OPENER

FEEDER PROJECTILE OPENER

SLIDE PIECE

UPPER GUIDE RAIL

LOWER GUIDE RAIL

SLIDE PIECE LINK

38

PICKING SHOE

LIFTER

RECEIVING BOX

FRONT BREAK

RARE BREAK

LOWER BREAK

RETURNER

RETURNER LINK

TYPES OF LET OFF USED IN O.C.M.

SIMCO LET OFF

HI-TECH LET OFF

SUPER HUNT LET OFF

PARTS OF BREAK

DRUM

SPRINGS 16-18 SPRINGS IS USED

BRASS SIM

PLATE

ROTOR

9 PLATES, 4 FIBRE DISC, 5 STEEL PLATES

SLIVES

CLUTCH PLATE

PULLEY

HAND BREAK

FUNCTIONS

HAND WHEEL- We can easily move the machine with the help of the hand wheel.

PULLEY - Pulleys is used to attach with motor with the help of belts.
39

CLUTCH PLATE-It is used for setting of fibre plates. It is as locking device.

SLIVES- Slives is used to press the rings or it is also used to move the fibre plates.

ROTOR- Rotor is used for setting of plates it is also used move the fibre plates .

FOUR TYEPS OF LOOMS USED IN O.C.M.

POWER LOOM

DORNIER (SHUTTLE LESS)

SULZER

PICANOL

2.3 ELECTRONIC DEPARTMENT

Electronics is the backbone of any firm. Every department is dependent on it right from
spinning to finishing. HOD is responsible to all activities of impletion and adherence to all
the procedures concerned of the respective department. The whole organization has been
divided into various departments. Each department has a huge difference in the working.
Each department has different machines of working. The machines were used to create a
design for summer and winter season every year. After the creation of design yarn
identification is done. After that the whole information regarding the design is noted on a
master card and then the cloth is to be made with the help of automatic machines just by
feeding suitable programs.

Electronics is the branch of science, engineering and technology that deals with electrical
circuits involving active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and
40

integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies. The nonlinear

behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes
amplification of weak signals possible and is usually applied to information and signal
processing. Similarly, the ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital
information processing possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards,
electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure
complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a working system.

There are various types of electronic components on which the working of the machines is
dependent. These components are:

Transistor

Transformer

EPROM

PLC

Processor

Controller

Diodes

TRANSISTORS:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
power. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection
to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify
a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found
embedded in integrated circuits.
41

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the
transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper
radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.

Figure 2.3.1 Transistor

TYPES OF TRANSISTORS:
NPN and PNP are the two types of standard transistors, each having different circuit symbols.
The letters used in these descriptions are references to what material is used to create these
devices. NPN is the most commonly used because they are easily made silicon.
A Darlington pair describes a connection of two transistors paired for the purpose of emitting
a very high current gain.
The PNP Transistor could be considered the reverse opposite of the NPN Transistor. This
Transistor employs the two diodes are reversed with respect to the NPN. This type gives a
Positive-Negative-Positive configuration, which also defines the Emitter terminal.

42

An additional type of transistor is the field-effect transistor, usually referred to as FETs

Figure 2.3.2 Transister

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied
between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals.
43

This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input
signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn
current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current
is determined by other circuit elements.
There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are used in a
circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small
current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or
switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect
transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can
control a current between source and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow
between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since internally
the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops
between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends
on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.

RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits,
repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were
used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor is
called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead
using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits
from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by
digital instruments still called "protective relays".
44

Figure 2.3.3 a Transistor

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and
one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to
the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place
by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other
set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function.
The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures
continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on
the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

TYPES OF RELAYS:

Latching relay

Reed relay

Mercury-wetted relay

Polarized relay

Machine tool relay

45

Ratchet relay

Contactor relay

Solid-state relay

Solid state contactor relay

Buchholz relay

Forced-guided contacts relay

Overload protection relay

INDUCTIVE SENSOR
An inductive sensor is an electronic proximity sensor, which detects metallic objects without
touching them.
The sensor consists of an induction loop. Electric current generates a magnetic field, which
collapses generating a current that falls asymptotically toward zero from its initial level when
the input electricity ceases. The inductance of the loop changes according to the material
inside it and since metals are much more effective inductors than other materials the presence
of metal increases the current flowing through the loop. This change can be detected by
sensing circuitry, which can signal to some other device whenever metal is detected.
Common applications of inductive sensors include metal detectors, traffic lights, car washes,
and a host of automated industrial processes. Because the sensor does not require physical
contact it is particularly useful for applications where access presents challenges or where dirt
is prevalent. The sensing range is rarely greater than 6 cm, however, and it has no
directionality.

46

Figure 2.3.3 Inductive sensor

PHOTO SENSORS
Photo sensors are sensors of light or other electromagnetic energy. There are several
varieties:

Active pixel sensors are image sensors consisting of an integrated circuit that contains
an array of pixel sensors, each pixel containing a both a light sensor and an active
amplifier. There are many types of active pixel sensors including the CMOS APS
commonly used in cell phone cameras, web cameras, and some DSLRs. An image
sensor produced by a CMOS process is also known as a CMOS sensor, and has
emerged as an alternative to Charge-coupled device (CCD) sensors.

Charge-coupled devices (CCD), which are used to record images in astronomy, digital
photography, and digital cinematography. Although before the 1990s photographic
plates were the most common in astronomy. Glass-backed plates were used rather
than film, because they do not shrink or deform in going between wet and dry
condition, or under other disturbances. Unfortunately, Kodak discontinued producing
several kinds of plates between 1980 and 2000, terminating the production of
important sky surveys. The next generation of astronomical instruments, such as the
Astro-E2, include cryogenic detectors. In experimental particle physics, a particle
detector is a device used to track and identify elementary particles.

Chemical detectors, such as photographic plates, in which a silver halide molecule is

split into an atom of metallic silver and a halogen atom. The photographic developer
causes adjacent molecules to split similarly.
47

Cryogenic detectors are sufficiently sensitive to measure the energy of single x-ray,
visible and infrared photons.

LEDs reverse-biased to act as photodiodes. See LEDs as Photodiode Light Sensors.

Optical detectors, which are mostly quantum devices in which an individual photon
produces a discrete effect.

Optical detectors that are effectively thermometers, responding purely to the heating
effect of the incoming radiation, such as pyro electric detectors, Golay cells,
thermocouples and thermistors, but the latter two are much less sensitive.

Photo resistors or Light Dependent Resistors (LDR) which change resistance

according to light intensity

Photovoltaic cells or solar cells which produce a voltage and supply an electric
current when illuminated

Photodiodes which can operate in photovoltaic mode or photoconductive mode

Photomultiplier tubes containing a photocathode which emits electrons when

illuminated, the electrons are then amplified by a chain of dynodes.

Phototubes containing a photocathode which emits electrons when illuminated, such

that the tube conducts a current proportional to the light intensity.

Phototransistors, which act like amplifying photodiodes.

Quantum dot photoconductors or photodiodes, which can handle wavelengths in the

visible and infrared spectral regions.

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital computer
used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory
assembly lines, amusement rides, or light fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and
48

machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and
output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored
in battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a hard real time system
since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time,
otherwise unintended operation will result.

Figure 2.3.4 PLC

PROGRAMMING:
Early PLCs, up to the mid-1980s, were programmed using proprietary programming panels
or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had dedicated function keys
representing the various logical elements of PLC programs. Programs were stored on cassette
tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation were very minimal due to lack of
memory capacity. The very oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core memory.
More recently, PLCs are programmed using application software on personal computers. The
computer is connected to the PLC through Ethernet, RS-232, RS-485 or RS-422 cabling. The
programming software allows entry and editing of the ladder-style logic. Generally the
software provides functions for debugging and troubleshooting the PLC software, for
example, by highlighting portions of the logic to show current status during operation or via
simulation. The software will upload and download the PLC program, for backup and
restoration purposes. In some models of programmable controller, the program is transferred
from a personal computer to the PLC though a programming board which writes the program
into a removable chip such as an EEPROM or EPROM.
49

EPROM:
An EPROM (rarely EROM), or erasable programmable read only memory, is a type of
memory chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. In other words, it is
non-volatile. It is an array of floating-gate transistors individually programmed by an
electronic device that supplies higher voltages than those normally used in digital circuits.
Once programmed, an EPROM can be erased by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light from a
mercury-vapour light source. EPROMs are easily recognizable by the transparent fused
quartz window in the top of the package, through which the silicon chip is visible, and which
permits exposure to UV light during erasing.

Figure 2.3.5 EPROM

As the quartz window is expensive to make, OTP (one-time programmable) chips were
introduced; here, the die is mounted in an opaque package so it cannot be erased after
programming - this also eliminates the need to test the erase function, further reducing cost.
OTP versions of both EPROMs and EPROM-based microcontrollers are manufactured.
However, OTP EPROM (whether separate or part of a larger chip) is being increasingly
replaced by EEPROM for small amounts where the cell cost isn't too important and flash for
larger amounts.
A programmed EPROM retains its data for a minimum of ten to twenty years, with many still
retaining data after 35 or more years, and can be read an unlimited number of times. The
erasing window must be kept covered with an opaque label to prevent accidental erasure by
the UV found in sunlight or camera flashes. Old PC BIOS chips were often EPROMs, and the
erasing window was often covered with an adhesive label containing the BIOS publisher's
name, the BIOS revision, and a copyright notice. Often this label was foil-backed to ensure
its opacity to UV.

50

Erasure of the EPROM begins to occur with wavelengths shorter than 400 nm. Exposure time
for sunlight of 1 week or 3 years for room fluorescent lighting may cause erasure. The
recommended erasure procedure is exposure to UV light at 253.7 nm of at least 15 Wsec/cm2 for 20 to 30 minutes, with the lamp at a distance of about 1 inch.
Erasure can also be accomplished with X-rays:
"Erasure, however, has to be accomplished by non-electrical methods, since the gate
electrode is not accessible electrically. Shining ultraviolet light on any part of an unpackaged
device causes a photocurrent to flow from the floating gate back to the silicon substrate,
thereby discharging the gate to its initial, uncharged condition. This method of erasure allows
complete testing and correction of a complex memory array before the package is finally
sealed. Once the package is sealed, information can still be erased by exposing it to X
radiation in excess of 5*104 rads, a dose which is easily attained with commercial X-ray
generators." (5*104 rad = 500 J/kg)
"In other words, to erase your EPROM, you would first have to X-ray it and then put it in an
oven at about 600 degrees Celsius (to anneal semiconductor alterations caused by the x-rays).
The effects of this process on the reliability of the part would have required extensive testing
so they decided on the window instead." (Any temperature between 450 - 1410 C should
work).
EPROMs had a limited but large number of erase cycles; the silicon dioxide around the gates
would accumulate damage from each cycle, making the chip unreliable after several thousand
cycles. EPROM programming is slow compared to other forms of memory. Because higherdensity parts have little exposed oxide between the layers of interconnects and gate,
ultraviolet erasing becomes less practical for very large memories. Even dust inside the
package can prevent some cells from being erased.

AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE STABILIZERS

Our automatic voltage controller are precisely designed & engineered to deliver higher output
to our clients. Used for different electrical applications, our automatic voltage stabilizers
ensure longer performance and they are built to provide effective solution to problems like

51

voltage fluctuations. The ruggedness in construct & heavy duty function meets the Indian
working environment.

Table 2.3.1 Specifications of Automatic Voltage Stabalizer

Input Voltage

380-440 Volts, 3-Phase 50Hz. AC supply

Output Voltage

Fixed Rated maximum DC voltage or variable from zero to

maximum rated voltage.

Output Current

Rated maximum DC current

Temperature Rise

Less than 35 C above ambient at the top of the oil.

Efficiency

12V Rect-82%
24V Rect-90%
100V Rect-94%
200V Rect- 96%
More than 250V
Rect-More than 97%

Maximum load current 108.69 amp

Capacity

75Kva
52

SMPS
A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or simply
switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator in order to be
highly efficient in the conversion of electrical power. Like other types of power supplies, an
SMPS transfers power from a source like the electrical power grid to a load (e.g., a personal
computer) while converting voltage and current characteristics. An SMPS is usually
employed to efficiently provide a regulated output voltage, typically at a level different from
the input voltage. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching mode
supply switches very quickly (typically between 50 kHz and 1 MHz) between full-on and
full-off states, which minimizes wasted energy. Voltage regulation is provided by varying the
ratio of on to off time. In contrast, a linear power supply must dissipate the excess voltage to
regulate the output. This higher efficiency is the chief advantage of a switched-mode power
supply.
Switching regulators are used as replacements for the linear regulators when higher
efficiency, smaller size or lighter weights are required. They are, however, more complicated,
their switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and
simple designs may have a poor power factor.

53

Figure 2.3.6 SMPS

A linear regulator provides the desired output voltage by dissipating excess power in ohmic
losses (e.g., in a resistor or in the collectoremitter region of a pass transistor in its active
mode). A linear regulator regulates either output voltage or current by dissipating the excess
electric power in the form of heat, and hence its maximum power efficiency is voltageout/voltage-in since the volt difference is wasted. In contrast, a switched-mode power supply
regulates either output voltage or current by switching ideal storage elements, like inductors
and capacitors, into and out of different electrical configurations. Ideal switching elements
(e.g., transistors operated outside of their active mode) have no resistance when "closed" and
carry no current when "open", and so the converters can theoretically operate with 100%
efficiency (i.e., all input power is delivered to the load; no power is wasted as dissipated
heat).

In an SMPS, the output current flow depends on the input power signal, the storage elements
and circuit topologies used, and also on the pattern used (e.g., pulse-width modulation with
an adjustable duty cycle) to drive the switching elements. Typically, the spectral density of
these switching waveforms has energy concentrated at relatively high frequencies. As such,
switching transients, like ripple, introduced onto the output waveforms can be filtered with
small LC filters.

INVERTER DRIVER
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current
(AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of
appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits.
Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from
small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct
current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC
power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
54

The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier.

`
Figure2.3.7 inverter driver

TYPES
MODIFIED SINE WAVE
The output of a modified sine wave inverter is similar to a square wave output except that
the output goes to zero volts for a time before switching positive or negative. It is simple and
low cost (~$0.10USD/Watt) and is compatible with most electronic devices, except for
sensitive or specialized equipment, for example certain laser printers, fluorescent lighting,
and audio equipment.
Most AC motors will run off this power source albeit at a reduction in efficiency of
approximately 20%.
PURE SINE WAVE
A pure sine wave inverter produces a nearly perfect sine wave output (<3% total harmonic
distortion) that is essentially the same as utility-supplied grid power. Thus it is compatible
with all AC electronic devices. This is the type used in grid-tie inverters. Its design is more
complex, and costs more per unit power. The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic
oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work
in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC.
GRID TIE INVERTER
A grid tie inverter is a sine wave inverter designed to inject electricity into the electric
power distribution system. Such inverters must synchronize with the frequency of the grid.
55

They usually contain one or more Maximum power point tracking features to extract the
maximum amount of power, and also include safety features.

MOTOR Inverter Driver

The ACS150 is an ABB component drive which is designs for machine building. Typical
applications include fans, pumps, gate control, materials handling and conveyor belts.

Figure 2.3.8 Motor Inverter Driver

Table 2.3.2 Features of the ACS150 drive range includes:

Features

Benefits

Notes

56

Flash Drop

faster and simpler drive New fast, safe and trouble free method
setup

and available without electricity. Patented

commissioning

Fixed interface

Simple

drive

with Integrated control panel with clear LCD

comfortable and robust display, backlight and buttons.

interface

Fixed

Intuitive speed setting

potentiometer

Integrated

Settings

shown on the control panel.

IN build EMC No need for external 2nd

filter

potentiometer.

filtering

environment

inbuilt

filter.

Complying with IEC 61800-3 as

standard.

IN build brake Reduced

cost,

saved 100% braking capability

chopper

space and simple writing

Flexible

Optimum

installation

efficient cabinet space side mounting.

usage

layout

and Screw, DIN rail, sideways and side by

Unified height and

depth

CAPACITOR
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component
used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). Capacitors are
used as parts of electrical systems, for example, and consist of metal foils separated by a layer
of insulating film.
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative
57

charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of
the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of
construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while
the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in
the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.

FELSIC- 039
Manufactured by SIC SAFCO CAPACITIOR 450VDC 2000UF
Weight: 1.81 lbs.

RADIX SENSOR
Radix is a leading Indian company manufacturing instruments as well as sensors. It was
established in 1980.Our thermocouples are exported to leading OEMs in USA and Germany.
Our instruments are private labelled in USA and widely used in India. Radix manufacturer
the most complex thermocouples, RTDs and accessories to customer's specifications. Try us.
Radix has an in-house R & D centre with expertise in product & pcb design, microcontroller
software, specialised sensors design, smps design etc. Our World beaters-head-mounted
temperature transmitter TX1 HM, digital DIN Rail Timer T25, programmable loop powered
led indicator PLD40- speak for our technology.
58

Figure 2.3.9 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RADIX SENSOR

THREE PHASE RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube
diodes, mercury arc valves, solid-state diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other siliconbased semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches
and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker"
of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier
or "crystal detector".
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies
and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles
other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as
rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of flame.

The simple process of rectification produces a type of DC characterized by pulsating voltages

and currents (although still unidirectional). Depending upon the type of end-use, this type of
DC current may then be further modified into the type of relatively constant voltage DC
characteristically produced by such sources as batteries and solar cells. A device which
performs the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as an inverter.

59

Three Phase Bridge Rectifier (DF200A1600)

Model NO.: DF200A1600
Standard: ISO9001 CE
Productivity: 10000PCS/Month Shipment
Terms: by Air or Sea
Trademark: WORWO/Saishemok
Origin: China Mainland Export
Markets: North America, South America, Eastern Europe,
Southeast Asia, Oceania, Eastern Asia, Western Europe

Chapter 3
3.1 ELECTRICAL SUB STATION AT OCM
An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of electricity generation transmission and
distribution system where voltage is transformed from high to low or low to high using
transformer

Extreme care while designing and building a substation.

Power transformer.
Local network for Connection point.
Switchyard Bus bars, circuit breakers, disconnections.
Measuring point for control centre Potential and current transformers.
Fuses and other protection device.
60

Figure 3.1.1 Electrical substation at OCM

Classification of substations:
There are the two most important ways of classifying a substation.
1. Production requirement
2. Constructional features
According to Production requirement:
A substation may be called upon to change voltage level or improve power
factor

or

requirement

convert ac power

into

dc

power

11kV substation is transformer

etc.

According

substation.

In

this

to

service

substations

using power transformer changes voltage level of electric supply.

According to constructional features:
A substation

has

many

components

(e.g.

Circuit

breaker, switches, fuses,

instrument etc.) Which must be housed properly to ensure continuous and

reliable service. According to constructional features the substation is outdoor type
Substation.
11/ 440 kV Substation Arrangement
The arrangement of substations can be done in many ways.
However the main sectors of arranging the substations are At load center: Where

voltage is

getting down 11kV

transformer and this is near to be load center.

Substation Layout
61

to 400 volts using

a) Principle of Substation Layouts

Substation layout consists essentially in arranging a number of switch gear
components in an ordered pattern governed by their function and rules of spatial
separation.
b) Spatial Separation
i.

Earth Clearance:

This is

the

clearance between

live parts

and earthed

structures, walls, screens and ground.

ii. Phase Clearance: This is the clearance between live parts of different phases.
iii. Isolating Distance: This is the clearance between the terminals of an isolator and the
connections.
iv. Section Clearance: This is the clearance between live parts and the terminals of a work
section. The limits of this work section, or maintenance zone, may be the ground or a
platform from which the man works
c) Separation of maintenance zones:
Two methods are available for separating equipment in a maintenance zone
that has been isolated and made dead.
i. The provision of a section clearance
ii. Use of an intervening earthed barrier
The choice between

the

two methods

depends

on

the

voltage and whether

horizontal or vertical clearances are involved.

Functions of a Substation
1 Supply of required electrical power.
2 Maximum possible coverage o f the supply network.
3 Maximum security of supply.
4 Shortest possible fault-duration.
5 Optimum efficiency of plants and the network.
6 Supply of electrical power within targeted frequency limits (49.5 Hz and50.5 Hz).
7 Supply of electrical power within specified voltage limits.
62

8 Supply of electrical energy to the consumers at the lowest cost.

ELEMENTS OF SUBSTATION
Substations have one or more transformers, switching and control equipment.
In a substation, circuits breakers are used to interrupt any short-circuit or overload
currents that may occur on the network.
generators,

although

power

plant

Substations

may

have

do

not

a substation

usually

have

nearby. Other

devices such as power factor correction capacitors, synchronizer and voltage

regulators may also be located at a substation.
The main equipments of a substation are shown:
TRANSFORMER
1. 7MVA 33/11Kv Main Transformer,
2. Lightning arrestor
3. Isolator and Earth switches
4. Current Transformer
5. Potential Transformer
6. Duplicate type bus bar
7. Insulators
8. LT Switchgear 5000Amps, 4000Amps,3000Amps,2000Amps.

Faradays law of induction, which states that:

The induced electromotive force (EMF) in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of
change of the magnetic flux through the circuit.
Or alternatively:
The EMF generated is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux whereas Vs
is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary
coil and equals the magnetic flux through one turn

of the coil. If the

turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the
flux is the product of the magnetic flux
63

density B and the area A through

which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the
transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to
the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux
both

the primary and

passes through

secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous

voltage across the primary winding equals. Electrical power is transmitted from the
primary circuit to the secondary circuit. The transformer is perfectly efficient; all
the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic
field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming
electric power must equal the outgoing power. Transformers

normally have high

efficiency more than 95%, so this formula is a reasonable approximation. If

the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The
Impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio.
Transformer EMF equation
If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between
its rms voltage Erm of the winding , and the supply frequency f, number of turns N,
core cross-sectional area a and peak magnetic flux density B If the flux does not
contain even harmonics the following equation can be used for half-cycle
average voltage E of any wave shape.

Insulators
The insulator serves two purpose. They support the conductor (or bus bar )
and confine the current to the conductor. The most commonly used material for the
manufactures of insulators is porcelain. There are several type of insulator (i.e. pine
type, suspension type etc.) and there used in Sub-Station will depend upon the service
requirement.
Earth System :
Why ground?
Poor grounding not only contributes to unnecessary downtime, but a lack of
good

grounding

is also

dangerous

and

increases

the

risk

of

equipment

failure. Without an effective grounding system ,we could be exposed to the risk
64

of electric shock , not to mention instrumentation errors ,harmonic distortion issues,

power factor problems and a host of possible intermittent dilemmas.
If fault currents have no path to the ground through a properly designed and
maintained

grounding

system,

they

will

find unintended

paths

that

could

include people .The following organizations have recommendations and/or standards

for grounding to ensure safety:
OSHA (Occupational Safety Health Administration)
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association)
ANSI/ISA (American National Standards Institute and Instrument Society of America)
TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association)
IEC (International Electro-technical Commission)
CENELEC (European Committee for Electro-technical Standardization)
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
However, good grounding isnt only for safety; it is also used to prevent
damage to industrial plants and equipment. A good grounding system will
improve the reliability of equipment and reduce the likelihood of damage due
to lightning or fault currents .Billions are lost each year in the workplace due to
electrical fires. This does not account for related litigation costs and loss of personal
and corporate productivity.

Why test grounding systems?

Over time, corrosive soils with high moisture content, high salt content,
and high

temperatures can

degrade

ground

rods

and

their

connections. So

although the ground system when initially installed, had low earth ground
resistance values, the resistance of the grounding system can increase if the
ground rods are eaten away. With frustrating, intermittent electrical problems, the
problem could be related to poor grounding or poor power quality .That is
why

it

is

highly recommended that

all grounds

and

ground

connections are

checked at least annually as a part of your normal Predictive Maintenance plan.

During these periodic checks, if an

increase in resistance of more than 20

% is measured, the technician should investigate the source of the problem,

65

and make the correction to lower the resistance, by replacing or adding ground rods
to the ground system.
What is a ground and what does it do?
The NEC,

National

Electrical

Code,

Article

conducting connection, whether intentional

or

100

defines

accidental

ground

between

an

as:

electrical

circuit or equipment and the earth, or to some conducting body that serves in
place of the earth. When talking about grounding, it is actually two different
subjects:

earth grounding

and

equipment

grounding. Earth

grounding is

an

intentional connection from a circuit conductor, usually the neutral, to a ground

electrode

placed in

equipment

within

the
a

earth.

Equipment

grounding

ensures

structure

is properly

grounded.

These

that
two

operating
grounding

systems are required to be kept separate except for a connection between

the

two systems. This prevents differences in voltage potential from a possible

flashover

from

lightning

strikes.

The

purpose

of

ground

besides

the

protection of people, plants and equipment is to provide a safe path for the
dissipation of fault currents, lightning strikes, static discharges, EMI and RFI signals
and interference.
Components of a ground electrode
Ground conductor
Connection between the ground conductor and the ground electrode
Ground electrode
Length/depth of the ground electrode
One very effective way of lowering ground resistance is to drive ground
electrodes

deeper.

Soil is not consistent in its resistivity and can be highly

unpredictable. It is critical when installing the ground electrode, that it is below the
frost line.

This

is done

so that the resistance to

ground will not

be

greatly

influenced by the freezing of the surrounding soil. Generally, by doubling

the length of the ground electrode you can reduce the resistance level by an
addition a l0 %. There are occasions where it is physically impossible to
drive ground rods deeperareas that are composed of rock, granite, etc. In
these instances, alternative methods including grounding cement are viable.
Diameter of the ground electrode
66

Increasing the diameter of the ground electrode has very little effect in
lowering the resistance. For example, you could double the diameter of a
ground electrode and your resistance would only decrease by 10 %.
Number of ground electrodes
Each ground electrode has its own sphere of influence. Another way to lower ground
resistance is to use multiple ground electrodes. In this design, more than one electrode is
driven into the ground and connected in parallel to lower the resistance. For additional
electrodes to be effective, the spacing of additional rods need to be at least equal to the
depth of the driven rod. Without proper spacing of the ground electrodes,
their spheres of influence will intersect and the resistance will not be lowered. To
assist you in installing a that will meet your specific resistance requirements, you
can use the table of ground resistances, below. Remember, this is to only
be

used

as

rule

of

thumb,

because

soil

is

in

layers

and

is rarely

homogenous. The resistance values will vary greatly.

Ground system design
Simple grounding systems consist of a single ground electrode driven into the ground. The
use of a single ground electrode is the most common form of grounding and
can be found outside your home or place of business. Complex grounding
systems consist of multiple ground rods, connected, mesh or grid networks,
ground plates, and ground loops. These systems are typically installed at power
generating substations,

central

offices, and cell

dramatically increase the amount of

tower sites. Complex networks

contact with the surrounding earth and

lower ground resistances.

How do I measure soil resistance?
To test soil resistivity, connect the ground tester as . As you can see, four
earth ground stakes are positioned in the soil in a straight line, equidistant
from one another. The distance between earth ground stakes should be at least
three times greater than the stake depth. So if the depth of each ground
stake is one foot (.30meters), make sure the distance between stakes is greater
than three feet (.91 meters). The Fluke 1625 generates a known current through the
two outer ground stakes and the drop in voltage potential is measured between
the two inner Ground stakes. Using Ohms Law (V=IR), the Fluke tester
automatically calculates the soil resistance. Because measurement results are
often

distorter

and

invalidated

by

underground pieces of metal, underground

67

aquifers, etc. additional measurements where the stakes axis are turned 90 degrees is
always recommended. By changing the depth and distance several times, a profile is
produced that can determine a suitable ground resistance system. Soil resistivity
measurements are often corrupted by the existence of ground currents and
their harmonics. To prevent this from occurring, the Fluke 1625 uses an
Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) System. This automatically selects the
testing frequency with the least amount of noise enabling you to get a clear reading.
Operation of Sub-station:
At many places in the line of the power system,
and

it may be desirable

necessary to change some characteristic (voltage, frequency, power factor

etc.) of electric supply. This is accomplished by suitable apparatus called substation. The sub-station operation explained as under:
1) The 3-phase, 3-wire 11kV line is tapped and brought to th e gang
operating switch installed near the sub-station. The G.O. switch consists of
isolators connected in

each phase of the 3-phase line.

2) From the G.O. switch, the 11kV line is brought to the indoor sub-station
as underground cable. It is fed to the H.T. side of the transformer (11kV/400V) via
the 11kV O.C.B. The transformer steps down the voltage to 400V, 3- phase, 4 wire.
3) The secondary of transformer supplies to the bus-bars via the main O.C.B. From
the bus- bars

400V,

phase,

4-wire

supply

is

given

to

the

various

consumers via 400V O.C.B. The voltage between any phase and neutral it is 230V.
The single phase residential load is connected between any one phase and neutral
whereas 3-phase, 400V motor load is connected across 3 -phase lines directly.
4) The CTs are located at suitable place in the sub-station circuit and
supply for the metering and indicating instruments and relay circuits.
Maintenance and Trouble shutting
1 Symmetrical Fault The symmetrical fault rarely The symmetrical fault is the
occurs in practice as most severe and imposes more majority of the fault are
of

heavy

duty

on

the

circuit unsymmetrical nature breaker. The

reader to

understand the problems that short circuit conditions present to the power system.
2 Single line to ground Any line with short to the Separate to the line from short
fault.ground fault.circuit to solve the problem.
68

3 Line to line fault. One line with another line toSeparate to the line from short
short.circuit for solving the problem.Insulation problem.
4 Double line to ground Two line with short to the

Separate to the line

from short fault.

5

Arc phenomenon

When

short-short

circuit Arc

resistance

is

made

to

occurs, a heavy current increase with time so that flows the contacts of the
current is reduced to a value circuit breaker. Insufficient to maintain the arc.
The ionized particles between the contacts tend to maintain the arc.
6 Transformer open circuit An open circuit in one phase Open phase connect with
to fault. of a 3-phase transformer circuit may cause undesirable heating.
Relay protection is not provided against open circuits
On the occurrence of such a because this condition is fault, the transformer can
be relatively harmless. disconnected manually from the system.
7

Transformer

fault.transformer

overheating Over heating

is

usually not

of The relay

provide against

protection

this caused

by

is

also

sustained

contingency and thermal overloads or short-circuit accessories are generally used

and very

occasionally by the to

sound

an

alarm

or

control failure

of

the

cooling the bank of fans.

system.
8 Transformer Winding short-circuit (also The transformer must be short circuit
fault. called internal faults) on the

disconnected quickly from the

transformer arise from system because a prolonged deterioration of winding arc

in the transformer may insulation due to cause oil fire.
9 Lightning for over voltage The surges due to internal
internal

causes fault. causes

hardly

increase

the

are

Surges due to
taken care

of

by

providing
system voltage to twice the

proper insulation to the normal value. equipment

in the power system. A lightning arrester

is a protective device which conducts

the high voltage surges on the power system to the ground.

10 Low voltage Supply voltage is low. Transformer tap changing turn to move
after solved the problem.
SWITCHGEAR
The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or
grid, refers to the electrical equipments like isolators, fuses, circuit breakers
69

which

intended

collectively

as

transmission,

to

connect

and disconnect

switchgear. Switchgear

distribution

and

is

conversion

power

used
of

in

circuits

are

connect with

electric

power

known

generation,

for

controlling,

metering protecting and regulating devices. A basic function of switchgear

power

systems

is protection

while

simultaneously

of

providing

short

circuits

and

service continuously

overload
to

fault

currents

unaffected

circuits

while avoiding the creation of an electrical hazard. Switchgear power systems

also

provide

important

isolation

of

various

circuits

from

different power

supplies for safety issues. There are many different types and classifications of
switchgear power systems to meet a variety of different needs.Switchgear power
systems can vary, depending on several factors, such as power need, location of
system and necessary security. Therefore, there are several different types of
switchgear power systems and each has their own unique characteristics to
meet the specific needs of the system and its location.
Switchgear instruments of Factory
Factory has low voltage (up to 380 volt) and medium voltages (up to
400V) switch gear. It is indoor type and switch gear instruments are:
1)

Circuit

breaker

Miniature

circuit

breaker,

Vacuum

circuit

breaker,

molded case circuit breaker.

2) Relay Distance Relay, Over current and Earth fault relay, Under/Over
voltage relay, Trip circuit supervision relay, Differential protection relay, Static relay
3) Current transformer (C T)
4) Potential transformer (PT)
5)

Fuse

6)

Lightning arrestor

7) Isolator and Earth switches

8) Magnetic conductor
Lightning Arrestor
A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems to protect the
insulation

on the system

from the damaging effect

of lightning. Metal

oxide

varistors (MOVs) have been used for power system protection since the mid 1970s. The
typical lightning arrester also known as surge arrester has a high voltage terminal
and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge or switching surge travels down the
power system to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted around
70

the protected insulation in most cases to earth.

Isolators and earth switches :
Isolator is a no-load switch designed as a knife switch to operate under
no-load conditions therefore the isolator o pens only after the opening after
the

circuit

breaker.

breaker.
Isolator

disconnected.

While
is

also

closing, isolator
called

as

closes

first

disconnecting

and
switch

then

circuit

or simply

It is interlock with circuit breaker such that wrong operation is avoided.

Its main purpose is to isolate one portion o f the circuit from the other
and is not intended to be opened while current is flowing in the line.
Such switches are generally used on both sides of circuit breakers in order that
repairs and replacement of circuit breakers can be made without any danger. During the
opening operation the conducting rods swing apart and isolation is obtained.
The

simultaneous

operation

of

three

poles

is

obtained

by

mechanical

interlocking of the three poles. Further, for all the three poles, there is a
common operating mechanism.
The operating mechanism is manual plus one of the following:
Electrical motor mechanism
Pneumatic Mechanism.
They should never be opened until the circuit breaker in the same circuit
has been opened and should always be closed before the circuit breaker is
closed. . MPS has 3 pole isolators have three identical poles. Each pole consists
of three insulator posts mounted on a fabricated support.
The conducting parts are supported on the insulator posts. The conducting
parts

consist

of conducting copper or aluminum rod, fixed and moving contacts.

Isolators installed in the outdoor yard can be operated controlled manually or

electrically on electrical mode both local / remote operations is possible.

All

circuit breakers can be operated / controlled in electrical mode either local /

remote position. The remote control / monitoring of all isolators and circuit
breakers is done with the help of a set of control and metering panels Earth Switch is
connected between the line conductor and earth.

Normally it is open and

it is closed to discharge the voltage trapped on the isolated or disconnected

line.

When the line is disconnected from the supply end, there is some

voltage on the line to which the capacitance between the line

71

and earth is

charged.

This

voltage

is

significant

in

HV

systems .

Before commen

cement o f maintenance work it is necessary that these voltages are discharged to

earth by closing the earth switch.

Normally the earth switches are mounted

on the frame of the isolator

Classification of Circuit Breaker
According to the voltage level circuit breaker are classified into three categories, such as
1. Low Voltage Circuit Breaker( Up to 619 volt)
2. Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker(Up to 11kV)
3. High Voltage Circuit Breaker(Up to 145kV )
Low Voltage Circuit Breaker
1. Molded

Case

Circuit

Breaker

(MCCB):

Molded

case

circuit

breaker

operation as like as thermal or thermal-magnetic operation and rated current

start from100A. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings. The molded
case circuit breaker (MCCB) co mprises the following features:
A contact system with arc-quenching and current-limiting means
A mechanism to open and close the contacts
Auxiliaries which provide additional means of protection and indication of
the switch positions

Molded Case Circuit Breaker

The MCCB may be used as an incoming device, but it is more generally
used as an outgoing device on the load side of a switchboard. It is normally
mounted into a low-voltage switchboard
or a purpose-design ed panel board. In addition to the three features listed
at the start of this section, it also includes:

72

 An

electronic

or

thermal/electromagnetic

trip

sensing

system

to

operate

through the tripping mechanism and open the circuit breaker under overload or fault
conditions
All parts housed within a plastic molded housing made in two halves
Current ratings usually from 10A to 1600A.
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):
more
circuit

Miniature circuit breakers rated current not

than 100A. Trip characteristics

breaker

(MCB)

has

normally

not

adjustable.

contact system and means

The

of arc

miniature

quenching, a

mechanism and tripping and protection system to open the

circuit breaker under fault conditions.. Early devices were generally of the
zero-cutting type, and during a short circuit the current had to pass through a zero
before the arc was extinguished;
this provided a short-circuit breaking capacity of about 3kA. Most of these
early MCBs were
housed in Bakelite moldings. The modern MC B is a much smaller and
more sophisticated device. All the recent developments associated with molded
case

circuit

breakers

have

been incorporated

into MCBs

to

improve their

performance, and with breaking capacities of 10 kA to

16 kA now available, MCBs are used in all areas of commerce and industry
as a reliable means of protection. Most MCBs are of single-pole construction for use in
single-phase circuits.

Miniature circuit Breaker

73

Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers

Medium-voltage

circuit

assemble

metal- enclosed switchgear

into

breakers

rated

between
line

619
ups

Voltage

and

for indoor

11

kV

use in MPS

substation. Medium voltage circuit breakers

are

also

current

operated

by

current

sensing

transformers. Medium-voltage

protective

circuit

relays

breakers

operated

nearly

through

always

use

separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal
or magnetic over current sensors.
Vacuum circuit breaker:

Vacuum circuit breaker with rated current up to

3000 A, these breakers interrupts the current by creating and extinguishing

the arc in a vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages up to
about 35,000 V but PS use vacuum circuit breaker
for 11KV which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of power
systems.

Vacuum circuit

breakers

tend

to

have

longer

life

expectancies

between overhaul than do air circuit breakers. Vacuum circuit breakers tend
to have longer life expectancies between overhaul th an do air circuit breakers.
In

vacuum

circuit

breaker, two

electrical

contacts

are

enclosed

in

vacuum. One of the contacts is fixed, and one of the contacts is movable.
When the circuit breaker detects a dangerous situation, the movable contact
pulls

away

from

the

fixed

contact,

interrupting

the current.

Because

the

contacts are in a vacuum, arcing between the contacts is suppressed,

ensuring that the circuit remains open. As long as the circuit is open, it
will not be energized.
Vacuum recluses will automatically reset when conditions are safe again, closing
the circuit and
allowing electricity to flow through it. Re-closers can

usually go

through

several cycles before they will need to be manually reset

Vacuum

interrupters,

mounted

vertically

within

the

circuit

breaker

frame,

perform the circuit breaker interruption. Consisting of a pair of butt contacts,

one movable and one fixed, interrupters require only a short contact gap for
circuit interruption. The resulting high-speed operation allows the entire operating
sequence, from fault to clear, to be consistently performed in three cycles or less.
The

primary

connection

to

the

associated

primary disconnects
74

switchgear

is

through

the

six

mounted horizontally at the rear of the circuit breaker. Do not subject the primary
disconnects

to rough

treatment.

The operating

mechanism

is

of

the stored

energy type. It uses charged springs to perform breaker opening and closing
functions. The operating mechanism contains all necessary controls and interlocks.
It is mounted at the front of the circuit breaker for easy access
during inspection and maintenance.
Specification of Vacuum circuit breaker:
Rated frequency-50 -60Hz
Rated making Current-10 Peak kA
Rated Voltage-11kV
Supply Voltage Closing-220 V/DC
Rated Current-1250 A
Supply Voltage Tripping-220 V/DC
Insulation Lev el-IMP 75 kVP
Rated Short Time Current-40 kA (3 SEC)
High-voltage circuit breakers
Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled b y highvoltage breakers.
The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is
usually thought to be
72.5 kV or higher. In MPS used SF6 circuit breaker for high voltage in sub station .Highvoltage
breakers are always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays
operated

through current

transformers.

In

substations

the

protective

relay

scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and busses from various types of
overload or ground/earth fault.
FUSES:
A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current
flows

through it for sufficient time. It is inserted in series with the

circuit to be protected. Under normal operating conditions the fuse element

it at a temperature below its melting point. Therefore, it carries the normal
load current without overheating. However when a short circuit or overload
occurs, the current through the fuse element increases beyond its rated capacity.
This raises the temperature and the

fuse
75

element

melts

(or

blows

out),

disconnecting the circuit protected by Init. electronics and electrical engineering

a fuse (short for fusible link) is a type of sacrificial over current protection
device. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current
flows, which
interrupts the circuit in which it is connected. Short circuit, overload or
device failure is often the reason for excessive current.
Fuse Ratings:
Ampere Rating
Each fuse has a specific ampere rating, which is its continuous currentcarrying capability. There are different types of fuse used in MPS, rating start from 2A.
Voltage Rating The voltage rating of a f use must be at least equal to the circuit
voltage. The voltage rating of a fuse can be higher than the circuit voltage, but
never lower. A 500 volt fuse, for example, could be used in a 450 volt circuit, but a 350
volt fuse could not be used in a 500 volt circuit.
Manual Change over Switch
The Manual change over switch is wired into your Electrical Distribution Board in
your home or office allowing it to power particular appliances in your home
or office by providing power to specific circuits.
The manual change over switch can be used with the remote start button. The Generator
does however need time to get up to speed before the Manual Change
Over Switch can be placed on Generator. The recommended time for this is 5
Seconds. Hence when used in conjunction with

a remote start button, the generator

should be started whilst the Manual Change over Switch is in the Off position.
Once started and run for the recommended time the
switch can be moved to Generator providing power to the relative circuits which
the

generator has been wired up to provide power to.The

Following

are

the

respective Model numbers associated with the Manual change over switches
and their capability of single or three phase power. The key on the generator
has to be in the ON position for the manual change over switch to work.
The manual change over switch does not charge the battery so should the key
be left in the on position the battery will go flat, if
the generator is not used on a regular basis.

76

Departmental use of Machines

77

Grev
Fibres
Gilling
Spinning
Scouring
Dyeing
Drying
Weaving
Mending
Finishing
Inspection
Cutting
Packing
Dispatchin
g

78

3.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

SPINNING:
In new spinning section gilling, combing, post combing gilling, drawing, roving and gilling
and steaming is done.

G ILLING:
Doubling, drafting, evenness, entanglement is removed up to some extent.

COMBING:
Remove short fibres entanglement, neaps are removed.

POST COMBING GILLING:

It manages wt/unit length.

DRAWING:
This process draws twists and winds the stock, making the salivers more impact and thinning
them into slubbers.

ROVING:
It is actually a light twisting operation to hold the thin slubbers intact. The final stage before
spinning.

STEAMING:
It is to set the twist.

79

AUTO-CONNING MACHINE

In it the yarns in smaller cones are converted into larger cones. The capacity of the machine
in it can convert 360 small size cones into 60 large size cones.

POST SPINNING
The sequence of process in the post spinning department is as follows:
Assembly winding
Two for one twister
Autoclave
Conditioning
Winding

MACHINES ARE:

a) Precombing gill box GC-14

b)Comber PB-31
c) Post combing gill box GC-14
d)Autoleveler GC-14
ZENSER 421 is mainly used for spinning and AUTOCORNER 238 is used for winding

DYEING
80

Three types of dyeing done are:1) Top dyeing

2) Yarn dyeing
3) Fabric dyeing
The machine used for top and yarn dyeing are HTHP (High Temperature High Pressure) and
for fabric dyeing there are 2 jet dyeing machine. Dyes are mainly bayed from ciba a
Switzerland company and tops are buyed from australia.AC motors are used for all the
machine used for dyeing. Dyes used for polyester disperse

The sequence of processes while dying

in HTHP machine
Loading
Water intake
Rise in temperature
Addition of chemical
Holding
Addition of colors
Colors transferred to main vat
Rise in temperature
Holding
Checking
Rise in temperature
Washing
Rinsing
Addition of antistatic agent
Unfolding

WEAVING
There are two sections:
81

a) Preparation section
b) Loom shed
A) Preparation section:
Yarn reed from spinning with piece ticket
Warping
Drafting or twisting
Dropping
B) Loom shed:
Beam gaiting
Quality checking
Weaving
Grey checking
Preparatory section
Warping machine = 5(benninger)
Twisting machine =2
Loom shed
Dornier = 110m/c =280rpm = rapier loom
Sulzer = 16m/c = 300rpm = projectile loom
Picanol =32 m/c =400rpm = rapier loom (computerized)
HTVS= 04m/c= 400rpm = rapier loom (computerized)

FINISHING

The process of sequence for finishing is:Greasy perch inspection

82

Mending
Greasy folding
Send to finishing
Scouring
Milling
Hydro extractor
Drying
Semi finishing
Shearing
Pressing
Kier decatising
Final finishing

There are various types of machines which perform all these process.
There is paper press machine, k-d machine, Conti blow machine, super
finish machine, vaporizing machine, rotatory machine, back purch
machine, hammer washing, etc.

In mat and rotor mat

machine dc motor drives are used.

INSPECTION
Received civil export material from finishing
For back side perching
83

Conti blow or super finishing

Face side perching

Table measurement and cutting

Weighing

Double folding rolling, zig zag ,back folding

Stamping wrapping

Voucher making book entry

Ware house

DEFECTS FOUND IN CLOTH

Broken color end

Tight end
84

Loose end
Wrong twisting
Wrong draft
Temple cut, temple mark, temple abrasion
Reed mark
Missing pick
Double pick
Double missing pick
Pick variation

3.3 INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

Industrial control system (ICS) is a general term that encompasses several types of control
systems, including supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, and other
control system configurations such as skid-mounted Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)
often found in the industrial sectors and critical infrastructures. ICS are typically used in
industries such as electrical, electronics etc. These control systems are critical to the operation
85

of the infrastructures that are often highly interconnected and mutually dependent systems. It
is important to note that approximately 90 percent of the nation's critical infrastructures are
privately owned and operated. This section provides an overview of SCADA and PLC
systems, including typical architectures and components. Several diagrams are presented to
depict the network connections and components typically found on each system to facilitate
the understanding of these systems.

Overview of SCADA and PLCs

SCADA systems are highly distributed systems used to control geographically dispersed
assets, often scattered over thousands of square kilometers, where centralized data acquisition
and control are critical to system operation. They are used in distribution systems such as
electrical power grids. A SCADA control center performs centralized monitoring and control
for field sites over long-distance communications networks, including monitoring alarms and
processing status data. Based on information received from remote stations, automated or
operator-driven supervisory commands can be pushed to remote station control devices,
which are often referred to as field devices. Field devices control local operations such as
opening and closing valves and breakers, collecting data from sensor systems, and monitoring
the local environment for alarm conditions.
PLCs are computer-based solid-state devices that control industrial equipment and processes.
While PLCs are control system components used throughout SCADA and DCS systems, they
are often the primary components in smaller control system configurations used to provide
operational control of discrete processes such as automobile assembly lines and power plant
soot blower controls. PLCs are used extensively in almost all industrial processes.

ICS Operation
Key components include the following:
1

Control Loop:

A control loop consists of sensors for measurement, controller

hardware such as PLCs, actuators such as control valves, breakers, switches and
motors, and the communication of variables. Controlled variables are transmitted to
the controller from the sensors. The controller interprets the signals and generates
86

corresponding manipulated variables, based on set points, which it transmits to the

actuators. Process changes from disturbances result in new sensor signals, identifying
the state of the process, to again be transmitted to the controller.
2

Human-Machine Interface (HMI): Operators and engineers use HMIs to monitor

and configure set points, control algorithms, and adjust and establish parameters in the
controller. The HMI also displays process status information and historical
information.

Remote Diagnostics and Maintenance Utilities: Diagnostics and maintenance

utilities are used to prevent, identify and recover from abnormal operation or failures.

A typical ICS contains a proliferation of control loops, HMIs, and remote diagnostics and
maintenance tools built using an array of network protocols on layered network architectures.
Sometimes these control loops are nested and/or cascading whereby the set point for one
loop is based on the process variable determined by another loop. Supervisory-level loops
and lower-level loops operate continuously over the duration of a process with cycle times
ranging on the order of milliseconds to minutes.

87

Figure 3.3.1 ICS Operation

Key ICS Components

To support subsequent discussions, this section defines key ICS components that are used in
control and networking. Some of these components can be described generically for use in
SCADA system and PLCs, while others are unique to one.
Control Components
The following is a list of the major control components of an ICS:
1

Control Server. The control server hosts the PLC supervisory control software that
communicates with lower-level control devices. The control server accesses
subordinate control modules over an ICS network.

SCADA Server or Master Terminal Unit (MTU). The SCADA Server is the device
that acts as the master in a SCADA system. Remote terminal units and PLC devices
(as described below) located at remote field sites usually act as slaves.

Remote Terminal Unit (RTU). The RTU, also called a remote telemetry unit, is a
special purpose data acquisition and control unit designed to support SCADA remote
stations. RTUs are field devices often equipped with wireless radio interfaces to
support remote situations where wire-based communications are unavailable.
Sometimes PLCs are implemented as field devices to serve as RTUs; in this case, the
PLC is often referred to as an RTU.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). The PLC is a small industrial computer

originally designed to perform the logic functions executed by electrical hardware
(relays, switches, and mechanical timer/counters). PLCs have evolved into controllers
with the capability of controlling complex processes, and they are used substantially
in SCADA systems. Other controllers used at the field level are process controllers
and RTUs; they provide the same control as PLCs but are designed for specific
control applications. In SCADA environments, PLCs are often used as field devices
because they are more economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than specialpurpose RTUs.

Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED). An IED is a smart sensor/actuator containing

the intelligence required to acquire data, communicate to other devices, and perform
88

local processing and control. An IED could combine an analog input sensor, analog
output, low-level control capabilities, a communication system, and program memory
in one device. The use of IEDs in SCADA and DCS systems allows for automatic
control at the local level.
6

Human-Machine Interface (HMI). The HMI is software and hardware that allows
human operators to monitor the state of a process under control, modify control
settings to change the control objective, and manually override automatic control
operations in the event of an emergency. The HMI also allows a control engineer or
operator to configure set points or control algorithms and parameters in the controller.
The HMI also displays process status information, historical information, reports, and
other information to operators, administrators, managers, business partners, and other
authorized users. The location, platform, and interface may vary a great deal. For
example, an HMI could be a dedicated platform in the control center, a laptop on a
wireless LAN, or a browser on any system connected to the Internet.

Data Historian. The data historian is a centralized database for logging all process
information within an ICS. Information stored in this database can be accessed to
support various analyses, from statistical process control to enterprise level planning.

8
9

Input/Output (IO) Server. The IO server is a control component responsible for

collecting, buffering and providing access to process information from control subcomponents such as PLCs, RTUs and IEDs. An IO server can reside on the control
server or on a separate computer platform. IO servers are also used for interfacing
third-party control components, such as an HMI and a control server.

Network Components
There are different network characteristics for each layer within a control system hierarchy.
Network topologies across different ICS implementations vary with modern systems using
Internet-based IT and enterprise integration strategies. Control networks have merged with
corporate networks to allow control engineers to monitor and control systems from outside of
the control system network. The connection may also allow enterprise-level decision-makers
to obtain access to process data. The following is a list of the major components of an ICS
network, regardless of the network topologies in use:
89

Fieldbus Network: The fieldbus network links sensors and other devices to a PLC or
other controller. Use of fieldbus technologies eliminates the need for point-to-point
wiring between the controller and each device. The devices communicate with the
fieldbus controller using a variety of protocols. The messages sent between the
sensors and the controller uniquely identify each of the sensors.

Control Network: The control network connects the supervisory control level to
lower-level control modules.

Communications Routers: A router is a communications device that transfers

messages between two networks. Common uses for routers include connecting a LAN
to a WAN, and connecting MTUs and RTUs to a long-distance network medium for
SCADA communication.

Firewall: A firewall protects devices on a network by monitoring and controlling

communication packets using predefined filtering policies. Firewalls are also useful in
managing ICS network segregation strategies.

Modems: A modem is a device used to convert between serial digital data and a
signal suitable for transmission over a telephone line to allow devices to
communicate. Modems are often used in SCADA systems to enable long-distance
serial communications between MTUs and remote field devices. They are also used in
SCADA systems, DCS and PLCs for gaining remote access for operational and
maintenance functions such as entering commands or modifying parameters, and
diagnostic purposes.

Remote Access Points. Remote access points are distinct devices, areas and locations
of a control network for remotely configuring control systems and accessing process
data. Examples include using a personal digital assistant (PDA) to access data over a
LAN through a wireless access point, and using a laptop and modem connection to
remotely access an ICS system.

3.3.1 SCADA Systems

SCADA systems are used to control dispersed assets where centralized data acquisition is as
important as control. These systems are used in distribution systems such as electrical utility
transmission and distribution systems, and rail and other public transportation systems.
SCADA systems integrate data acquisition systems with data transmission systems and HMI
90

software to provide a centralized monitoring and control system for numerous process inputs
and outputs. SCADA systems are designed to collect field information, transfer it to a central
computer facility, and display the information to the operator graphically or textually, thereby
allowing the operator to monitor or control an entire system from a central location in real
time. Based on the sophistication and setup of the individual system, control of any individual
system, operation, or task can be automatic, or it can be performed by operator commands.
SCADA systems consist of both hardware and software. Typical hardware includes an MTU
placed at a control center, communications equipment (e.g., radio, telephone line, cable, or
satellite), and one or more geographically distributed field sites consisting of either an RTU
or a PLC, which controls actuators and/or monitors sensors. The MTU stores and processes
the information from RTU inputs and outputs, while the RTU or PLC controls the local
process. The communications hardware allows the transfer of information and data back and
forth between the MTU and the RTUs or PLCs. The software is programmed to tell the
system what and when to monitor, what parameter ranges are acceptable, and what response
to initiate when parameters change outside acceptable values. An IED, such as a protective
relay, may communicate directly to the SCADA Server, or a local RTU may poll the IEDs to
collect the data and pass it to the SCADA Server. IEDs provide a direct interface to control
and monitor equipment and sensors. IEDs may be directly polled and controlled by the
SCADA Server and in most cases have local programming that allows for the IED to act
without direct instructions from the SCADA control center. SCADA systems are usually
designed to be fault-tolerant systems with significant redundancy built into the system
architecture.
Figure 3.3.1.1. shows the components and general configuration of a SCADA system. The
control center houses a SCADA Server (MTU) and the communications routers. Other
control center components include the HMI, engineering workstations, and the data historian,
which are all connected by a LAN. The control center collects and logs information gathered
by the field sites, displays information to the HMI, and may generate actions based upon
detected events. The control center is also responsible for centralized alarming, trend
analysis, and reporting. The field site performs local control of actuators and monitors
sensors. Field sites are often equipped with a remote access capability to allow field operators
to perform remote diagnostics and repairs usually over a separate dial-up modem or WAN
connection. Standard and proprietary communication protocols running over serial
91

communications are used to transport information between the control center and field sites
using telemetry techniques such as telephone line, cable, fiber, and radio frequency such as
broadcast, microwave and satellite.
MTU-RTU communication architectures vary among implementations. The various
architectures used, including point-to-point, series, series-star, and multi-drop , are shown in
Figure 3.3.1.2. Point-to-point is functionally the simplest type; however, it is expensive
because of the individual channels needed for each connection. In a series configuration, the
number of channels used is reduced; however, channel sharing has an impact on the
efficiency and complexity of SCADA operations. Similarly, the series-star and multi-drop
configurations use of one channel per device results in decreased efficiency and increased
system complexity.

Figure 3.3.1.1 SCADA System General

Layout
The four basic architectures shown in Figure 3.3.1.1 can be further augmented using
dedicated communication devices to manage communication exchange as well as message
switching and buffering. Large SCADA systems, containing hundreds of RTUs, often employ
92

sub-MTUs to alleviate the burden on the primary MTU. This type of topology is shown in
Figure 3.3.1.1.
Figure 3.3.1.2 shows an example of a SCADA system implementation. This particular
SCADA system consists of a primary control center and three field sites. A second backup
control center provides redundancy in the event of a primary control center malfunction.
Point-to-point connections are used for all control centre to field site communications, with
two connections using radio telemetry. The third field site is local to the control center and
uses the wide area network (WAN) for communications. A regional control center resides
above the primary control center for a higher level of supervisory control. The corporate
network has access to all control centers through the WAN, and field sites can be accessed
remotely for troubleshooting and maintenance operations. The primary control center polls
field devices for data at defined intervals (e.g., 5 seconds, 60 seconds) and can send new set
points to a field device as required. In addition to polling and issuing high-level commands,
the SCADA server also watches for priority interrupts coming from field site alarm systems.

93

Figure 3.3.1.2. Basic SCADA Communication Topologies

Figure 3.3.1.3 SCADA System Implementation Example (Distribution Monitoring and

Control)
Figure 2-6 shows an example implementation for rail monitoring and control. This example
includes a rail control centre that houses the SCADA system and three sections of a rail
system. The SCADA system polls the rail sections for information such as the status of the
trains, signal systems, traction electrification systems, and ticket vending machines. This
information is also fed to operator consoles at the HMI station within the rail control centre.
The SCADA system also monitors operator inputs at the rail control centre and disperses
94

high-level operator commands to the rail section components. In addition, the SCADA
system monitors conditions at the individual rail sections and issues commands based on
these conditions (e.g., shut down a train to prevent it from entering an area that has been
determined to be flooded or occupied by another train based on condition monitoring).

Figure 2.6 SCADA System Implementation Example (Rail Monitoring and Control)

95

3.3.2 Programmable Logic Controllers

PLCs are used in SCADA systems as the control components of an overall hierarchical
system to provide local management of processes through feedback control as described in
the sections above. In the case of SCADA systems, they provide the same functionality of
RTUs. When used in DCS, PLCs are implemented as local controllers within a supervisory
control scheme. PLCs are also implemented as the primary components in smaller control
system configurations. PLCs have a user-programmable memory for storing instructions for
the purpose of implementing specific functions such as I/O control, logic, timing, counting,
three mode proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control, communication, arithmetic, and
data and file processing. Figure 2-8 shows control of a manufacturing process being
performed by a PLC over a fieldbus network. The PLC is accessible via a programming
interface located on an engineering workstation, and data is stored in a data historian, all
connected on a LAN.

96

Figure 3.3.2.1 PLC Control System Implementation Example

Chapter 4
4.1 CONCLUSION
The productivity and the growth of an industry depends on the technology they implement to
ensure the effective production of their goods . Hence we see that Instrumentation and
Control department plays a very important role in the textile Industry with which we did our
training.
We got to see the working of various Machines involved in the manufacturing process of their
fabric and the Control System such as SCADA , its implementation and structure. This
training period had exposed me to the practical usage of what I have been studying. SCADA
systems are designed to collect field information, transfer it to a central computer facility, and
display the information to the operator graphically or textually, thereby allowing the operator
to monitor or control an entire system from a central location in real time. Based on the
sophistication and setup of the individual system, control of any individual system, operation,
or task can be automatic, or it can be performed by operator commands.
97

4.2 REFERENCES:

www.google.com

www.ocm.com

www.wikipedia.com

http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-82/SP800-82-final.pdf

98