Beruflich Dokumente
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Journal of Hydrology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol
Department of Electronics (DELEN), Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
Department of Land, Environment and Geo-Engineering (DITAG), Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 24 March 2010
Received in revised form 29 September 2010
Accepted 14 November 2010
This manuscript was handled by
Philippe Baveye, Editor-in-Chief
Keywords:
Groundwater protection zones
Springs
Vulnerability
VESPA index
Piemonte
Italy
s u m m a r y
The delineation of groundwater protection zones around springs requires the assessment of the spring
vulnerability, aquifer properties, and preferential inltration zones in the recharge area. We propose
the use of the Vulnerability Estimator for Spring Protection Areas (VESPA) index to quantify spring vulnerability. The VESPA index is based on a joint analysis of discharge, temperature, and electrical conductivity derived from hydrographs. The method requires 1 year of data measured on the spring, and
estimates the spring vulnerability for several hydrogeological contexts. No inltration data in the catchment area is required by the VESPA index. We validated the proposed method using experimental data
from 12 test springs, and found that the vulnerability estimated by the VESPA index corresponds to
the known vulnerability of the test springs. Four signicant test sites are presented in the paper.
2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Although uncertain as a process, the delineation of protection
zones has increasingly become a fundamental component of
groundwater protection. Aquifers are recharged from precipitation
and surface waters that percolate through the land surface and
become part of the groundwater ow system. This water may
become contaminated as a result of land use practices (Powell
et al., 2003; Barry et al., 2009; Schijven et al., 2010). In identifying
the level of territorial protection required to preserve a spring from
polluting activities in the recharge area, the practical problem is
whether a signicant proportion of the freshly inltrated water
can quickly reach the spring (high spring vulnerability) or not
(low spring vulnerability) during or just after a recharge event.
Low spring vulnerability is assumed if the following conditions
are met (Pochon et al., 2008): (i) spring discharge varies only with
marked inertia and low amplitude due to recharge events, without
signicant relative variation of physicalchemical parameters; (ii)
no signicant turbidity is observed, even after intense recharge
events, and no sediment deposits accumulate in the spring pool;
and (iii) bacterial contamination is never detected. High spring vulnerability is concluded if any of the above conditions is not met.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 011 564 7648; fax: +39 011 564 7699.
E-mail address: stefano.lorusso@polito.it (S.L. Russo).
0022-1694/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.11.012
234
hydrogeological analysis for each spring. The VESPA index was thus
calculated and compared with the level of vulnerability previously
detected. The results show that the VESPA index correctly identify
the vulnerability of the analyzed springs. Four signicant test sites
are presented in the paper. The protection areas were determined
according to local technical guidelines (Regione Piemonte, 2006).
R t0
Q trtdt
0
q
q q
Rt
R t0 2
Q tdt 00 r2 tdt
0
and u(q) is the Heaviside step function
uq
2. Methods
Analysis of the spring hydrograph responses with respect to the
inltrative events in the recharge area forms the basis for our
developed procedure to quantify spring vulnerability.
qP0
0; q < 0
1;
1 6 q 6 1
Hydrograph analysis is one of the most diffuse and effective
way to evaluate the properties of an aquifer supplying a spring
(Sanz Prez, 1997; Szilagyi et al., 1998; Zecharias and Brutsaert,
1998; Halford and Mayer, 2000; Wicks and Hoke, 2000; Pinault
et al., 2001; Mendoza et al., 2003; Fiorillo, 2009). A decay exponential function can be applied to data observed from karst springs, to
evaluate the volume and recession of groundwater reservoirs with
different permeabilities (Baedke and Krothe, 2001; Grasso and
Jeannin, 2002; Ford and Williams, 2007; Civita, 2008; Doeriger
et al., 2009; Birk and Hergarten, 2010). More comprehensive approaches, including consideration of the physicalchemical parameters (temperature, EC, isotopes, chemical elements, turbidity)
(Dreiss, 1989; Sauter, 1992; Grasso et al., 2003) and tracer tests
(Kss, 1998) have proven useful for improving the characterization
of karst hydrogeological systems. Spring hydrographs in non-karst
fractured rocks have received less attention, but the same methods
can be applied to the characterization and comparison of crystalline aquifers (Gentry and Burbey, 2004).
Springs with different aquifer types display different hydrographs (Barnes, 1939; Brutsaert and Nieber, 1977; Mangin, 1982;
Amit et al., 2002; Malvicini et al., 2005). The aquifer drainage system can be characterized by an impulse function that transforms
the input (e.g., rainfall or snowmelt) into spring hydrograph
responses in terms of discharge, temperature, and EC variations.
The impulse functional analysis can then be related to the drainage
effectiveness (i.e. network connectivity) (Plagnes and Bakalowicz,
2001; Vigna, 2007; Kresic and Stevanovic, 2009).
V cqbc
cq uq auqjqj
2
T max T min
1 C
where q is the correlation coefcient between discharge and conductivity, computed on the reference time interval t0 = 1 year (one
hydrologic year) as
where Tmax and Tmin refer to the maximum and minimum values,
respectively, of the temperature T on the reference time interval
t0 (explored data set: 1 year). Division by 1 C is performed to ensure that b is dimensionless. Since temperature stability over time
indicates a high aquifer residence time and low vulnerability, the
maximum temperature variation is a fundamental parameter for
estimating the spring vulnerability. Hence, we use its squared value
to enhance the corresponding weight in the vulnerability index V.
2.2.3. Discharge factor
The discharge factor measures the variability of the discharge
time series, as according to
Q max Q min
Qm
where Qmax and Qmin are the maximum and minimum values,
respectively, of the discharge Q on the reference time interval t0,
and Qm is the average discharge given by
Qm
1
t0
t0
Q tdt
235
Fig. 1. Hypothetical examples of spring hydrographic responses to the inltrative process related to drainage effectiveness. (A) High effectiveness, prevailing replacement. (B)
Moderate effectiveness, prevailing piston effect. (C) Low effectiveness, prevailing homogenization.
Q M Q l
100
Qa
Table 1
Proposed VESPA index intervals for the identication
of the spring vulnerability level.
Vulnerability
VESPA index
Very high
High
Medium
Low
V P 10
1 6 V < 10
0:1 6 V < 1
0 6 V < 0:1
Table 2
Intervals spanned by the correlation coefcient and correlation factor for the three
basic types of spring described in Section 3.1.
Spring type and prevailing
phenomena
Correlation
coefcient (q)
Correlation
factorc(q)
Type A replacement
Type B piston
Type C homogenization
1 6 q 6 0:2
0:2 6 q 6 1
0:2 6 q 6 0:2
0:2 6 cq 6 1
0:1 6 cq 6 0:5
0 6 cq 6 0:2
where QM, Ql, and Qa are the maximum, minimum, and average
ow, respectively. The m is generally quite high and can reach values
of >100%.
Freshly inltrated water of low salinity tends to replace the
groundwater supplying the spring during the baseow. Therefore,
the water chemistry response is usually characterized by a fast and
intense reduction in mineralization, highlighted by decreased EC
values corresponding to the ood peaks. The behavior of the
groundwater temperature is relatively similar to that of the EC:
its intense variability is almost synchronous with the ood peaks,
and it recovers rapidly after the end of the inltrative processes.
The extent and geometry of the peak temperature detectable by
a hydrograph is a function of the difference between the groundwater temperature during undisturbed (baseow) conditions and
the temperature of the freshly inltrated water, which varies
seasonally.
In the moderately effective drainage system (type B), the spring
hydrodynamic response can display impulse behaviors (Fig. 1B).
Generally, these systems are characterized by fractured or slightly
karstied carbonate aquifers, a thick saturated zone, and a signicant total spring storage volume. The discharge variability indices
are generally lower than those in type A systems. Freshly inltrated water increases the hydraulic head in the saturated zone,
and induces a pressure increase in the saturated fractured portions
of the rock mass (fractures and/or karst conduits). This pressure
increase and the corresponding pushing effect tend to mobilize
the resident groundwater. The groundwater is near thermal equilibrium with the aquifer and is characterized by a higher salinity
than the freshly inltrated water. Therefore, a ow discharge and
increased EC and temperature are observed by monitoring the
spring (piston effect).
After the inltrative peak, the system is dominated by mixing
between the resident pre-event groundwater and the freshly inltrated water. The recovery times of the ood discharge rate, temperature, and EC values surveyed at the spring are delayed, and
have a relatively longer duration than those observed in type A systems. Generally, the peak temperature value decreases with increases in the elevation above sea level of the recharge area. This
phenomenon is due to the small difference between the inltration
water temperature (from rainfall or snowmelt) and the resident
groundwater temperature of the more elevated aquifers.
Table 3
Differentiation of allowed land uses in the groundwater protection zones according to the Italian and Piemonte region water regulations (Repubblica Italiana, 2006; Regione
Piemonte, 2006).
Zone
None. This zone should be fully preserved, enclosed, and with limited access for authorized personnel only
Strongly limited. No excavation and subsurface work is allowed. Hazardous activities should be re-located if present
Limited. Only minor activities are allowed, and safeguard measures against pollution are necessary for new buildings
236
Fig. 2. Hydrogeological map of the Piemonte region (modied after Civita et al., 2004).
237
50
Discharge [l/s]
0
0
15
EC [ s/cm]
Rainfall [mm/day ]
Table 1 displays a proposed classication scheme for spring vulnerability levels based on the VESPA index V. Such classication
arises from the experimental application of the VESPA method to
the 12 springs analyzed in the preparatory phase of this work. Four
of these test sites are presented in Section 3.4. The intervals
between the degrees of vulnerability were chosen based on the
four levels of vulnerability required by local regulations (Regione
Piemonte, 2006). If a smaller number of classes is required (i.e.
three), it may be appropriate to join the High and Very high levels
(Table 1), and thus consider V P 1 as the marker for a highly vulnerable spring.
400
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
10
5
0
350
0
Temperature [C]
50
11
10
9
0
Fig. 3. Monitoring data of the Ray test site. Automatic acquisition interval of 1 h.
Table 4
Summary of VESPA calculated parameters in the four test sites.
Test site
spring
Vulnerability
index V
q Lower
condence
interval
(95%)
q Upper
condence
interval
(95%)
0.11605
0.0953
0.1367
0.14482
0.47704
0.93917
0.1157
0.4931
0.9416
0.1737
0.4607
0.9366
Correlation
coefcient
q
Ray
Dragonera
Fuse
Balmetta
0.0024788
0.29237
14.2771
28.8469
Correlation
factorc(q)
Temperature
variability
factor b
0.058023
0.0841
0.07241
0.47704
0.93917
0.3364
3.7249
14.44
Discharge
factor c
0.50798
12.0027
8.0348
2.1271
Estimated
vulnerability
Aquifer
homogeneity
Effectiveness
of drainage
network type
Low
High
Medium
very high
Very high
Medium
Low
High
Type C
homogenization
Type B piston
Type A substitution
Type A substitution
238
Temperature [C]
EC [s/cm]
Fig. 4. Delineation of groundwater protection zones for the Ray spring with the distance method.
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
0
0
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
240
220
200
180
160
0
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
3000
2000
1000
8
7
6
0
Fig. 5. Monitoring data of the Dragonera test site. Automatic acquisition interval of 2 h.
239
Fig. 6. Delineation of groundwater protection zones with the distance method for the Dragonera spring. Differentiation of the IPZ and OPZ is opportune.
ed by |q| 0, since the discharge and EC generally show independent and moderate variations with time. Eq. (2) indicates that this
type corresponds to c(q) 0, and the experimental results indicated
that jqj 6 0:2 is a suitable interval for a homogenization-type spring.
Table 2 summarizes the values of c(q) for the three basic spring
types. While the correlation coefcient intervals are disjointed, the
Temperature [C]
EC [s/cm]
240
100
0
0
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
0
0
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
240
220
200
180
160
0
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
1000
500
6
5
4
0
Fig. 7. Monitoring data of the Fuse test site. Automatic acquisition interval of 1 h.
correlation factor c(q) intervals overlap. The reason for such overlap is that two springs belonging to different drainage effectiveness
categories can have the same degree of vulnerability.
3.3. Delineation the spring protection area and vulnerability
To delineate the spring protection areas, additional hydrogeological investigation is needed after numerical assessment of the
vulnerability. Particular attention should be paid to the aquifer
homogeneity and to the presence of preferential inltration zones
in the catchment area. For homogeneous or slightly heterogeneous
aquifers, the calculated (isochrone) or xed distance methods are
convenient. Vulnerability mapping methods are suitable for delineating protection areas for heterogeneous media that supply highly
vulnerable springs, and when preferential inltration zones are detected in the catchment area (Adams and Foster, 1992; DoELG/EPA/
GSI, 1999; Doeriger et al., 1999; SAEFL, 2000; Daly et al., 2002;
Zwahlen, 2004; Pochon et al., 2008). The technical procedures for
individuating a spring protection area vary depending on the local
regulatory framework. Following the regulations of the Piemonte
region (Regione Piemonte, 2006), the spring protection area can
be divided into two sub-areas, the inner (IPZ) and outer (OPZ) protection zones, which are characterized by their different allowed
land uses (see Table 3). A total protection zone (TPZ) around the
spring tapping is always essential.
3.4. Test sites
3.4.1. Hydrogeological characteristics of the Piemonte region
The Piemonte region is characterized by the arcuate orogenic
belt of the Western Alps (crystalline and carbonate rocks) on its
west side, morphologically connected by extensive alluvial and
morainic fans to the continental plain area in the central and eastern parts (see Fig. 2). The alpine range continues NE with the central segment of the chain, and SE with the Ligurian Apennines
(Debelmas, 1986; Cadoppi et al., 2007). The mountain area, which
is carved by valleys transverse to the direction of the main struc-
241
Fig. 8. Delineation of groundwater protection zones for the Fuse spring. The protection zone coincides with the overall catchment area. IPZ land use restrictions are suitable.
age 10.4 C), EC variation of 15 lS (average 366 lS) (Fig. 3),
and average discharge of 10 L/s with limited and slow variations.
The VESPA parameters for the Ray spring are reported in Table 4.
The vulnerability index suggests a low vulnerability for the spring,
Temperature [C]
EC [s/cm]
242
100
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
0
0
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
120
100
80
60
40
0
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
50
100
150
200
t [days]
250
300
350
40
20
8
6
4
0
Fig. 9. Monitoring data of the Balmetta test site. Automatic acquisition interval of 1 h.
243
Fig. 10. Delineation of groundwater protection zones for the Balmetta spring. The protection zone coincides with the overall catchment area. IPZ land use restrictions are
suitable.
244
245