POPULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTS

Population: a group of interbreeding organisms of one species in a habitat

Community: all the populations of different organisms living and interacting in a particular place at
the same time; group of different species form a community
Habitat: where a community of organisms live
Ecosystem: Made up of all the interacting Biotic and Abiotic factors
Therefore two species which have different niches will provide a maximum yield as each will exploit
the environment more effectively.
Abiotic Factors: non- living factors that affect an ecosystem and its organisms such as temperature
and rainfall
Biotic Factors: living factors that affect an ecosystem and its organisms such as competition and
predation
Ecosystem: made up of all the interacting biotic and Abiotic features in a specific area
Ecological Niche: the role of a species in an ecosystem; it is governed by the adaptation of the animal
to biotic and abiotic factors.
INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION TAKES PLACE WHEN TWO SPECIES HAVE OVERLAPPING NICHES (this is
because no two species can coexist in the same habitat if they have the same niche). Therefore if two
species are observed to compete then they must have the same niche.
Species: a group of interbreeding individuals which do not normally breed with other species to
produce fertile offspring
Food Chain: a sequence of organisms in an ecosystem in which each is the food of the next organism
in the sequence
Food Web: all the interconnected food chains in an ecosystem
Trophic Level: a feeding level in a food wed, it shows energy transfers away from the producer
The primary consumer gains the most energy; therefore herbivores gain more energy than carnivores
Pyramid of energy: a representation of energy at each trophic level, it is a triangular shape as energy
is lost BETWEEN trophic levels
Why ecosystems rarely have more than five trophic levels:
Not enough energy left as there are energy loses between trophic levels
Producer: The first organism in a food chain, it is an autotroph; capable of manufacturing food by
photosynthesis
How Producer converts energy to biomass:
1) Uses energy for photosynthesis
2) Materials are synthesised to be used for growth
3) The chemical energy is stored
Why dry biomass of animals to dry biomass of plants is always a lot less than one:
1) Plants are producers and animals are consumers
2) Energy is lost between trophic levels due to loss of energy through respiration, heat, etc.
Primary Consumer: The second organism in a food chain, obtains energy from the producer; herbivore
Secondary Consumer: obtains energy from the primary consumer; carnivore
Decomposers: Organisms that break down producers and consumers when they die and thus release
minerals and elements which can be used by plants
How Decomposers may work on dead matter to make the contents available to a plant:
1) Secrete enzymes for digestion of dead matter, usually it is starch
2) Digestion produces sugars and nitrogenous waste
3) The nitrate (nitrogenous waste) is taken up by plants
4) Decomposers absorb the sugars (glucose) produced from digestion and use them for aerobic
respiration
5) As decomposers respire they produce Carbon Dioxide may be used by the plant
leaves in photosynthesis
6) However they also use up Oxygen as they respire, therefore reducing diversity of
oxygen dependant organisms
7) Decomposers will also change subject to temperature and pH
Difference between decomposers and detritivores:
1) Decomposers secret enzymes for extracellular breakdown of organic matter
2) Detritivores ingest organic matter
Detritivores usually increase the activity of microbial decomposers by:
1) Breaking down larger pieces of organic matter
2) Increase oxygen content for respiration of decomposers
Pyramid of Numbers: Representation of the number of organisms in each trophic level in an
ecosystem
Limitations of Pyramid of Numbers: 1) No accounts is taken of size

2) Numbers of certain organisms can be so great that they cannot be

represented using the same scale as other species
Pyramid of Biomass: A representation of the mass of each trophic level in an ecosystem = ALWAYS
pyramid shaped (except one case where Zooplankton and Phytoplankton are
involved).
Carrying Capacity: The maximum population that a particular environment can hold
Abiotic Factors:
1) Temperature; measured using a thermometer
In cold blooded animals: 1) Too high temperature; enzymes denature; growth stops.
2) Too low temperature; enzymes slow down; stop growth
In warm blooded animals: 1) Too high temperature; more energy spent lowering body
temperature to optimum
2) Too low temperature; more energy spent raising body temperature to
optimum
In plants, when a plant is larger than another plant, it not only takes away the outcompeted
plants sunlight, but also provides it with shade, therefore keeping the temperature constant; this
can be a good and a bad thing.
2) Light; energy source for plants, if it increases, then there is increase in rate of
photosynthesis and therefore an increase in the population growth. It is measured using a
light meter or light sensor.
3) Water and Humidity; if water is scarce, then less organisms present. Humidity affects
transpiration rate of plants and evaporation rate in animals. It is measured using a hygrometer.
4) Wind Speed; Increases transpiration rate as it moves away the humidity bubbles at the stomata
causing a more desirable diffusion gradient for water vapour
5) pH; Influences enzyme activity. It is measured using a pH meter.
6) Oxygen; It is an oxidiser which allows cellular respiration which is to allow continued release of
energy from food. Oxygen also affects photosynthesis. It is measured using an oxygen-sensitive
electrode.
7) Wave Action; It may erode soil and rocks as well as moving any living organisms. It is measured
using an anemometer
8) Carbon Dioxide; It can be a limiting factor to photosynthesis. It is used in forming permanent
plant tissues. It is measured using a gas analysis.
9) Nitrogen; it is used by plants to make PROTEIN
Any abiotic measurement will be repeated several times at a site and then averaged. The
measurements may be repeated over a course of a year, or day, etc.
Some plants are more greatly affected by competition than others.
From the above factors, the following can be limiting factors of photosynthesis (basically this is any
factor that affects the rate of photosynthesis):
1) Temperature- usually when this increases respiration and photosynthesis both increase
2) Light (believe it or not some plants grow better when light intensity is LOW, they therefore can
survive latter stages of succession)
3) Oxygen
4) Carbon Dioxide
A plant which has a higher rate of photosynthesis will outcompete other plant species.
REMEMBER: Photosynthesis is the main route by which energy enters an ecosystem
Ways in which larger plants affect smaller plants:
1) Reduce light
2) Reduce water
3) Reduce mineral ions
4) Reduce wind
5) Increase humidity
6) Reduce temperature
It is best to carry out studies on animals in their natural habitats as this allows you to see the effect of
biotic and Abiotic factors.
Measurement used in order to find rate of photosynthesis: Oxygen produce per unit time
Out of the above, organisms would compete for light, water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen.
GREENHOUSES
Why you should not increase temperature in a greenhouse on a dull day:
1) Temperature increases rate of respiration too, therefore the rate of photosynthesis will be too
low to replace respiratory losses

2) Not cost effective

How Carbon Dioxide is enriched in a greenhouse:
1) Dry ice in the environment
2) Combustion
3) Manure
Carbon Dioxide is not enriched above 0.1% in the greenhouse because:
Not cost effective as other factors could then limit photosynthesis
Why Carbon Dioxide in a greenhouse is done in the winter:
Cost of enrichment covered by extra cash gained from sale of crops as crops sell for more in the
winter
Why yield of crop grown in greenhouse in winter is lower than in summer when enhancing conditions
not applied:
1) Lower light intensity limits photosynthesis
2) Lower light duration limits photosynthesis
3) Lower temperature limits photosynthesis
How conditions are enhanced:
1) Carbon Dioxide enhanced by burning oil
2) Heat enhanced by using heater
3) Light enhanced by light left on for extra hours
4) Fertilisers (contain nitrogen) enhanced by regularly application
Farming Practises which increase the productivity of crops:
1) Fertilisers added to soil
2) Pesticides applied
3) Selective breeding used
4) Genetic modification
5) Ploughing aerates soil and allows nitrification
6) Crop rotation increases soil nutrients
7) Irrigation removes the limiting factor of water
8) Covers and netting protects against birds
Why artificial fertilisers are applied to crops:
1) Increases yields
2) Replaces ions taken in by crop
Why extra artificial fertilisers are not applied:
Increased application of fertiliser does not increase yields; uneconomical, known as the law of
diminishing returns
A high concentration of fertiliser in soil can reduce plant growth:
1) Fertiliser lowers soil water potential
2) Decreases potential gradient between plant and soil therefore water cannot diffuse from soil
into plant via osmosis
Advantages of Inorganic/Artificial fertilisers than Organic/Natural fertilisers such as manure:
1) Ions in readily available form
2) Effects relatively rapid
3) Easy to apply
Disadvantages of Inorganic/Artificial fertilisers than Organic/Natural fertilisers such as manure:
1) Quickly leached
2) More likely to cause pollution
3) Relatively expensive
4) Production is energy consuming
5) Natural fertilisers contain a wide range of elements
6) Natural fertilisers aerate the soil
How features of a greenhouse control the physical environment:
1) GLASS: allows light and heat through limits air movements
2) BLINDS: controls light and heat entering glass
3) VENTILATOR: 1) Allows entry of CO2,
2) Prevents excess humidity and
3) Limits spread of disease
Why water is needed in soil for plants:
To allow stomata to open which then allows CO 2 absorption
PESTICIDES
Parasites: Organisms that live on or in, host organisms.

CHEMICAL CONTROL (sometimes called insecticide):

Advantages:
1) In pests such as weed, removal of weed actually leads to less competition
2) If it is very low toxicity, it will not affect humans
3) Acts quickly
4) Can be applied to specific area
5) Kills greater variety of pests

Disadvantages:
1) Not all plants may be sprayed
2) Some spray may wash of plants
3) Pest may become resistant (grow immune to pesticide)
4) Bioaccumulation
5) Kills beneficial organisms
6) Enters food chain
7) Residue is left on crop
How a pest becomes resistant:
1) There is variation in the pest population
2) Mutation occurs
3) This produces the allele giving resistance
4) There is a selection pressure for this gene
5) Therefore pests with this gene breed
6) This leads to an increased frequency of surviving allele
Although pest plants are not wanted, they do increase the diversity of the environment as they attract
new species
Plants with large surface area to volume ratio are easily affected by pesticides as there is a shorter
diffusion pathway
SYSTEMIC INSECTICIDE: Insecticides absorbed by plants allowing plant tissues to kill insects feeding
on them
Advantages of Systemic Insecticide:
1) Only affects an insect that eats plant (specific)
2) Insecticide is not diluted which reduces the amount needed
3) Insecticide does not cause eutrophication
Some plants can be made as a pesticide by incorporating the pesticide into genome of plant to allow
plant to produce toxin, this called genetically modifying crops.
Advantages of making Genetically Modified Crops against pests:
1) More effective than other methods
2) Poisons may harm other
3) Prevent spread of disease
4) Economic benefit to farmer
Disadvantages of making Genetically Modified Crops against pests:
1) Plasmid may enter another species
2) May sterilise other species
3) Disruption of food chain
Why there may be Chemical Pesticides in bodies of other organisms other than the pest:
1) Insect may eat a high number of pests which have been affected by the Chemical Pesticide
2) The insect cannot break down the chemical, therefore it remains in the insects body
Why resistant pests increase in number:
They can survive the chemical; they then reproduce to allow the genes to be passed on
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL (using a predator to control pest organism/ sometimes you can
release sterile males of the pest):
Advantages:
1) If well trained, it will only attack the pests, i.e. specific
2) Only one application is required and is therefore cheaper
3) Safer as it does leave chemical residue
4) Pests do not become resistant
5) Application linked to life cycle of pest
6) Maintains low level of pest
7) Can be used in organic farming

Disadvantages:
1) You do not completely remove pest
2) Can only be used for glasshouse crops
3) There is a cost of researching
4) It may become a pest itself
5) May attack non-target species
6) It is slower than chemical control
7) It is more subject to environmental factors
8) Difficulty in maintaining population of predator
9) Cost of predator
In Biological Control you must:
1) Look for predator of same origin as pest; predator can survive in similar climate
2) Study effect of predator on other organisms in laboratory; may outcompete native species or
may attack them
3) Release large number of predators; increases chance of successful introduction so that damage
to crops is little
4) Ensure stable coexistence of predator and pest at low population densities; no further
introduction required
In Biological Control, the pests cannot be completely wiped out because:
1) Predator may die out
2) Predator may become a pest itself
Lethal Concentration: concentration which kills 50%
Benefits of an Integrated Pest Management Scheme:
1) If one method fails, the other is still partially effective
2) Reduced amounts of pesticides needed
3) Increases yield
4) Less chance of resistance
5) Less effect on food webs
6) Chemical controls initial surges in pest numbers whilst biological gives longer term control of
pests
How you would know that a pesticide was working:
Pest numbers decrease and REMAIN low
INVESTIGATION
In all these investigations, we will be measuring the BIOTIC factors as biotic factors are
living organisms.
We can measure the biotic factors in 5 ways:
1) Abundance of population: counting the number of organisms in the sample
2) Richness of population: number of different species found in a sample
3) Diversity of population: Simpson Diversity index which takes into account the richness and
abundance
4) Growth of population: comparison of growth with between species
5) Biomass of population: used when studying productivity of an organism
Abundance of the population:
1) Frequency: the likelihood of the species occurring in a quadrat
2) Percentage Cover: Estimate of the area within a quadrat that a species covers
How Percentage Cover of an organism of an area may be measured:
1) Use of quadrats that are randomly placed
2) Use a large number of quadrats so as to reduce sampling error
3) Estimate percentage of area covered by organism (by counting all the squares occupies by the
species)
Why Percentage Cover is better to use than Frequency:
1) Frequency is too large
2) Plants are too small
Sometimes, you may even lay quadrats every 10 metres rather than use random sampling, this is
because:
1) It is systematic sampling
2) To establish a pattern
How to place quadrats at random:
1) Split area into squares and number them
2) Draw numbers from a hat
Why quadrats must be placed at random:

To avoid bias, generally whenever

you collect animals/plants, whatever
method it may be, randomness is
most important
How you would decide the number
of quadrats to use:
1) Take enough to carry out a
statistical test
2) Take into consideration the
amount of time you have to
carry out the investigation
3) Take a large enough number
to make results reliable
4) Ensure unnecessary extra
quadrats are not placed
What size the quadrat should be:
1) Depends on size of animal
2) If a species occurs in a series of groups in an area, then use a large number of small quadrats
to give representative data
Two methods of sampling a population:
1) Systematic sampling
2) Random Sampling
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING:

Transect: lines that allow us to sample along a changing habitat (usually used to measure
distribution of a species from one habitat to another)
Interrupted-Belt Transect:
Quadrats are placed at intervals along the line
Continuous-Belt Transect:
Quadrats are place along the entire line
A Point Transect:
You record plants touching certain points along the line
Line Transect:
You record all plants touching the line
Point Transects and Line Transects are done without quadrats
Characteristics of a Line Transect: it is quick but can be unrepresentative
Characteristics of a Belt Transect: it involves more work but can generate more complete data
Transects are usually used in environments such as down a rocky shore, into a forest or down a
mountain side.
Purpose of a Chi-Squared test:
To compare different numbers collected from the two sites and show whether the differences are
significant enough to confirm or reject the null hypothesis
RANDOM SAMPLING:
1) Divide study area into grid of numbered line
2) Using random numbers, from a table or generated by computer, obtain a series of coordinates
3) Take samples at the intersection of each coordinates of number of individuals and number of
species
4) Repeat many times and take a mean
Reasons why sample may not represent of whole population:
1) Sampling Bias: investigators may make unrepresentative choices
2) Chance: Even if sampling bias has been avoided you may still get a bias sample by chance
How Mark-Release-Recapture can be used to estimate the number of a population that is MOBILE:
1) Capture sample, mark and release
2) The harming must not harm the animal, (mention method of marking)
3) Take second sample and count marked organisms
4) Use the LINCOLN INDEX which is (Number in sample 1 x Number in sample 2)
Number marked in sample 2
Things to ensure when using Mark-Release-Recapture:
1) Animals are not harmed

2) Animals must not be made less mobile or more visible to predators due to the mark; one way to
do this is to mark the animal using an ultra-violet marking pen which can only be seen under
ultra-violet light
3) Leave enough time for the marked individuals to redistribute themselves and mix with the
population
4) Ensure it is not breeding season of the animal, as breeding season increases the population
size
5) The mark must not be rubbed of or lost during investigation
6) The population has a definite boundary so there is no migration
7) The proportion of marked to unmarked in second sample is the same as the proportion of this in
whole population
8) Sampling method is the same
VERY IMPORTANT: sometimes, instead of marking the animal, they take the animals DNA, this is fine
because finding the animals base sequence is like marking the animal, therefore finding the same
base sequence again would show that the animal has been recorded before.
Along with measuring the population size, the scientists are also recommended to measure the biotic
and abiotic factors.
Why population size may change during a year:
1) Breeding
2) Availability of food source
3) Predator presence
4) Variation in disease
5) Temperature variation
6) Availability of water

Precautions and ethical considerations when doing field work:

1) Only work in places where risk of falling in water is small
2) Only work in places where risk of pollution is small
3) Ensure cuts and broken skin are covered
4) Ensure all participants wash hands afterwards
5) Ensure not to disrupt the food chain of the environment
Population size may vary as a result of:
1) The effect of Abiotic factors
2) Interspecific and Intraspecific competition as well as predation
Interspecific Competition: competition between members of different species (it takes place when two
species have overlapping niches)
Therefore if two species have very different niches, then they will have very little Interspecific
competition between themselves.
If species A has a predator called Z, and species B has a predator called Y, and both species A and B
eat from the same plants, then if size of predator Z decreases, the size of species B will also decrease,
why:
1) If predator z decreases, species A will increase (survive more)
2) Therefore there will be more competition between species A and B for the plant
3) Competition will result in species B size decreasing
Predation can help other species:
1) Predator eats a specific species
2) The other species has less competition and therefore can now increase percentage survival
rate
Intraspecific Competition: competition between members of the same species
Intraspecific competition tends to have a stabilising influence on population size because it is densitydependent.
Although predators reduce population size of prey, they actually increase mean mass of prey:
1) Predators kill prey therefore reducing prey population size
2) Therefore less competition between prey population
3) More food available
4) Therefore more food eaten by a single prey than would be eaten before presence of predator
5) Therefore preys may be small in number but each one will be fatter than usual
REMEMBER: species that are better camouflaged will survive against predators; this is a form of
Directional Selection

Animals that use snow as a camouflage against predators will be affected by global warming as global
warming melts snow
Population Growth:
1) Lag Phase; small number of individuals reproduce slowly
2) Rapid Growth Phase; increasing number of individuals reproducing
3) Stable Phase; population GROWTH declines and population size remains stable
4) Carrying Capacity is established
Population Growth: (Births + Immigration)-(deaths + emigration), to work out just GROWTH RATE, you
need birth rate and death rate,
If a population stays the same size, then B + I = D + E, if a population is increasing in size, B + I > D
+E
If a population is decreasing in size, B + I < D + E
(Immigration increases genetic variability as migrants bring in new alleles, therefore small populations
have small genetic variability as their gene pool is small)
Percentage Growth Rate: (Population change during period x 100) Population at start of period
Birth Rate: (Number of births per year x 1000) Total population that year
Death Rate: (Number of deaths per year x 1000) Total population that year
Increase in population size: (Birth Rate Death Rate) x current population, therefore overall
population after increase will be:
Increase in population + current population
Average Life Expectancy: age at which 50% of the population in the sample used are still alive
How to work out average life expectancy from a graph of number of survivors against age as a % of
maximum:
1) Divide the maximum number of survivors by 2
2) Go across this value and see what age it produces on the x-axis
3) Divide the produced age by the maximum age, then multiply by 100
A womans life expectancy can be longer than a mans because:
1) Men have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease
2) Men drink more and smoke more
3) Men are involved in war
Demographic Transition: Change in the population structure
Examples of demographic transition: Increase in average life expectancy, lower death rates, higher
birth rates
Analysing population pyramids:
1) The wider the base of the pyramid, the faster the population growth
2) If the base of the pyramid is narrow, this indicates a falling population
3) An age pyramid with a wide base that declines quickly and has a narrow tip indicates high
infant mortality and short life expectancy
Survivorship Curves:
Type I curve: long life expectancy, low infant
mortality
Type II curve: intermediate life expectancy
Type III curve: short life expectancy, high infant
mortality
How a sample may be used as a control: Shows
results without adding the element being
experimented
Factors which could to decrease in death rate:
1)Improved medical care
2)Improved nutrition and more food
3)Improved sanitation
4)Less disease
5)Improved living conditions
6)Improved economy
7) War ends
Average Life Expectancy may increase:
1) Improved medical care
2) Improved nutrition
3) Improved sanitation

4) Lower infection rates

5) Less disease
6) Vaccination and heath education
ENERGY
How and why the efficiency of energy transfer is different at different stages in the energy transfer
through an ecosystem:
1) Over 90% of the suns energy is reflected into space by clouds and dust
2) Not all wavelengths of light can be absorbed and used for photosynthesis
3) The light might not fall on the chlorophyll molecule
4) Efficiency of photosynthesis in plants is low approximately 2% efficient
5) Some of the energy is lost by the consumers through release of heat, or by restoring heat
depending on the environmental temperature
6) Some of the energy is lost by the consumers through faeces
7) Consumers may not eat all of their food/prey
8) Food consumed may not be fully absorbed and digested
9) Efficiency of energy transfer to consumers is greater than the efficiency of energy transfer to
the producers
10)
Efficiency of energy is lower in older animals
11)
Carnivores use more of their food than herbivores
Percentage Efficiency of energy transfer:
(Energy given out Energy provided) X 100
REMEMBER: When producers that are single celled, less energy will be lost between producers and
primary consumers because:
1) Single-celled producers are more digestible, therefore less energy lost in faeces
2) All of the single-celled producer will be eaten
How energy from the sun may ultimately end up in dead plant matter:
1) Photosynthesis will produce carbon containing substance
2) When plants die out, these substances remain
Intensive Rearing of livestock:
1) Faster rate of growth
2) Slaughtered while young so more energy transferred to biomass
3) Fed on concentrated diets so higher proportion of food absorbed from gut i.e. higher proportion
of food digested
4) Heating so that no energy wasted maintaining body temperature (mammals are Endothermshave high body temp)
5) Reduced movement, therefore less respiratory losses
6) Plentiful food supply
7) High survival rate as no predators
8) Selective breeding
However many of these methods require energy input usually in the form of burning fossil fuels.
REMEMBER: Animals can lose energy (have a high energy expenditure) maintaining their body
temperature if the environmental temperature is too high/too low by increasing
respiration/metabolism (to increase body temperature if environmental temperature too
low) or allowing heat to escape from the body (to lower body temperature if environmental
temperature too high).
This energy they have lost in maintaining temperature could leave them too weak to grow
or breed.
Residual Food Intake (RFI): difference between the amount of food an animal actually eats and its
expected food intake
Having animals with low RFI is better as it is more cost effective and allows more growth rate with the
same amount of food
Any animal that eats more than what is required for it to fulfil its daily requirements will use the extra
food for storage or growth.
Indirect energy input: Energy required for producing things required in crop production
Energy Efficiency: Energy in harvest crop total energy input, energy efficiency will be lower in well
developed as they have more machines, therefore higher energy input
Gross Production: Total quantity of energy that the plants in a community convert to organic matter
Net Production (Plant): Gross Production Respiratory losses

ATP IN

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 +
6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2; carbon
dioxide reduced
(gains electrons) to form
glucose
Respiration: Glucose +
Oxygen Carbon Dioxide +
water + energy; oxidation
takes place, electrons and
energy lost
ATP:
1) Provides energy in
small, usable amounts for the
wide variety of
energy-requiring reactions
2) Is relatively small
molecule that can diffuse
around the cell
quickly
3) It is soluble
4) Mainly found in mitochondria
5) Is extremely unstable and is constantly broken down and re-synthesised to and by ADP and Pi
(free organic phosphate)
Therefore it cannot be stored

Reasons why ATP is a suitable source of energy:

1) Energy released in small amounts
2) Soluble
3) Involves a simple reaction
4) Makes energy available rapidly
5) Lowers activation energy
6) It is reformed
Why it is important to synthesise large amounts of ATP:
1) ATP is unstable
2) ATP cannot be stored
3) ATP is needed for processes such as active transport, etc.
4) ATP only releases small amounts of energy

The reaction for ATP is: ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + Energy; this is a hydrolysis reaction

Why organisms need ATP:

1) Metabolism such as polysaccharide synthesis from monosaccahrides, polypeptide synthesis
from amino acids and DNA synthesis from nucleotides
2) Movement
3) Active Transport; provides the energy to change the shape of carrier proteins in a plasma
membrane
4) Maintenance, Repair and Division
5) Secretion; ATP is needed to form the lysosomes necessary for the secretion of cell products
6) Production of substances such as enzymes and hormones
7) Maintenance of body temperature
8) Activation of molecules
The Light Dependent Reaction: Takes place in Thylakoids (membranes within the chloroplast that
contain chlorophyll)
Light energy hits chlorophyll which then excites and emits 2 high energy electrons
These electrons pass down an electron transport system RELEASING ENERGY that is used by
phosphorylation to make ATP from ADP and used to reduce NADP to become NADPH

Energy is also used to split water via the process of PHOTOLYSIS, which produces electrons to
replace chlorophyll electrons. Photolysis also produces protons and Oxygen (2H 2O 4H+ + 4e+ O 2)
The electrons are used to make reduced NADPH (NADP)
The Oxygen is released into atmosphere
DOES NOT depend on temperature as no enzymes involved
REMEMBER: Thylakoids are a part of the GRANA in the chloroplast; therefore ATP and NADH are made
in the thylakoids of the grana
How ATP is made in the Light Dependent Reaction:
1) Light energy excites electrons in chlorophyll
2) Electrons pass down electron transfer chain
3) Electrons reduce carriers
4) This electron transfer chain takes place in the chloroplast membranes
5) Energy is released when electrons pass along the electron transfer chain
6) Energy released is used to generate ATP from ADP and Phosphate (phosphorylation)
Producers such as plants have an advantage if they have a large surface area to volume ratio, this is
because:
1) There is a larger area to absorb light
2) There is a larger area to absorb CO2
3) Shorter diffusion pathway for gases
4) Light able to penetrate all cells
The Light Independent Reaction: Takes place in the Stroma of Chloroplast
It involves the REDUCTION of Carbon Dioxide using ATP and NADPH
DOES depend on temperature as enzymes involved, therefore if temperature is too high,
enzymes denature, ending photosynthesis
Light Independent Reaction: Stages of Calvin Cycle:
1) CO2 combines with 5-carbon RuBP (Ribulose Bisphosphate) with the enzyme Rubisco as a
catalyst, Oxygen acts a competitive inhibitor with CO 2 for the active site of Rubisco
2) This produces 2 MOLECULES of 3 carbon compound GP (Glycerate 3-Phosphate)
3) ATP (provides energy) and NADPH used to reduce GP into 3 carbon compound TP (Triose
Phosphate) this process will not work in the dark, this is because ATP and NADPH cannot be
made without light
4) Some of the TP is used to make carbohydrates like GLUCOSE, but MOST of it is used to
make more RuBP for the next cycle
Therefore, if the light dependent reaction ids stopped, the Calvin Cycle will stop, therefore less RuBP
will be formed and thus there will be less CO 2 uptake.
The Light Independent Reaction depends on the ATP and NADPH made in the Light Dependent
Reaction
Why more CO2 means higher rate of photosynthesis:
1) More CO2 to convert RuBP to GP
2) Therefore more GP available to use with ATP and NADPH
When plants are submerged in water the rate of photosynthesis would decrease because:
The water would absorb light, therefore less light absorbed by plants, leading to a decreased rate of
photosynthesis.
How the concentration of CO2 would fluctuate over 24 hours above ground level:
1) Higher CO2 concentration at night as photosynthesis in plants which removes CO 2 only takes
place in the light
2) Respiration takes place throughout the 24 hours, therefore high CO 2 at night
3) However, even in the dark plants DO take up CO 2, but it is just significantly less than the
amount they take up during the day
4) In light, the rate of photosynthesis will be higher than the rate of respiration
5) The higher you go above ground level, the lower the concentration of CO 2 this is because
the higher you go above ground level, the more leaves there will be, which will be carrying
out photosynthesis which removes CO2
Why it is important for plants to produce ATP during respiration as well as photosynthesis:
1) In the dark, there is not ATP production with photosynthesis, therefore we need respiration as
ATP cannot be stored
2) Some tissues are unable to photosynthesise
3) Plants use more ATP than produce in photosynthesis
4) ATP is needed for active transport

RESPIRATION
Aerobic Respiration is
1) Glycolysis

4 processes:

one molecule of glucose oxidised to produce 2 molecules of Pyruvate (3 carbon ion)

The reaction YIELDS two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADH
Takes place in the CYTOPLASM of cell as glucose is too large to enter the
mitochondria
The process does NOT require Oxygen
Glycolysis is an oxidation reaction as it involves the removal of Hydrogen to form Pyruvate
ATP is
necessary
for
Glycolysis
as it
activates
the
glucose to
become

phosphorylated glucose
2) Link Reaction
Also called Pyruvate Oxidation
Pyruvate used to produce Acetate and Carbon Dioxide, the Acetate is picked up by co-enzyme
A forming Acetyl Co-enzyme A
No ATP is produced in the Link Reaction but 2 NADH molecules are formed as well as CO 2 and
Acetyl Co-enzyme A
Takes place in the Matrix of MITOCHONDRIA

3) Krebs Cycle

Electrons stripped from the Acetate, creating large amounts of electron carriers in the form of
NADH and FADH2
Takes place in the Matrix of MITOCHONDRIA
Each cycle produces 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 and 2 CO2
The cycle turns TWICE per molecule of glucose, therefore it produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH 2
and 4 CO2
The Krebs Cycle is a series of Oxidation and Reduction reactions

4) The Electron Transport Chain

Takes place on the Cristae (large surface area) in the MITOCHONDRIA

Electrons released from NADH and FADH2
Electrons pass from one protein to another in oxidation/reduction reactions
The energy from these reaction used to pump H + ions from the matrix into outer-membrane
using Active Transport
This creates a diffusion gradient of H+ ions (called THE PROTON GRADIENT), which
diffuse back into the matrix through the centre of the ATPase enzyme, as they do, the ATPase
enzyme synthesises a molecule of ATP from ADP and Pi using some of the energy from the
oxidation/reduction reactions
By-products are low energy electrons and protons which combine with Oxygen to form Water
We are breathing now due to Electron Transport Chain, we need to provide Oxygen to convert
the electrons into water as OXYGEN IS THE FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTOR
Role of Oxygen in Aerobic Respiration:
It is the final acceptor for an electron and hydrogen to form water
Importance of the Proton GRADIENT:

Without it, H+ would not be able to move into the membrane, therefore no ATP produced, the
energy being made from the oxidation/reduction reactions would then be released as heat
instead of being used to turn ADP and Pi into ATP
The mitochondria in muscle cells contain many Cristae because:
1) Provides large surface area for the Electron Transport Chain
2) This allows for more ATP to be made which is needed for muscle contraction
Difference between how ATP is produced in Electron Transport Chain and Photosynthesis:
1) In Electron Transport Chain, the energy comes from a chemical reaction whereas in
Photosynthesis it comes from light
2) In Electron Transport Chain, it is made in the dark as well as light whereas in Photosynthesis it
is only made in the light
Importance of inner membrane (middle membrane) of mitochondria in the production of ATP:
1) Allows electrons to be transferred down electron transport chain by carrying out
oxidation/reduction reactions with proteins
2) Provides energy to take H+ into space between the matrix and outer-membrane
3) Allows H+ back into matrix through ATPase
4) Provides energy gained from the oxidation/reduction reactions to combine ADP and Pi to make
ATP
In Respiration, you will get NAD and NADH, in Photosynthesis; you will get NADP and NADPH
Overall each glucose molecule produces 38 molecules of ATP
Only Link Reaction and Krebs Cycle produce CO 2
A body cell will know it needs to respire more if the levels of ADP in it are very high as this shows that
less ATP is present
A manometer which measures volume may be used to in an experiment to measure respiration.
Substances which would have a net movement into the MITOCHONDRIA:
1) Pyruvate
2) ADP
3) Phosphate (Pi)
4) Oxygen
5) NADH
Substances which would have a net movement out of the MITOCHONDRIA:
1) CO2
2) Water
3) ATP
4) NAD
Why ATP is better than glucose for cell metabolism:
1) Energy available more rapidly
2) Energy released in small quantities
Advantages of ATP as an energy-storage molecule and why it is useful in many biological processes:
1) Cannot pass out of cell
2) Easily broken down as it takes place in one step: ATP ADP + Pi, this is why ATP is called an
immediate source of energy
3) Releases energy in small amounts
4) Lowers activation energy
5) It is reformed
OVERALL, HOW ATP IS MADE IN THE MITOCHONDRIA (TRICK QUESTION: DONT MENTION
GLYCOLYSIS):
1) ATP produced in krebs cycle
2) Krebs cycle produces FADH and NADH
3) Electrons released from FADH and NADH
4) Electrons pass along proteins of the electron transport chain in a series of oxidation/reduction
reactions
5) Energy is released which is used to allow H + (protons) to enter
6) As H+ leave through ATPase, energy is used to combine ADP with Pi to make ATP
ALWAYS REMEMBER: All respiration reactions depend on temperature as they involve enzymes,
therefore if temperatures are low, respiration rates will be low as the enzymes will
have less kinetic energy
MEASURING AEROBIC RESPIRATION
This experiment is carried out by measuring Oxygen consumption
PROCESS:

1) Organism respires, it takes in O2 and gives out CO2

2) Normally this will not change volume of gas in apparatus as CO 2 made would replace O2 lost
3) But when we add Sodium Hydroxide, Sodium Hydroxide absorbs CO 2 (so its as though the
organism is not making CO2)
4) Therefore volume of air in apparatus decreases as the organism uses O 2
5) This change in volume causes a change in pressure which causes the coloured liquid to move
along the tube allowing the RATE OF OXYGEN USED PER UNIT TIME to be measured
6) Units of rate of aerobic respiration: mm 3O2g-1h-1

Measurements taken in this experiment:

1) Distance the coloured liquid moves and time
2) Mass of organism
3) Diameter of tube
Anaerobic Respiration: it is simply Glycolysis that does not go any further, therefore net yield of ATP is
2 molecules
Takes place
when oxygen is
limited,
most organisms
start with
Aerobic
Respiration,
then Oxygen runs
out (or
cannot be taken
in) so they
use Anaerobic
Respiration
Produces less ATP (2), therefore a lot less efficient, therefore a lot more CO 2 produced (in
plants and fungi) as more anaerobic respiration must take place to produce same amounts of
ATP as Aerobic Respiration
Takes place in the cytoplasm (this means it does not take place in an organelle like
Photosynthesis and Aerobic Respiration)
Only takes a short time to complete
Animals and bacteria convert Pyruvate into Lactate
Plants and fungi convert Pyruvate into Carbon Dioxide and Ethanol, therefore Lactate and
Ethanol production INCREASES as Oxygen levels DECREASE but eventually stop when glucose
is used up completely. The conversion of Pyruvate to Ethanol/Lactate is assisted by
NADH reducing (by providing H+) Pyruvate to Ethanol/Lactate and NAD+

The conversion of Pyruvate to Lactate/Ethanol by giving Pyruvate a hydrogen from NADH is

essential as it re-synthesises NAD + from NADH, therefore allowing NAD+ to accept a Hydrogen
and allowing Glycolysis to continue
BOTH aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration are affected by temperature as they BOTH involve
enzymes.
Why Aerobic Respiration yields more ATP than Anaerobic Respiration:
1) Oxygen is the final electron acceptor and oxygen is not present in anaerobic respiration
2) Electron Transport Chain produces most ATP which is not present in anaerobic respiration
There is no Oxygen uptake in anaerobic respiration; therefore Oxygen levels remain constant whilst
an organism respires anaerobically.
FLOODING can also cause anaerobic conditions as water prevents Oxygen from being used.
Anaerobic respiration has to start with glucose, if it is not glucose, then you will have to apply
enzymes to break the substance down into glucose.
So overall, there are only 3 reactions which PRODUCE ATP:
1) Light Dependent Reaction in Photosynthesis, (however the ATP made in Photosynthesis is used
up in the Light Independent Reaction)
2) Glycolysis in Respiration
3) Electron Transport Chain in Respiration
(HINT: The ATP made in Krebs Cycle is the same ATP originally made in Glycolysis)

CYCLES

Carbon Cycle: Involved CO2 from atmosphere or HCO3- in water - being fixed into organic molecules
by photosynthesis and then released back into the atmosphere by respiration and other
systems.
Why global warming is taking place:
Methane
Source: Fermentation of waste, Natural gas, Flatulent cows, Coal mining, Storage of manure on
farms, Anaerobic soil
These are all anthropogenic sources (caused by humans); however 76% of methane comes naturally.
How producing and using biofuels results in a negative percentage change in CO 2 production:
1) CO2 taken up in photosynthesis
2) More taken up than
produced when using
biofuels
Carbon Source: Ecosystem that releases more carbon dioxide than it accumulates in biomass over the
long term, e.g. deforestation
Carbon Neutral: Ecosystem is one where carbon fixation and carbon release are balanced over the
long term
Carbon Sink: Ecosystem is one that accumulates more carbon in biomass than it releases as carbon
dioxide over the long term
Nitrogen Cycle:

1) Plants absorb Nitrate (NO3-) using active transport which REQUIRES ATP:
Some of the Nitrate is lost to the atmosphere as Nitrogen through denitrifying bacteria
which are anaerobes and therefore thrive waterlogged soil,
Some of the Nitrate has been gained from Nitrogen in the atmosphere using Nitrogenfixing bacteria which breaks the triple bond in Nitrogen to convert it to AMMONIA using
the enzyme
Nitrogenase as a
catalyst, (to do this
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria use ATP and
organic compounds
gained from soil)
lightning can also
convert Nitrogen to
AMMONIA, ammonia
helps in amino acid
production, otherwise
ammonia is gained
through decay of
organic material

2) Plants combine Nitrate with carbohydrates to make PROTEINS

3) Plants are eaten and Nitrogen is passed along food chain
4) When the Nitrogen-rich matter dies, it is broken down by saprobionts using diffusion,( as
saprobionts respire aerobically, they release CO 2 which can also be used by the plant), and
converted to Ammonium ions(NH4+)
5) Nitrifying bacteria convert the Ammonium ions (NH 4+) into Nitrite (NO2-) and then Nitrite (NO2-)
into Nitrate (NO3-) in a process called nitrification which is exothermic, thus releasing that is
used by nitrifying bacteria to make ATP
Remember that Nitrifying bacteria, Nitrogen-Fixing bacteria and Saprobionts are aerobic, therefore
they will require oxygen
Difference between Saprobionts and Detritivores: Detritivores use ingestion and Saprobionts use
extracellular digestion
How Detritivores help Saprobionts:
1) Break plant tissue into smaller pieces giving a larger surface area for Saprobionts to work
2) Aerate the soil which helps the Saprobionts to respire aerobically
3) Excrete useful minerals such as urea, which Saprobionts can metabolise
In summarisation, the way soil bacteria improves crop yield and provides plants with nitrogen is:
1) Detritivores break up larger pieces of organic material to increase surface area available to the
saprobionts
2) Saprobionts (sometimes called Putrefying bacteria) break down organic material using enzymes
using EXTRACELLULAR DIGESTION, into ammonium compounds which are converted into nitrite
and then into nitrate by Nitrifying bacteria
3) Nitrogen-Fixing bacteria fix nitrogen from atmosphere into ammonium which is converted into
nitrite and then into nitrate by Nitrifying bacteria
4) Nitrate is taken up by plants, which is needed by plants for protein synthesis
5) As the saprobionts respire aerobically, they release CO 2 which can be used by plants for
photosynthesis
Remember: denitrification takes place under anaerobic conditions.
Remember: Sewage contains urea which can be decomposed by bacteria
Advantage of growing leguminous plants:
1) They contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules, which convert nitrogen to
ammonium
2) This ammonium is released on decomposition and converted to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria
3) Therefore there is a less need for fertilisers
The more ammonia there is in the soil, the better it is for crops, and this is because:
1) The ammonia can be converted to nitrate
2) This can be used by crops to produce protein
Role of Nitrogen Fixing bacteria in the Nitrogen Cycle:
1) Convert nitrogen into ammonia
2) Add usable nitrogen to an ecosystem
Nitrogen-Fixation requires a lot of ATP which is obtained from respiration of products of
photosynthesis.
Nitrogen-Fixing bacteria respire aerobically, therefore providing lots of ATP, however the nitrogenfixing bacteria uses NITROGENASE as a catalyst which only respires anaerobically. The aerobic
respiration helps remove O2 for nitrogenise to work
VERY IMPORTANT POINT: enzymes which work in anaerobic conditions require that the environment is
kept cool; this is because anaerobic respiration would increase the temperature
of the environment which could lead to the enzyme becoming denatured
Difference between plants that use Nitrogen-Fixing bacteria to get nitrogen and plants that get
nitrogen through a fertiliser:
Plants using nitrogen-fixation will grow more slowly as nitrogen-fixation required ATP, therefore less
ATP used for growth
Eutrophication:
1) Fertilisers drain into rivers and lakes increasing levels of nitrate and other nutrients
(LEECHING)
2) Algae absorbs this nitrate and uses it for protein synthesis eventually causing an algal bloom,
this blocks sunlight for other plants which eventually die
3) Nutrients run out and algae die too
4) Bacteria decompose the dead matter and as they respire aerobically they consume Oxygen
5) Lack of Oxygen begins to kill aquatic life (deoxygenation)
6) Bacteria decompose the dead matter into ammonium compounds which is converted to nitrate
by nitrifying bacteria

7) This could lead to an increased nitrate in drinking water which could cause human illness
Nitrate concentrations in rivers and lakes can be reduced by increase rainfall as it dilutes nitrate
which in turn stops eutrophication.
Eutrophication will be faster in warmer weathers as more heat means that bacteria will have higher
kinetic energy
In essence, there are two ways in which nitrate can be lost from the soil:
1) Leeching (eutrophication)
2) Denitrification

DEFORESTATION & CONSERVATION

Deforestation:
1) Creates CO2 as trees absorb CO2 which is released when burnt
2) Reduces diversity due to loss of habitats, niches, ecosystems, food, soil erosion and by
changing the climate
3) Causes soil erosion as there are no trees to protect soil from rain
4) Causes changed rainfall patterns and droughts as there is less transpiration from leaves
How deforestation increases CO2 concentration:
1) Less trees means less photosynthesis
2) Less photosynthesis means less CO2 absorbed from the atmosphere
3) Burning of the trees involves combustion which produces CO 2
Logging: Removal of mature trees from a forest
Sustainable Logging: Logging sectors of a forest in a sequence, ensures there is always tree to be cut.
It is the opposite of clear cutting
Advantages of Sustainable Logging:
1) Recolonisation possible from adjacent areas
2) There is sufficient time for recovery
Reasons for conservation of the forest ecosystem:
1) Trees available as a sustainable resource
2) Maintain habitats
3) Maintain diversity and protect endangered species
4) Maintain stability of ecosystem
5) Maintain food chains
6) Reduced loss of soil
7) Reduced flood
8) Reduce greenhouse effect and therefore global warming
9) The forest ecosystem is also a source for medicines
Coppicing: Cutting down some trees in a wood to leave stumps, new shoots grow from the stumps

SUCCESSION
Succession: Change in a community over time due to change in environment
Succession is of two types:
1)
Primary Succession: starts with bare rock usually after a volcanic eruption
2)
Secondary Succession: starts with soil usually after a forest clearing
How Succession occurs:
1) Colonisation by pioneer species
2) As pioneer species increase in number, they die and are broken down by saprobionts which
increase humus content
3) Change in environment as there is an increase in organic matter and nutrients, the humus
helps maintain moisture
4) This enables other species to colonise
5) This causes a change in biodiversity
6) The environment becomes less hostile
7) New species better competitors and eventually one species outcompetes other species
8) This species is called the climax community
What the pioneer species does: Change environment via nutrients to make it less hostile
Why pioneer plants having seeds that grow in fluctuating temperatures is an advantage:
1) At the start of succession, there is only bare soil
2) Temperature in bare soil always fluctuates

The environment before succession is extremely hostile; therefore very few species are able to
tolerate the conditions.
Climax Community: Stable community after which no more succession takes place
Trees that are usually the tallest and bulkiest will be the best as they will block light, needed by other
plants for photosynthesis, therefore the climax community usually reduces plant diversity as those
plants survive which can photosynthesise with less light
Why species change during succession:
1) Pioneer species add humus to the soil making the environment less hostile
2) This allows a new species to develop which is a better competitor
Why nitrate in the soil increases during succession:
1) Increase in dead organisms
2) Leading to an increase in nitrification
3) Also nitrogen-fixation could also be taking place making ammonia, which then turns into nitrate
On bare rock, the pioneer species will usually be moss caused by the soil particles of a rock gathering
in cracks as the rock weathers.
Ecosystems develop by the process of colonisation and succession until the climax community is
reached.
Grazing stops succession at the grassland stage.
Sometimes, the plant/forest is burnt, and succession begins on the burnt land, this is beneficial
because:
1) Younger plants have more shoots, therefore provide more food
2) Younger plants provide more cover
3) Unproductive plants are removed
Why diversity of animals increases:
1) Greater variety of food
2) Higher variety of habitats
3) More detritus
In sand-dune ecosystem, minerals enter the ecosystem by:
1) Shells
2) Flooding by seawater
3) Weathering of underlying rock
4) Nitrogen fixation
5) Excretory products
In a sand dune system, the climax community will be the furthest away from the sea and the pioneer
species will be widespread.
CONSERVATION OF HABITATS FREQUENTLY INVOLVES MANAGEMENT OF SUCCESSION.

INHERITANCE
Genotype: Genetic constitution of an organism/combination of alleles he individual posses, Example
of Genotype: IAIO
Phenotype: Expression of the genotype and its interaction with the environment
Example for Phenotype: if there is a genotype IAIO in which A is dominant, then the phenotype is: A
Gene: A length of DNA that codes for a particular protein
Gene Pool: All the alleles in a population
Chromosome: One long DNA molecules which contains genes
Locus: The position of a gene on a chromosome
Allele: Alternative version of a gene, (there may be multiple alleles of a single gene)
Dominant Allele: The allele always expressed in the phenotype
Recessive Allele: The allele that is only expressed in the phenotype in the absence of the dominant
allele
Homozygous: When both the alleles are the same: BB or bb
Heterozygous: When both alleles are different: Bb
When seeing the possible genotype
the children of two individuals may have, we
A
A
draw a genetic cross, separating the
alleles of the parents: E.g. if the parents had
A AA AA
genotype: Aa and AA, then we do
the following:
a Aa Aa
Therefore there is a 50% chance the
child has Aa and 50% chance the child has AA.
Co-dominance: When both alleles are being expressed in the phenotype
Example of Co-dominance: if the genotype is I AIB in which A and B are co-dominant, then the
phenotype will be: AB
Monohybrid Inheritance: Inheritance of a single gene with two alleles
Why Monohybrid Cross ratios may not take place in reality:
1) fusion of gametes is random

2) Mating is related to chance

3) Differential mortality
Co-Dominance: when alleles are co-dominant, so if they are present they are both expressed in the
phenotype, takes place usually when a gene has more than 2 alleles
Sex Linkage: concerns genes found on the sex chromosomes, X and Y, (X gene will contain the
disease)
Males have only one X chromosome (XY) therefore can never be carriers. Females have two X
chromosomes (XX) therefore can be carriers. The gametes will be each chromosome, i.e. men have
genotype XY, separating them gives you two gametes, X and Y.
Sex Linked diseases that kill children will become extinct as children who are affected will not be able
to pass on the disease.
VERY rarely there may be a gene that is existent on the Y chromosome, however this would mean that
all males would be affected and no females.
Males are more likely to have a sex-linked disease that is recessive:
1) Males have only one alleles, therefore it could be the recessive one
2) Females need two recessive alleles to have the disease
In question where they ask you to prove why a certain condition is recessive/dominant, just write
EVERYONES genotypes and try to figure out an answer.
How to prove that a certain condition is on the recessive allele:
1) Affected child produced from unaffected parents
2) Therefore parents are heterozygous
How to prove that a certain condition is on the dominant allele:
1) Affected parents produce unaffected child
2) Therefore parent are heterozygous (and still affected, therefore allele causing condition is
dominant)
If a certain condition was recessive, but scientists wanted to make a person with the condition, then
this would be difficult because:
1) The parents would have to heterozygous: Bb and Bb would make bb
2) There is no way of knowing which parents are heterozygous (i.e. no way of differentiating
between Bb and BB)
How to prove a condition is not sex-linked:
1) The condition is on the dominant allele
1)
Affected male (XRY) and unaffected female (XrXr) are producing an affected
r
r
X
X
male (XRY) which is not possible, look at diagram:
R
R
X X
X
R
Xr
Xr
Y XrY XrY
How to prove a condition in on the x-chromosome:
Affected male children from unaffected father
Serious diseases caused by dominant alleles are uncommon compared with serious diseases caused
by recessive alleles:
1) If it is on the dominant allele, then all individuals with allele of the disease develop the disease,
i.e. they become aware of the disease and therefore decided not to have children
2) If the serious disease is on recessive allele, it may not affect individual, therefore individual will
not be aware of the disease and may have children
Some diseases are fatal, yet they are passed on, this may be due to the fact that the disease takes
effect in old age, by which time offspring have already been produced.
If a recessive allele is causing a hindrance to a species ability to compete, then the frequency of the
recessive allele will decrease over time, because:
1) Due to directional selection
2) The dominant allele has an advantage over the recessive allele, therefore more likely to
survive.
Dominant Allele frequency + Recessive Allele frequency = 1; p + q = 1 (this is as long as the two
alleles are for the same gene)
Homozygous Recessive frequency + Heterozygous frequency + Homozygous Dominant frequency =
1; p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
Hardy-Weinberg principle: The frequency of alleles will remain constant from one generation to the
next providing no mutation, geographical isolation, selection, migration etc.
takes place. (The Hardy-Weinberg Principle is actually more of a PREDICTION
than a principle)

We cannot do an investigation on the frequency of certain alleles in a group of organisms if one of the
organisms is deaf, blind, etc. This is because this organism will not survive and therefore will not pass
on allele
Assumptions made when using the Hardy-Weinberg equation:
1) No selection
2) Random mating
3) Large gene pool
4) No migration
5) No mutation
6) Equally fertile genotypes
7) Generations do not overlap
When studying genetic crosses, you use an animal which:
1) Gives large number of offspring; low sampling error
2) Short life cycle; results obtained quickly
3) Male and female easily distinguished for mating
4) Small size; easy to handle and less space required
How there is genetic variation in a sexually reproducing animal:
1) Independent alignment of chromosomes which gives a new arrangement of alleles
2) Random fertilisation which gives a chance combinations of gametes
3) Mutations create new alleles

SELECTION PRESSURE
Natural Selection: process in which those organisms whose alleles give them a selective advantage
are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their alleles to the next generation
(Intraspecific competition is important for it)

Stabilising Selection: few organisms survive at extremes which means that is selects for the
mean which remains unchanged, it occurs in non-changing environment and is
repeated over many generations
Example: Very big animal is too slow but very small animal is too weak, therefore middle pathway is
best
Directional Selection: Organisms with a particular extreme of phenotype have a selective
advantage
Example: Bacteria which gain resistance
Disruptive Selection: Selection against middle, selection for one extreme
Example: Bird species called finches, smaller beaks helped catching insect, larger beaks helped
opening seed, middle sized beaks were useless
Animals that are large have a small surface area to volume ratio, therefore they lose less heat.
In the exam, you will only get questions regarding directional and stabilising selection.

SPECIATION
Process of Speciation:
1) Isolation between two populations (if the isolation has been due to separation of lands, then
write GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION between two populations)
2) No gene flow i.e. interbreeding between populations
3) Variation
4) There are different environmental factors which allow a certain characteristic to survive
5) Mutation
6) Some organisms have allele to adapt and therefore survive , for example mutation allele may
produce camouflage
7) Adaptive organisms survive and reproduce
8) There is an increase in the frequency of the surviving allele
9) Gene pool differs from original species, therefore no interbreeding can occur
10)
This occurs over a long period of time
Reproductive Isolation: Organisms cannot breed with another group
When a species is isolated: 1) Less competition
2) Less predators
Speciation is a lot less frequent these days:
1) Similar biotic and Abiotic pressures
2) Similar selection pressures
3) No isolation
REMEMBER: The larger a species, the smaller the surface area to volume ratio, therefore less heat is
lost by these species.

In Graph Analysis and Drug Trials:

1) When describing a graph, mention peak points, increase and decrease in graph and overall
increase/decrease in graph
2) Sometimes the evidence from the graph may not be enough to draw a certain conclusion. WHY:
Any correlation does not mean there is a causal relationship
There may some other factor producing a rise/fall in both factors
Sometimes, there is no relation between both factors further along the graph
Also if a control group was not used, then effectiveness cannot be measured
Fluctuations in a graph are a clear sign that conclusions cannot be drawn from it
In graphs, where conclusions are being drawn regarding a disease, check if it says
reported cases, if it does you can mention about how we dont know the full amount of
disease cases as many were not reported and THEREFORE we cant draw conclusions.
3) Objective of a control: show effect of the thing you are investigating without the thing you are
investigating it with
4) Dependent Variable (the variable that we measure) must only be affected by the Independent
Variable (the variable we change)
5) Sometimes, data is given in a logarithmic form; this exaggerates the numbers and allows the
effect of low numbers to be seen, therefore it increases the range of values. Sometimes, data is
given in a ratio; this allows comparison as it shows proportional change.
6) In some graphs, medical cases are presented for the prevalence of a certain disease; however,
the number presented may not be the actual number of people with that disease as many
people do not go the doctors.
7) When an investigation involves metabolism, scientists may experiment on people of different
ages as metabolism rate differs on age.
8) When it asks you to describe a graph, be sure to mention a peak point if there is one, if not,
describe the correlation, i.e. whether it is negative or positive.
9) Sometimes data on a graph is given in a percentage, the advantage of this is:
1) Allows comparison
2) Shows proportional Change as sometimes the initial weight/size/volume etc. of substances
is different.
10)
Experiments are repeated for the following reasons:
1) Allows anomalies to be identified
2) Makes the average more reliable
3) Allows more concordant results
4) Allows the mean to be calculated
5) To make the line of best fit and intercept on a graph more precise
11)
Difference between accuracy and reliability:
1) Accurate: without error
2) Reliable: that figure can be reproduced when measurement repeated
12)
Why it is important to check the repeatability of measurements:
1) Increases reliability of measurements
2) If measurements are repeatable, then anomalies are unlikely
13)
If you wanted to see if two results are similar:
Plot scatter diagram of one set of results against the other and you should see a positive
correlation
14)
Any questions in which data is regarding cancer, it would be important to remember that
cancer takes many years to develop; therefore this restricts conclusions drawn regarding it.
15)
When asked to give an evaluation on a claim or statement, mention all the points that
indicate the claim or statement to be true, and then mention how it could be false.
16)
Why it is best to have a large sample: reduces sampling error
17)
Advantages of collecting large number of results:
1) Allows anomalies to be identified
2) Allows use of statistical test
18)
If it asks you why a drug may not be perfect:
Unknown Long-Term side effects
Study should be carried out on humans and the study should be repeated
19)
Before carrying drug trials, scientists should consider the following regarding the drug:
Dose to be given
No serious side effects
How effective

20)

Cost of drug

When taking drug trial, scientists should consider the following of volunteers:
Age
Health
Gender
Ethnicity
Genetic Factors
Lifestyle
Body Mass
21)
When scientists wish to use an animal in a test, before deciding the number of animals to
use they must consider:
Ethical Consideration
Take a large number to improve reliability
Consider cost and space available
22)
When experiment involves volunteers, they must be healthy as they will have normally
functioning bodies. Also when dividing volunteers into groups, it should be done randomly to
avoid bias.
23)
If scientists use two drugs/vaccines and both combined have higher effect, then both
must be similar i.e. they must have the same antibodies, etc.
24)
How mean can be found from a graph:
Draw line of best fit
Then find the gradient and divide it by the distance moved
25)
Any experiment wherein the words water and mention of the word partially permeable
come together, you should automatically realise that water potential will be involved somehow.
26)
Sometimes, in an experiment, they experiment on people of all the same age: this is so
that a comparison can be made.
27)
When in an experiment, people are assigned to different groups RANDOMLY; it means
everyone has an equal chance of being assigned to either group. They do this by using a
random number generator.
28)
Also remember your basics such as when you evaporate water from a substance, it
becomes more concentrated.
29)
When scientists measure something per unit of another thing it is so as to a comparison
between the two different things.
30)
If scientists wish to know the most common volume or concentration of a substance,
they take a large random sample.
31)
In a medical study, the information is useful to scientists because It allows scientists to:
Determine the most effective dose
Determine the most length of treatment
Investigate long-term effect
Find most cost-effective treatment
32)
Double Blind trials are trials wherein neither the volunteers nor the doctors know which
treatment a particular volunteer is receiving, this improves reliability because:
Prevents bias
Prevents positive/negative psychological effects
33)
When in a graph, the points are joined with straight lines rather than curves, it is
because: the intermediate values between points are unknown
34)
When something is normally distributed, it means median = mode, this is known as
continuous variation and has a bell-shaped graph
35)
In genetic research, scientists need to ensure that the environment is the same
36)
When it says the ratio of x to y was z, it means z = x y
37)
In Spearmans Rank Correlation test, positive values mean positive correlation between x
and y and negative values mean negative correlation between x and y
38)
Even if an investigation was failure, it is important for scientists to report their results
because:
1) Saves money and time for others
2) Ensures same work is not repeated

IN MOST INVESTIGATIONS INVOLVING DATA, SCIENTISTS WILL ALSO WORK OUT THE STANDARD
ERROR OF THE MEAN
When working out percentage increase: (big number-small number small number) x 100
When working out percentage decrease: (small number-big number big number) x 100
When working out volume of a chemical after dilution:
Initial volume x concentration of chemical = volume of chemical that is in that initial volume, the rest
is basically water.
Be wary of questions in which the investigator recorded results of an investigation every couple of
seconds, then he displayed the investigation on a graph and the graph increases and then levels off.
If you think about it, after the graph has levelled off, if the investigator recorded results, he would
begin to observe same results, and therefore zero changes. Examiners could ask what did he observe
when the graph levelled off? The answer is nothing, zero.
STANDARD DEVIATION: Degree of variation from the mean.
The smaller the Standard Deviation is the better.
When Standard Deviations overlap, conclusions cannot be made as effectively as results may be due
to CHANCE, if standard deviations do not overlap, we say the difference is REAL.
Why at times Standard Deviation is better than the mean:
1) Range only shows highest and lowest values
2) Also it is possible to have two very different data sets with the same range
3) Also range is affected by a single outlier
4) Standard Deviation shows spread about the mean and allows statistical use
Why a statistical test is necessary for analysis:
1) A statistical test determines the probability of results being due to chance
2) This enables us to reject or accept the null hypothesis
Purpose of a Chi-Squared Test: to compare different numbers collected from two sites and show
whether differences are significant
If it says: explain the meaning of p < 0.05 using the words probability and chance, you will write:
There is a probability of less than 5% that the results are due to chance