1) In physiology, the conversion of a stimulus from one form to another is referred to as

transduction. Sensory transduction refers to the conversion of either a chemical or physical

stimulus by sensory receptors into an electrical signal.

2)

Fig. 1 showing the mechanism of sensory transduction

https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/sensory-systems36/vision-209/transduction-of-light-790-12025/images/fig-ch36_05_05/ obtained 9 April
2015

Rods and cones are the transduction sites of the human eye that possess photo
pigments. Rhodopsin is the photo pigment found in vertebrates consisting of two
major sections: (1) opsin (membrane protein, alpha helices cluster spanning the
membrane) and (2) retinal (absorbs the light). A change of shape in the retina is
caused when the photoreceptor is struck by light resulting in a change from the cis
to a Trans isomeric form. This initiates rhodopsin which finally causes the sodium
channel to close. These visual receptors are hyperpolarized.

3) Night vision means being able to see in dark environments. Some animals have better night
vision than humans because humans lack a tissue called tapetum lucidum in the eye, unlike these
animals. Tapetum lucidum is found at the back of their eye and it functions to reflect light back
through the retina resulting in an increase in the amount of available light for capture. This
causes nocturnal and some deep sea animals to have eye shine. Also in nocturnal animals the
rods of the nuclear pattern changes to an inverted position and also their outer layer is thick
because of the presence of millions of rods which causes the light to pass to each of the nucleus
individually, as opposed to humans.

4) Sensory transduction differ between the olfactory and taste receptors because they have very
different receptors. Modified sensory neurons are used as olfactory receptors whereas specialized
receptors cells are used as taste receptors. Their location also differ from each other. The two
clefts that are found in the nasal cavity's upper region houses the olfactory receptors and the taste
buds of the tongue houses the taste receptors. Odorants are what triggers an olfactory response
by binding to definite receptor proteins in the sensory receptor cells. Odorants bind to specific
sites and as such do not follow the lock and key model. The activation of a G protein is the result
which then in turn activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase converting ATP to cAMP which opens
the cAMP-gated ion channels. Both calcium and sodium ions enter the cells generating a
generator potential. Chlorine channels that are activated by calcium ions are also opened causing
the chlorine to leave resulting in an increase in depolarization. Action potentials are generated
when voltage gated sodium channels are opened which results in the triggering of an action
potential. However for the taste receptors there are dissolved chemicals which are in contact with
the microvilli binding to particular proteins resulting in the opening and closing of certain
channels. This causes the cell to become depolarize.