Water Resources:

Spillways, Crest Gates, and Outlet Works

CEH433 V31
Diggay, Jemima Freda
Galimba, Jamiel
Jancorda, Kemuel
Reyes, Manuel Norman
San Jose, Emmanuel

Spillways, Crest Gates, and Outlet Works

INTRODUCTION
From the previous reports, the most common reservoirs are man-made structures such as dams.
Dams store water for various purposes such as water supply, irrigation, flood control, etc. But the
capacity of dams is only at a certain extent so it must have a way of releasing water in controlled
amount to prevent structural damage. That is why part of the construction of dams is the
installation of safety devices such as spillways and outlet works to release surplus water.
Spillways and outlet works are necessary to provide capability to release an adequate rate of
water from the reservoir to satisfy dam safety and water control regulation of the project.

DEFINITION
Spillways are provided for storage and detention dams to release surplus floodwater, which
cannot be contained in the allotted storage space. In diversion works, like weirs and barrages,
spillways bypass the flow exceeding that which is released in to the system like irrigation canals,
power canals, feeder canals, link canals etc. Ordinarily, the excess flow is drawn from the top of
the pool created by the dam and conveyed through an artificial waterway i.e. spillway, back into
the same river or to some other drainage channel.
If the dam is built of concrete the spillway may form part of the dam wall itself. However, if the
dam is built of earth and/or rock fill (ie soil and broken rock) the spillway must be a separate
structure because flood waters cannot be allowed to flow over the top of a fill (or embankment)
dam which would be quickly washed away by the flood water if this was to happen.
Except during flood periods, water does not normally flow over a spillway. In contrast, an intake
is a structure used to release water on a regular basis for water supply, hydroelectricity
generation, etc.

FUNCTION
* The primary function of spillway is to release surplus waters from the reservoir in order to
prevent overtopping and possible failure of the dam.

TYPES

Controlled and Uncontrolled Spillways

With a controlled or gated spillway, the normal operating level is usually near the top of the
gates, although at times it may be drawn below this level by other outlets. A gated spillway's
main purpose is to maximize available storage and head, while at the same time limiting
backwater damages by providing a high initial discharge capacity.
An uncontrolled spillway, in contrast, does not have gates; when the water rises above the lip or
crest of the spillway it begins to be released from the reservoir. The rate of discharge is
controlled only by the depth of water within the reservoir. All of the storage volume in the
reservoir above the spillway crest can be used only for the temporary storage of floodwater, and
cannot be used as water supply storage because it is normally empty.

Service and Emergency Spillways

Spillways may be broadly categorized as service spillway and emergency type spillway. The
service spillways are those which are in constant use in every flood when the reservoir level
exceeds the crest level of the spillway. An emergency spillway, also known as auxiliary
spillway, is one which is rarely used and come into operation during extraordinary flood when
the actual flood discharge exceeds the design capacity of the service spillway. Various types of
service spillways in common use are briefly described below:
Vertical Drop type Spillway
A vertical drop or free over fall type spillway is one in which the flow drops freely from the
acres of the dam. This type is suited in a thin arch or a deck overflow type dam. Flows may be
freely discharging, or they may be supported along a narrow section of the crest. Occasionally,
the crest is extended in the form of an overhanging lip to direct small discharges away from the
face of the overflow section. In free over fall spillways, the underside of the nappe is ventilated
sufficiently to prevent a pulsating, fluctuating jet.
Such spillway can be provided only in case of low height dams on hard bed. In high dams these
are not to be adopted, as it will subject the foundation to heavy scour and cause vibration leading
to failure of the dam.

Ogee (overflow) Spillways

The ogee spillway has a control weir, which is ogee or S-shaped in profile. Ordinarily, the upper
curve of the ogee spillway is made to conform closely to the profile of the lower nappe of a
ventilated sheet falling from a sharp-crested weir. Flow over the crest is made to adhere to the
face of the profile by preventing access of air to the under side of the sheet. For discharges at

designed head, the flow glides over the crest with no interference from the boundary surface and
attains near-maximum discharge efficiency. The profile below the upper curve of the ogee is
continued tangent along a slope to support the sheet on the face of the overflow and flow onto
the apron of a stilling basin or into the spillway discharge channel. This type of spillway is
commonly used in high dams and it is suitable to handle large flood flows.

*An overflow spillway is most often constructed as part of a gravity dam or a buttress dam. The
spillway section is lower than the other sections of the dam allowing water to flow over its top
and down its front face.
Sometimes, the whole of the dam acts as an overflow spillway.

Chute (Open Channel or Trough) Spillways

A spillway, whose discharge is conveyed from the reservoir to the downstream river level
through an open channel, placed either along a dam abutment or through a saddle, might be
called a chute, open channel, or trough type spillway. These designations can apply regardless of
the control device used to regulate the flow. Thus, a spillway having a chute-type discharge
channel, though controlled by an overflow crest, a gated orifice, a side channels crest, or some
other control device might still be called a chute spillway.
The chute spillway has been used with earthfill dams more often than has any other type. Chute
spillways ordinarily consist of an entrance channel, a control structure, a discharge channel, a
terminal structure, and an outlet channel.
Conduit and Tunnel Spillways

Where a closed channel is used to convey the discharge around or under a dam, the spillway is
often called a tunnel or conduit spillway, as appropriate. The closed channel may take the form
of a vertical or inclined shaft, a horizontal tunnel through earth or rock, or a conduit constructed
in open cut and backfilled with earth materials. Most forms of control structures, including
overflow crests, vertical or inclined orifice entrances, drop inlet entrances, and side channel
crests, can be used with conduit and tunnel spillways. Tunnel spillways may present advantages
for dam sited in narrow canyons with steep abutments or at sites where there is danger to open
channels from snow or rockslides. Conduit spillways may be appropriate at dam sites in wide
valleys, where the abutments rise gradually and are at a considerable distance from the stream
channel. Use of a conduit will permit the spillway to be located under the dam near the
streambed.

Culvert Spillway
A culvert spillway is a special adaptation of the conduit or tunnel spillway. It is distinguished
from the drop inlet and other conduit types in that its inlet opening is placed either vertically or
inclined upstream or downstream, and its profile grade is made uniform or near uniform and of
any slopes. The spillway inlet opening might be sharp edged or rounded, and the approach to the
conduit might have flared or tapered sidewalls with a level or sloping floor. If it is desired that
the conduit flow partly full for all conditions of discharges, special precautions are taken to
prevent the conduit from flowing full. Culvert spillways should not be used for high-head
installations where large negative pressures can develop.

Drop Inlet (Shaft or Morning Glory) Spillways

A drop inlet or shaft spillway, as the name implies, is one in which the water enters over a
horizontally positioned lip, drops through a vertical or sloping shaft, and then flows to the
downstream river channel through a horizontal or near horizontal conduit or tunnel. The structure
may be considered as being made up of three elements; namely, an overflow control weir, a
vertical transition, and a closed discharge channel. Where the inlet is funnel-shaped, this type of
structure is often called a morning glory or glory hole spillway.
Discharge characteristics of the drop inlet spillway may vary with the range of head. The control
will shift according to the relative discharge capacities of the weir, the transition, and the conduit
or tunnel. For example, as the heads increase on a glory hole spillway, the control will shift from
weir flow over the crest to orifice flow in the transition and then to full pipe flow in the
downstream portion.

A drop inlet spillway can be used advantageously at dam sites in narrow canyons where the
abutments rise steeply or where a diversion tunnel or conduit is available for use as the
downstream leg. Another advantage of this type of spillway is that near maximum capacity is
attained at relatively low heads; This characteristic makes the spillway ideal for use where the
maximum spillway outflow is to be limited. This characteristic also may be considered
disadvantageous, in that there is little increase in capacity beyond the designed heads, should a
flood occur. This would not be a disadvantage if this type of spillway were used as a service
spillway in conjunction with an auxiliary or emergency spillway.

Siphon spillway
A siphon spillway is a closed conduit system formed in the shape of an inverted U, positioned so
that the inside of the bend of the upper passageway is at normal reservoir storage level. The
initial discharges of the spillway as the reservoir level rises above normal are similar to flow over
a weir. Siphon action takes place after the air in the bend over the crest has been exhausted.
Continuous flow is maintained by the suction effect due to the gravity pull of the water in the
lower leg of the siphon.
Siphon spillway is composed of five component parts.. These include an inlet, an upper leg, a
throat or control section, a lower leg, and an outlet. A siphon-breaker air vent is also provided to
control the siphon action of the spillway so that it will cease operation when the reservoir water
surface is drawn down to normal level. Otherwise the siphon would continue to operate until air
entered the inlet. The inlet is generally placed well below the normal reservoir water surface to

prevent entrance of ice and drift and to avoid the formation of vortices and draw downs, which
might break the siphon action. The upper leg is formed as a bending convergent transition to join
the inlet to a vertical throat section. The throat or control section is generally rectangular in cross
section and is located at the crest of the upper bend of the siphon. The upper bend then continues
to join a vertical or inclined tube, which forms the lower leg of the siphon.

The principal advantage of a siphon spillway is its ability to pass full-capacity discharges with
narrow limits of headwater rise. A further advantage is its positive and automatic operation
without mechanical devices or moving parts. In addition to its higher cost, as compared with
other types, the siphon spillway has a number of disadvantages, including the following:
(a) The inability of the siphon spillway to pass ice and debris.
(b) The possibility of clogging the siphon passageways and siphon breaker vents with debris or
leaves.
(c) The possibility of water freezing in the inlet legs and air vents before the reservoir rises to the
crest level of the spillway, thus preventing flow through the siphon.
(d) The occurrence of sudden surges and stoppages of outflow as a result of the erratic makeand-break action of the siphon, thus causing radical fluctuations in the downstream river stage.
(e) The release of outflows in excess of reservoir inflows whenever the siphon operates, if a
single siphon is used. Closer regulation which will more nearly balance outflow and inflow can
be obtained by providing a series of smaller siphons, with their siphon breaker vents set to prime
at gradually increasing reservoir heads.
(f) The more substantial foundation required resisting vibration disturbances, which are more
pronounced than in other types of control structures.
Side Channel Spillway
In a side channel spillway, the waterfalls from the reservoir over a service spillway like ogee
type spillway into a narrow channel excavated from the side hills towards the abutment of the

dam. The flow in the side channel is at right angle to the direction of the incoming flow from the
reservoir. The side channel is provided with a control section at its end to ensure that the flow in
the side channel is at sub-critical stage and there is thorough mixing of the incoming super
critical jet in the side channel trough portion. The water from the side channel usually enters a
chute type spillway after the control section.

*Side channel spillways are used mainly with embankment dams. They are located just upstream
and to the side of the dam. The water flows over the spillway, into a side channel.

Stepped Spillway
In a stepped spillway, water falls over a series of steps from crest to the toe of the dam. It has the
advantage over other spillways in that it acts also as an energy dissipator as the water comes
down from the reservoir level to the tail water level. It is not suitable for high dams with large
overflow since the nappe flow changes to skimming flow with very little dissipation of energy
and the steps are subjected to cavitation damage.
A stepped spillway design considerably increases the rate of kinetic energy dissipation taking
place down the spillway channel. In turn, the design eliminates or greatly reduces the needs for a
sizable energy dissipator at the toe of the chute in the form of a hydraulic jump stilling basin or
flip bucket and plunge pool.
The stepped spillway, consisting of wires and channels has been used for over 3,500 years since
the first structures were built in Greece and Crete.

DESIGN
*In addition to providing sufficient capacity, the spillways must be hydraulically and structurally
sound and located such that the spillway discharges will not cause objectionable erosion
downstream near the toe of the dam causing the failure of the dam and other appurtenant
structures.
*Uncontrolled erosion of bed and bank materials due to faulty design of spillways and energy
dissipation devices have caused not only serious safety problems, heavy maintenance cost are
also to be incurred annually after the monsoon when the spillway is in operation. The spillways
bounding surface must be erosion resistant to withstand the high velocity flow created due to the
drop in water surface from the reservoir level upstream to the tail water level downstream of the
dam. Spillways are to be designed as transition structures for smooth passage of flow from
upstream to downstream of a storage reservoir without causing any damage to the structure or
endangering the river system.
(a) the characteristics of the flood hydrographic;
(b) the damages which would result if such a flood occurred without the dam;
(c) the damages which would result if such a flood occurred with the dam in place;
(d) the damages which would occur if the dam or spillway were breached;
(e) effects of various dam and spillway combinations on the probable increase or decrease of
damages above or below the dam (as indicated by reservoir back-water curves and tailwater
curves);
(f) relative costs of increasing the capacity of spillway
(g) use of combined outlet facilities to serve more than one function, such as control of releases
and control or passage of floods. Service outlet releases may be permitted in passing part of the
inflow design flood unless such outlets are considered to be unavailable in time of flood.
With due regard to the above mentioned considerations, the type and size of a spillway will also
be governed by the hydrological and hydraulic considerations as discussed below:
Hydrological Considerations
The peak flood for which the spillway is to be designed will govern the size and capacity
(waterway) of a spillway. The flood series for the particular river should be carefully studied and
a frequency analysis is to be made to determine the design peak flood of a given frequency
which will be governed by the importance of the structure and its safety requirement.
If the failure of a dam leads to unprecedented loss of life and properties, maximum probable
flood of high return period (say 1 in 500 years or more) should be considered for the design of
the spillway capacity so that there is hardly any risk of failure and consequent damages.
Obviously, the capacity of the spillway and its costs will be too high in such case. On the other

hand, if the dam failure does not cause any loss of life or property, the spillway capacity can be
substantially reduced considering peak flood of low return period (say 1 in 50 years or so).
Hydraulic Considerations
Hydraulic design of various types of spillways is to be carefully done so as to avoid poor
performance and failure of the structure and also to avoid high maintenance cost. Hydraulic
design involves consideration of the following aspects:
(a) Fixing the crest Level.
(b) Design of Waterway
(c) Design of Spillway Profile
(d) Design of Energy Dissipation Device
(e) Design of aeration device
(f) Design of Anti vortex Device
(g) Design of Control Gates and their operation
(h) Design of Outlet Works
(i) Reservoir Operation Schedule
(j) Desalting of Reservoirs

DAMAGES AND ACCIDENTS

*Many failures of dams have been reported due to inadequate capacity or improper design of
spillway, especially for earthen and rockfill type dams which are likely to be destroyed, if
overtopped, unlike concrete dams which may not fail with slight overtopping for a small period
of time.
*Uncontrolled erosion of bed and bank materials due to faulty design of spillways and energy
dissipation devices have caused not only serious safety problems, heavy maintenance cost are
also to be incurred annually after the monsoon when the spillway is in operation.
* The water discharged over the spillway of a dam attains a very high velocity due to its static
head, which is generally much higher than the safe non-eroding velocity in the downstream. This
high velocity flow may cause serious scour and erosion of river bed downstream.
*Drowning. For obvious reasons, swimming near the glory hole is both prohibited and stupid.
There are buoys strung across the lake to discourage boaters and swimmers from approaching the
glory hole and the dam. Furthermore, the glory hole is well fenced off from the land. In 1997, a
UC Davis graduate student was pulled into the glory hole while swimming and drowned.

ENERGY DISSIPATION
* The water discharged over the spillway of a dam attains a very high velocity due to its static
head, which is generally much higher than the safe non-eroding velocity in the downstream. This
high velocity flow may cause serious scour and erosion of river bed downstream. To dissipate

this excessive energy and to establish safe flow conditions in the downstream of a dam spillway,
energy dissipaters are used as remedial devices.
*Factors affecting the design of energy dissipators are:
(a) Nature of foundations
(b) Magnitude of floods and their recurrence
(c) Velocity of flow
(d) Orientation of flow
(e) Elevations of tail water at various discharges
(f) Type of dam and its spillway.
* The energy can be dissipated by addressing one or more parts of a spillway's design.
Steps. First, on the spillway surface itself by baffles and/or steps along the spillway.
Flip bucket. Second, at the base of a spillway, a flip bucket can create a hydraulic jump and
deflect water upwards.
Ski jump. A ski jump can also direct water horizontally and eventually down into a plunge pool
or two ski jumps can direct their water discharges to collide with one another.[19][20]
Stilling basin. Third, a stilling basin at the terminus of a spillway serves to further dissipate
energy and prevent erosion. They are usually filled with a relatively shallow depth of water and
sometimes lined with concrete. A number of velocity-reducing components can be incorporated
into the their design to include chute blocks, baffle blocks, wing walls, surface boils or an end
sill
*Steps
A key feature of a spillway system is the safe dissipation of a major component of the kinetic
energy of the water to avoid damage and failure. It can be achieved by a high-velocity water jet
taking off from a ski jump and impinging into a downstream pool of a standard stilling basin
downstream of the chute where a hydraulic jump dissipates the flow energy, or the construction
of steps on the spillway chute to assist in energy dissipation: i.e., the stepped spillway.
* Hydraulic jump type stilling basin
Hydraulic jump may be defined as a phenomenon, which is a distinct rise or jump of water,
accompanied by a great deal of turbulence. This phenomenon may occur when a shallow stream
of water moving with a high velocity strikes a stream of water moving with a low velocity. When
a fast moving wall of water has to be slowed down to prevent scour damage below a work, the
hydraulic jump can be used with great advantage to destroy the kinetic energy.

* Ski jump. The upward lip is designed to project the jet of water dozens of meters into the air,
which dissipates part of its energy and prevents structural damage.

OUTLET WORKS
* Outlet works serve to regulate or release water impounded by a dam. It may release incoming
flows at a reduced rate, as in the case of a detention dam; divert inflows into canals or pipelines,
as in the case of a diversion dam; or release stored-water at such rates as may be dictated by
downstream needs, evacuation considerations, or a combination of multiple-purpose
requirements.
* An outlet works consists of the equipment and structures which together release the required
water for a given purpose or combination of purposes. Flows through river outlets and canal or
pipeline outlets change throughout the year and may involve a wide range of discharges under
varying heads.
* In addition to spillways that ensure that the reservoir does not overtop the dam, outlet works
may be provided so that water can be drawn continuously, or as needed, from the reservoir.
They also provide a way to draw down the reservoir for repair or safety concerns. Water
withdrawn may be discharged into the river below the dam, run through generators to provide
hydroelectric power, or used for irrigation. Dam outlets usually consist of pipes, box culverts
or tunnels with intake inverts near minimum reservoir level. Such outlets are provided with
gates or valves to regulate the flow rate.
* These structures are usually used when river flow exceeds the capacity of the power plant or
diversion capacity of the dam, but do not have flows high enough to warrant the use of the dam
spillways.
* Description. Usually, the outlet works consist of an intake structure, a conduit or series of
conduits through the dam, discharge flow control devices, and an energy dissipating device
where required downstream of the dam.
The intake structure includes a trash-rack, an entrance transition, and stop-logs or an emergency
gate. The control device can be placed at the intake on the upstream face, at some point along the
conduit and be regulated from galleries inside the dam, or at the downstream end of the conduit
with the operating controls placed in a gate-house on the downstream face of the dam. When
there is a power plant or other structure near the face of the dam, the outlet conduits can be
extended farther downstream to discharge into the river channel beyond these features. In this
case, a control valve may be placed in a gate structure at the end of the conduit.
* Discharge. Discharges from a reservoir outlet works fluctuate throughout the year depending
upon downstream water needs and reservoir flood control requirements. Therefore, impounded
water must be released at specific regulated rates.

* Uses of an outlet works. An outlet works may be used for diverting the river flow or portion
thereof during a phase of the construction period, thus avoiding the necessity for supplementary
installations for that purpose.
Although similar in purpose to spillways, outlet works provide a more controlled release to meet
downstream flow requirements.
*Elevation of outlet intake. Reservoirs become thermally stratified, and taste and odor vary
between elevations. Therefore, the outlet intake should be established at the best elevation to
achieve satisfactory water quality for the purpose intended. Downstream fish and wildlife
requirements may determine the temperature at which the outlet releases should be made.
Municipal and industrial water use increases the emphasis on water quality and requires the
water to be drawn from the reservoir at the elevation which produces the most satisfactory
combination of odor, taste, and temperature. Water supply releases can be made through separate
outlet works at different elevations if requirements for the individual water uses are not the same
and the reservoir is stratified.

References:
http://www.caiworld.com/spillways-outlet-works
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlet_works
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spillway
http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559952/spillway
http://library.water-resources.us/docs/MMDL/FLD/Feature.cfm?ID=7
http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/hr/print/volume-31/issue-05/article/dam-safety-installinghydraulic-crest-gates-to-improve-flood-control-at-hatfield.html
http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/hr/print/volume-31/issue-05/article/dam-safety-installinghydraulic-crest-gates-to-improve-flood-control-at-hatfield.html