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Dyslexia and Thinking Skills
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"How can current research into thinking skills enlighten practical approaches
to teaching people with dyslexia or literacy difficulties?"

Phil Wain 2014

isthisdyslexia.com

"How can current research into thinking skills

enlighten practical approaches to teaching
people with dyslexia or literacy difficulties?"
Abstract
Dyslexia is a condition affecting a large percentage of the population the British Dyslexia
Association estimates that it affects 10% of the population. Those affected have difficulty with
spelling, reading fluency and accuracy and often with handwriting, arithmetic, mental mathematics,
sequencing, organisation and rote memory. However, current research is uncovering the possibility
that those same dyslexic individuals may have certain advantages conferred by those same brain
differences that cause dyslexia. Bearing in mind the self-esteem issues affecting many dyslexics and
current research on teaching thinking skills and motivation, dyslexic students need carefully
managed programmes of individual support making use of techniques that maximise the impact of
their cognitive strengths on developing their learning. Such techniques include Philosophy for
Children, Mediated Learning and multi-sensory and visual strategies. In this essay I aim to explore
how current research into thinking skills can inform practice in the education of dyslexic learners.

What is dyslexia?
The Rose Report definition of dyslexia is generally accepted as a good definition currently.
Dyslexia is a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in
accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.
Characteristic features of dyslexia are difficulties in phonological
awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed.
Dyslexia occurs across the range of intellectual abilities.
It is best thought of as a continuum, not a distinct category, and there are
no clear cut-off points.
Co-occurring difficulties may be seen in aspects of language, motor coordination, mental calculation, concentration and personal organisation, but
these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia.
A good indication of the severity and persistence of dyslexic difficulties can
be gained by examining how the individual responds or has responded to well
founded intervention.
Sir Jim Rose (2009). P10

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Students with dyslexia tend to display difficulties in the three areas of phonological awareness,
verbal processing speed and working memory. As contemporary education puts great emphasis on
spelling, writing, reading fluently and rote memorisation of facts, these emphases can make life at
school a difficult experience for many dyslexic students. In contrast, students with dyslexia often
show relative strengths in material and spatial reasoning, understanding of interconnections,
narrative reasoning, understanding of dynamic relationships and creativity in the visual and other
arts. A large proportion of architects, entrepreneurs, inventors and artists have a diagnosis of
dyslexia (Bannatyne, 1971) and there is an emerging science researching the brain differences which
underlie dyslexia and the mechanisms of the effects of these brain differences.

Current theories
Genetic and environmental factors have an impact on the development of dyslexia. It is known to
run in families. Several theories have been developed to look into the cognitive causes of dyslexia.

Phonological deficit
Many associate dyslexia with phonological deficit (where historically it was seen primarily as a visual
disorder) impairments in storage, retrieval or representation of speech sounds. Most dyslexic
people have difficulties in this area. Snowling Stackhouse, Frith and others postulate that genetic
differences in the left hemisphere affect the ability to sequence, identify and produce sounds. This
has been backed up by fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) showing that specific areas of
the brain light up when engaged in phonological activities and that these are less likely to light up
with dyslexic subjects. These areas are named the Wernickes and Brocas areas and Frith and
Paulesus research suggested that these areas (the former involved in whole word recognition, the
latter in word breakdown into sound segments) work more in isolation in dyslexic people
Phonological processing difficulties cause difficulties with sound blending, rhyme, verbal processing
and non-word repetition. The implication of this theory is that teaching should develop phonological
skills.

Magnocellular Theory
A different approach was brought by Stein and others, returning in a way to the earlier visual models
the Magnocellular theory. This associated dyslexia with dysfunction of magnocellular pathways
(Stein and Walsh 1997). Magnocells are responsible for the timing of sensory and motor signalling.
They are specialised for fast processing of temporal information. Reading puts stress on magnocells
and any weakness in the pathway leads to confusions of letter order and poor visual memory. It may
also result in weak phonological skills because there is an auditory subsystem to the magnocellular
pathways large neurones responsible for sound discrimination.
Indeed Stein does not confine the magnocellular theory to effects of visual processing. He postulates
that temporal processing involved in phonological and/or visual and/or motor systems may be
impaired. Stein and Walsh do beg the question whether all the diversity of dyslexics with all the
diversity of symptoms can be put down to an individual explanation. However they put forward a

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mechanism of how temporal impairments might lay under phonological, visual and motor
difficulties.

Processing and Double Deficit

Dr Maryanne Wolf encourages us to look beyond phonological issues to the processing difficulties
most dyslexic are affected by. She examines the effect of the retrieval of information stored by the
brain and the speed with which the brain organises information. Her term double-deficit describes
people affected by both phonological difficulties and processing difficulties. Wolf claims that around
50% of dyslexics have the double deficit with just less than a quarter of dyselxics affected
predominately by one of the two issues. She has developed the RAVE-O intervention programme.
The programme is focussed on developing reading fluency both word recognition and
comprehension and underlying factors such as visual scanning, orthographic pattern recognition,
semantic and syntactic development and lexical retrieval. It focuses on developing automaticity and
on making connections in learning.

Left-hemisphere processing difficulties

Galaburda had studied brains in 1985 and associated this phonological difficulty and slow processing
of speech sounds with brain-cortical malformations. Generally left-hemispheric functioning is
described as a relative weakness in Dyslexics who tend to think in terms of the big picture; rather
than detail. This also implies right-hemisphere strengths which we often see in Dyslexics prediction
and search for meaning using context, creativity, spatial awareness. These can all be built on in
education using techniques such as mind mapping and a valuing of individual strengths.
Geschwind and Galaburda did not view dyslexia entirely as a disorder though:
The pattern of cortical development may well reflect a mechanism that is
advantageous to the population as a whole, since it leads to a greater
diversity of patterns of patterns of talent
Geschwind and Galaburda 1987 p 143
They argue that context determines whether dyslexia is an advantage or disadvantage. The very
condition which makes most mainstream school experience difficult also gives the advantage that
means a high proportion of entrepreneurs, artists, inventors and architects are dyslexic. I will discuss
at length later in this essay the advantages that have been described as being attributed to the
dyslexic mind and ways education can adapt and get the best of dyslexic students, both in terms of
their talents and making education an inspirational and positive experience for all. It should be
added however that more recent fMRA scans have not showed the predicted right brain emphasis
this theory would expect although similar cognitive styles could be produced by other causes.
Additionally, neuroscience has now discredited the left and right brain personality type concept
which underlay many of the right brain emphasis theories.

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Cerebellar Impairment
This relatively recent theory proposes to explain why dyslexia is a more wide ranging condition than
merely a phonological one. The cerebellum, according to recent research, plays a major role in
language acquisition from birth on. The cerebellum helps control phonology, speech processing,
motor control, co-ordination, balance, handwriting, organisation etc and a deficit would explain
many features of dyslexia. Studies by Fawcett and Nicolson (2001) identified a significant number of
dyslexics with symptoms typical of cerebellar impairment. However the sample size was small and
more research is needed in this area. Additionally, not all dyslexics have symptoms typical of
cerebellar impairment and Fawcett and Nicolson did write that there may be several sub-types
One learning implication is that dyslexics may need to repeat a procedure many, many more times
for it to become automatic than non-dyslexics even though they may appear to quickly understand a
concept. This difficulty with procedural learning means that often procedures have to be undertaken
more mindfully. Some have argued that this mindfulness in following procedures makes dyslexics
more likely to produce innovations in the procedures. Another implication of cerebellar impairment
would be the importance of kinaesthetic learning.

Comorbidity
No discussion of contemporary theories on dyslexia would be complete without considering the
great value in recent years in understanding the prevalence of comorbidity of conditions on
understanding dyslexia. Comorbidity with dyspraxia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, ADHD or autism is very
common and one reason for the great variance of dyslexic symptoms. In addition, each of these
conditions can be affected by protective and environmental factors. Valerie Muter gives the figure
of 75% for the incidence of comorbidity with other conditions in dyslexics. The incidence of dyslexia
alone is much less common and the pattern of strength and weaknesses for each dyslexic individual
will be relatively unique.

Sub-types
Many researchers, from Stein to Fawcett and Nicolson have suggested that the overall picture may
be far more complex than an individual biological or cognitive explanation for dyslexia. Many
propose that there are subtypes of dyslexia such as the phonological subtypes or the cerebellar
subtypes.

Impacts of dyslexia
Dyslexia has been said by various researchers to affect between 4 and 20% of the population.
However, Peck (1985) found that 50% of children under age 15 who committed suicide in Los
Angeles County over a 3-year period had been diagnosed as learning disabled. In the US dyslexia falls
under this umbrella term. There is a real threat to the well-being of dyslexic children. Many hold
themselves in low regard because of their relative weaknesses in the skills valued in school: fact
memorisation, fluent reading and spelling.

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There is an increasing body of evidence to show that children with difficulties

of a dyslexic nature are at particular risk of developing distorted or damaged
self-concepts as a result of their marginalized status, particularly if the specific
nature of their difficulties is not recognised at an early stage in their school
careers.
Robert Burden (2005) p2
A multitude of studies have linked dyslexia with low self esteem, depression,
Examples include Gjessing and Karlsen (1985) linking dyslexia and low self-esteem, Gerber (1990),
Fairhurst and Pumfrey (1992), Riddick (1999) finding poor readers feel lower self-esteem, more
anxious and less confident, and Lerner (2000) finding that dyslexic students suffer socio-emotional
problems, struggle to make and keep friends, can develop learned helplessness, low motivation, and
maladaptive behaviour. Glazzard (2010) found that the most significant factor that contributed to
students' self-esteem was a positive diagnosis of 'dyslexia' and ownership of the label.
Similarly with adult dyslexics, Bynner and Ekynsmith (1994) found significantly links between
perceived literacy difficulties and adult depression in a longitudinal study.
In Dyslexia & self-Concept (Seeking a Dyslexic Identity (2005), Dr Robert Burden summarised
research on the relationship between self concept and educational achievement. He examined
theoretical frameworks underlying self-concept and motivation; Interviewed fifty dyslexic boys in
depth at a private residential dyslexia school giving case studies and data; gave some voice to the
boys feelings as dyslexics (at length); and recommended some ways forward.
Although Burdens research sample was small and fairly unrepresentative of the whole population,
the findings are still fascinating given the length of the interviews and the extent to which Burden
uncovered how the students viewed their dyslexia. Given this sample was from pupils at a private
dyslexia boarding school, 34% wished they werent dyslexic, 14% often felt depressed and 12%
viewed dyslexia as a curse. Most newer boys to the school expressed negative feelings about
themselves than those who had attended the school for a while. So given this, we can assume this
specialist school experience generally improved pupil self- esteem. Given that, such a high
proportion expressing feelings of depression about dyslexia is alarming as it suggests that the figure
might be much higher for dyslexics in society at large.
What Burden found in the boys who were newer to the school was higher levels of learned
helplessness and lower levels of self-efficacy following their experiences in mainstream education.
They did not view themselves as learners and needed a programme to encourage their own reliance
on themselves. In this context we should consider the psychological term locus of control which
expresses the degree with which the learner feels able to take charge of their own learning (internal
locus of control) or the degree they are dependent on others (external locus of control). What is
important for dyslexic learners is we develop programmes that not only reframe their dyslexia in a
positive sense and reclaim the students skills for them but that actively develop their own ability to
make the most of their own abilities.

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The Dyslexia Advantage

Dr Brock Eide and Dr Fernette Eide published The Dyslexic Advantage in 2011. It sought to bring a
different perspective to the subject and reframe dyslexia in terms of advantage rather than deficit. It
examined research finding that a high proportion of entrepreneurs, inventors and architects are
dyslexic and tried to counter the idea that they succeeded in spite of their dyslexia, rather, it
considers the proposal that they might have been successful partly because of other strengths owing
to dyslexia.
At length, they describe four types of thinking which are more highly developed in many dyslexics
constructing the acrostic MIND as a suitable mnemonic.

M-strengths

mechanical ability and three dimensional spatial reasoning material reasoning

I strengths
ability to perceive relationships such as analogies, metaphors, paradoxes,
similarities, differences, and implications interconnected reasoning
N- strengths
ability to recall important personal experiences and to understand abstract material
in terms of specific examples narrative reasoning
D- strengths
reasoning

ability to perceive subtle patterns in complex and constantly shifting data dynamic

The theoretical basis for these strengths lie in suggested differences in brain structure.
Ever since Roger Sperry discovered in the 1970s and 1980s that the different hemispheres of brain
had different functions, there has been much research into this. Generally it has been presented that
the right hemisphere is associated with the large scale, the global, the big picture and the gist; and
the left hemisphere with fine details and logic. As mentioned before, dyslexics tend to have more of
what has been regarded historically as a right brain approach although such simplistic concepts have
since been discredited.
In 2005, Dr Mark Beeman found differences in the ways the hemispheres process language finding
the right hemisphere more involved in distant connections, different views of meanings of one
sentence, synonyms, antonyms, ironic meanings and a broader rather than a narrower field.

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Dr Manuel Casanova at the University of Kentucky (2010) saw similar results to right brain cognitive
style of dyslexia but typified not by use of one hemisphere over another rather by differences by
broad spacing of functional cluster minicolumns of neurons in brains cortex. Tightly spaced
minicolumns tend to make connections nearby neurons, wider spaced more distant connections.
This bias might explain bias toward detail tasks or big picture. Shorter connections match right brain
cognitive style model and vice versa What Casanova describes is a different model to left/right
brain differences but another model that can explain the same differences especially where fMRA
scans have not necessarily indicated the right brain emphasis proposed by the earlier theories.

According to Dr Casanova, the dyslexic bias towards long-distance

connections leads to the emergence of the big picture processing skills weve
mentioned and to weaknesses in fine detail processing. One fine detail task
that Dr Casanova cited as often being particularly hard for individuals with
dyslexia is phonological processing, which as we described in the last chapter,
involves distinguishing highly similar sounds.

Eide and Eide 2011 p40

This difference means that while non-dyslexic brains might excel at precision, accuracy,
automaticity, focus and detailed expertise, dyslexic brains might excel at seeing the gist or essence,
understanding of variety of perspective, seeing new or unusual connections, inference and general
inventiveness. Of course this is a massive generalisation.
The issue is does school make use of these advantages? Given the many anecdotal stories in The
Dyslexia Advantage of inventors, entrepreneurs, novelists and artists who found school an ordeal
but excelled in working life, how could we ensure that firstly dyslexic students potential is tapped,
secondly that they are not so damaged and depressed by the experience of schooling.

Mindset
Considering improving the self-esteem, learning ability and self-reliance of dyslexic students, its
important to consider the work of Dr Carol Dweck at Stanford University. Studying the psychology of
learners in the US, Dr Dweck discovered the importance of the concept she calls Mindset. Essentially
this describes your view of yourself in terms of whether you view your talent/intelligence as a fixed
gift or a measure which could develop or change over time. She shows how ones view of oneself in
terms of intelligence seen as fixed or growth model is the biggest factor in future success and has
demonstrated this repeatedly in research.
Having a fixed or growth mindset will determine how you view success and failure, whether you see
problems as challenges or more negatively, how much you rely on affirmation and whether you
value critical advice. It will influence how you view competition and whether you view mistakes as
positive or negative in learning. Also, a person with a fixed mindset might see working hard as a sign

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they are not good enough to coast where a person with growth mindset may see it as a sign they are
working towards something new and worthwhile.
If we are to equip dyslexics with the resilience to cope with mistake making, setbacks and difficulties
it is vital we help them develop a growth mindset. They need positive examples of dyslexic success
and classroom environments where having a go at something difficult is valued more than showing
what you already know. If we are to achieve this, we have to engender a focus on process as more
important than product in education. Some might see this as contrary in a world of league tables and
exams but how are we to achieve in these measures if we do not develop the learning potential to
the maximum rather than rewarding what the students can already do. Personally I have had some
success, teaching the concept of mindset explicitly to Primary school students and having them
discuss and debate these theories in communities of enquiry set up using the Philosophy 4 Children
model.
One other aspect of this to consider is what Dweck discovered about the effect of praise on learning.
An experiment was set up where two groups of students were given identical tests consisting of a
set of straightforward questions. Both groups performed similarly. Afterwards one group was
praised for being intelligent You must have been intelligent to do so well. The second group was
praised for effort. Both groups were then given a choice of a more difficult test or one of a similar
level. The group praised for effort were far more likely to choose the latter. Then the students were
given an impossible test. The group initially praised for intelligence were more likely to become
frustrated and give up but the group praised for effort tended to enjoy it and view it as a challenge.
Finally, the two groups were given tests of a similar level to that of the first challenge. This time, the
group initially praised for effort now scored significantly higher. It is important to remember here
that this is merely a subtle change of a few words of praise, but it achieved dramatically different
results.
So what does a fixed mindset do? It forces us to live up to an expectation of a certain level of
intelligence and we can then be embarrassed about not living up to them. Dweck even found
students with fixed mindset more likely to be deceptive about their scores. Whereas, what does a
growth mindset do? It allows us to respond to challenge, to view setbacks as challenges to
overcome, it also fits neatly with what we are learning about the brains ability to make new
connections of neurones throughout our lives. What better model to teach dyslexic students that
they can overcome their own difficulties and achieve whatever they want to achieve?

Philosophy for Children

Having learned about the strengths of many dyslexics, we would want to maximise those strengths
to develop learning to a full capacity; this capacity of dyslexics for creative thought, imaginative
connection, wide cognitive leaps, interconnected and narrative reasoning leads us to consider the
potential role of Philosophy for Children (or P4C the acronym was developed in the UK as it was

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felt the word children was unsuitable for Secondary School). This focus on thinking is especially
important considering we are educating students who by definition are far more intelligent than
their spelling, writing or reading might indicate. Surely the best way to harness that ability in
developing their learning is to use their thinking skills rather than patronising them with context
reduced remedial programs designed for far younger children.
Matthew Lipman is recognised as the founder of Philosphy for Children. In the 1970s he realised the
value of teaching logic and reasoning in children after witnessing underdeveloped reasoning skills in
his students at Colombia University. Ever since, organisations such as the Institute for the
Advancement of Philosophy for Children (IAPC) and SAPERE (Society for the Advancement of
Philosophical Enquiry and Reflection in Education) in the UK have developed philosophical enquiry
and Socratic reasoning in schools. In some, for example in Gallions Primary School in Newham, the
regular implementation of P4C in all age groups and classes led to dramatic, sustained
improvements in exam results in all subjects with students making connections between their
learning and the development of their thinking having impacts in all curriculum areas.
In 2007 in Scotland, Topping and Trickey led research into the effects of regular P4C sessions.
Children in the experimental group had a P4C session once a week. Even this intervention led to a
statistically significant increase in childrens IQ scores over a year, compared with no increase in the
scores of the control group. The same research demonstrated significant gains in verbal and nonverbal reasoning, improvements in communication, listening, behaviour, reasoning, questioning,
reading and understanding. One of the key impacts in schools is in improving teacher use of
questioning. Also key is the effect on self-esteem, in a study in Canada in 1994, Sasseville found that
the pupils gaining the most in terms of self-esteem and logical reasoning from P4C were those with
the lowest self-esteem on entry.
SAPERE are developing evidence from case studies that regular involvement in a community of
enquiry helps close the gap by disproportionately benefitting the lower achievers and children
with specific learning difficulties. Using P4C can develop critical thinking, questioning, listening,
valuing of opinions and difference, creative problem solving and collaborative learning. One of the
key aspects is that P4C emphasises community of enquiry that is classes enquire together as
everyone has an equal voice, and contributing does not depend necessarily on spelling or literacy
skill it develops inclusion more completely than most educational strategies.
The key concepts developed by Philosophy for Children are critical thinking, creative thinking, caring
thinking and collaborative thinking. Students respond to a stimulus by developing philosophical
questions in response to that stimulus, voting on a question to explore and then discussing, debating
and enquiring in a process facilitated by the teacher either allowing the students to own the
discussion at times, or developing the discussion by asking probing or thought provoking questions
at key points. All participants are given opportunity to express final thoughts on the question. During
the enquiry, the facilitator can call for others who might agree or disagree, call for distinction or
clarification, for examples or criteria, for connections or for analogies.
So how does this emphasis on thinking, embodied by a P4C approach help dyslexic learners? In the
Dyslexic Advantage, discussed earlier, Eide and Eide listed strengths of dyslexics including
interconnected reasoning (ability to perceive relationships such as analogies, metaphors, paradoxes,
similarities, differences, and implications), narrative reasoning (ability to recall important personal

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experiences and to understand abstract material in terms of specific examples) and dynamic
reasoning (ability to perceive subtle patterns in complex and constantly shifting information).
As Eide and Eide see it, dyslexics have a possible brain structure advantage in philosophical enquiry.
Not only does it play to their potential strengths, it allows them to excel without being dependent on
literacy skills and it can help develop their ability to make connections between different aspects of
learning. Additionally it can raise their self-esteem and build a growth mindset.

For dyslexic brains, excellent function typically means traits like the ability to
see the gist or essence of things or to spot the larger context behind a given
situation or idea; multidimensionality of perspective; the ability to see new,
unusual or distant connections; inferential reasoning and ambiguity
detection; the ability to recombine things in novel ways; and a general
inventiveness; and greater mindfulness and intentionality during tasks that
others take for granted
Eide and Eide 2011 p42
When it comes to narrative reasoning strengths of some dyslexics, they can make use of the episodic
memory which uses fragments of memory of experience to imagine future scenarios, solve
problems, test ideas and create imaginary stories. Interconnected reasoning ties in closely with the
skills needed in philosophical study. Moral philosopher, CEO and dyslexic Dov Seidman tells in The
Dyselxic Advantage of struggling at school until encountering philosophy. He found it catered to his
strengths pondering one idea rather than reading hundreds of pages.
Eide and Eie explain that philosophy is at its core a search for gist. It involves making connections of
many kinds. It primarily focuses on a big-picture rather than fine-detail view, fitting the cognitive
strengths of many dyslexics well. Of course, there are also the material reasoning strengths of many
dyslexics so we need to ensure learning is multisensory and opportunities for kinaesthetic and
spatial orientated learning are catered for.

Ways forward
Having explored some current theories as to the biological and cognitive origins of dyslexia, the
impacts on dyslexia on self-esteem, possible advantages in types of reasoning that might be afforded
by dyslexic brain structure and current theories on the influence of mindset on learning, it important
to consider more fully how dyslexic students might be better catered for. Philosophy for Children is
one effective strategy but what else should be considered to optimise learning and self-esteem for
dyslexics?
Clearly diagnosis and assessment in themselves make a huge difference. For many, it is the
beginning or clarification of developing more in-depth self-knowledge in terms of cognitive strengths
and weaknesses and awareness of their own effective learning style. The more clarity regarding an

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individuals strengths and needs, the more effective learning can be. Of course for this to be
successful, the diagnosis also has to be framed positively in terms of relative strengths and specific
needs.
Specialist teachers need to help dyslexics develop awareness of what works for them in terms of
overcoming working memory, phonological or processing difficulties. Its an extension of the teach a
man to fish analogy but we need to remember that students learn as much or more outside direct
instruction as in. They need to own the learning and to see their own capabilities and next steps in
terms of that learning.
This may mean carefully building students independence as their self-esteem improves, developing
their self-efficacy and locus of control within their own capabilities. In my experience this often
develops from the teacher initially taking the lead in activities to the teacher consciously developing
learning to allow the student to take control.
Considering the relative weaknesses many dyslexics face - spelling, fluent accurate reading and
sometimes handwriting, arithmetic, mental mathematics, sequencing, organisation and rote
memory these need addressing through programmes that build on the same individuals relative
strengths: creativity, reading and oral comprehension, material, interconnected, narrative and
dynamic reasoning. For example, a student of mine loved art and learned very visually so having her
create humourous cartoons to help remember ideas was a useful strategy, she also learned much
more by using the senses together.
Indeed, visual strategies are often a way in to represent dyslexic students thoughts. Mindmapping is
often a way to record the sophisticated connections a dyslexic student might make with the more
flexibility of connection type and colour coding the better. Creative ways of representing ideas have
always been developed by dyslexics and this should be encouraged. Oliver Wests Footnotes system
in his book In Search of Words is one example. Profoundly dyslexic, he developed he system as a
way of representing his thoughts and offers it to share with others, howeverat best, students
develop and refine their own systems to match their own cognitive style.
Multisensory learning is most effective. When I have involved students sense of taste, smell, touch,
sight and hearing in an activity has been when they have proved most memorable. Clearly these
types of activities are vital for effective learning but we must also equip our learners to learn for
themselves and engage their thinking in their learning.
Carefully targeted multisensory phonics teaching is important for many young dyslexic learners but
many times older students who have phonological, working memory and processing difficulties and
have had phonics based teaching for years are given more of the same. Unfortunately sometimes
even programmes designed for younger children are given which can be even more damaging for
self-esteem. Often it is much better to utilise the dyslexic pupils strengths in reasoning and teach
spelling more in a morphological manner, as described in Rescuing Spelling by Melvin Ramsden.
Reading Ramsden and Spell it Out (The Singular Story of English Spelling) by David Crystal, one
becomes aware of the huge possibility of teaching English spelling intelligently and logically and also
by breaking spelling down into morphological rather than phonological units making use of the

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chunking technique for building words. Where the phonology of English orthography is confusing,
using morphological units it is possible to build accurate spellings and make connections logically.
By definition, dealing with dyslexic students we are working with people of greater intelligence than
spelling ability and that intelligence can be put to use, explaining the influence of Norman scribes on
English spelling, the ways English scribes attempted to indicate short and long vowels, and how the
etymology of a word might give clues to its spelling. Teaching using a morphological approach makes
sense as it builds on the dyslexic students strengths
In Dyslexia and Self-Concept, Burden recommends a number of ways forward, very much
recommending an approach based on mediated learning experiences (MLE) as described by Reuven
Feuerstein and his colleagues. Feuerstein identified 12 principles of effective mediated learning.

Intentionality and reciprocity: making intentions clear and ensuring learners are on board
Mediating for meaning: the activity has significance and meaning for the learner
Transcendence: learning experience should transcend beyond the here and now
Mediation of feelings of competence: developing a sense of self efficacy by providing
informative feedback and carefully targeted, specific praise
Seeing problems as challenges: making the learner active in solving their own problem
relates directly to Dwecks growth mindset
Goal seeking, goal setting and goal achieving: motivating learners to achieve realistic and
relevant learning outcomes and to set their own personal goals
The mediation of the need to see ones behaviour as within ones control:: the learner
attributing success or failure as within their control having a strong internal locus of
control. At first many dyslexic students may constantly seek help with their work but they
need to be gradually weaned off their dependency
Fostering awareness of change: help learners reflect on how they have changed
Individuation: the recognition of the individual as a unique person, dyslexics often have to be
helped to feel special and that they have talents and abilities that override their specific
difficulties
Sharing with others: learners need to be encouraged to share problems and strategies with
others empowering both themselves and others, developing pride in themselves
Mediation of a sense of belonging: here is the importance of successful inclusion in the
mainstream school.
The need to foster a belief in optimistic alternatives: developing an optimistic learning
outlook, again this fits with Dwecks growth mindset theory well.

If we take a mediated learning approach to specialist teaching in this manner and develop targeted
teaching that is multisensory, develops students abilities to be metacognitive and reflective learners
and build in a high level of teaching of thinking skills we can help students achieve their potential
and value themselves as learners provided we factor in an appropriate degree of success and
personalised to the interests of the students. The metacognitive aspect is vital. If they are to know
their strengths they must understand the specific nature of their individual difficulties and the
specific nature of strategies they personally can use to learn efficiently

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Eide and Eide describe internal and external supports in the Dyslexic Advantage in terms of factors
the dyslexic adults they interviewed considered critical for their emotional, learning and professional
success. Internal supports included tenacity, confidence, positive self-image, acceptance of struggle
especially in aspects of education (resilience) and a personal focus on individual strengths and
interests. External supports included supportive home and school environments and a supportive
network of friends. As educators we can play a role in enabling dyslexic students to develop all of
these and we need to make sure we make every use of dyslexic learners positive strengths in order
to develop their potential to the full.
Focussing on strengths of dyslexic learners allows them to develop self-esteem and utilise their
thinking skills and creativity to maximise this potential. Instead of seeing school as an ordeal, or
dyslexia as an obstacle to overcome, education can become a more natural, positive learning
experience that allows the learner to build on their successes and thrive.

One of the most important things students with dyslexia can do is to

identify their ideal learning style, which consists of their best methods of
information input, information output, memory and attention. By funnelling
information towards areas of cognitive strength and away from areas of
weakness, students with dyslexia can learn and express knowledge as
efficiently and effectively as possible.
Eide and Eide 2011 p236

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