Exobiology: PRINCIPLE, Processes

and Applications
Submitted By:Khooshboo Agarwal
Class XII
Session: 2011-2012
AISSCE Roll No:-

Guided By:Mr. S. K. Ojha

PGT Biology
K.V. NEIST, Jorhat
Assam

CERTIFICATE
I certify that, MISS KHOOSHBOO AGARWAL a student of class XII ,
Session 2011-12 has prepared this Project report titled
Exobiology : principles, processes and applications under
my guidance for the partial fulfillment of AISSCE-2012 Biology
Practical.
This is the bonafide record of her experiment she performed.
During the project work, I found her sincere and hard -working.
I wish her every success in life.

Santosh Kumar Ojha

PGT, Biology
K.V., NEIST Jorhat

External Examiner
Biology Practical
AISSCE 2012

Preface
2

Human mind is always curious to search for a new earth i.e.

living planet. This project is an attempt to explore possibilities
of existence of life on alien planets. Not only are these, the
basic conditions necessary for origin of life also being discussed
in this project elaborately.
From this project I grab the opportunity to know the principle
and procedure of exobiology, its applications and the future
prospects. I discussed this interesting topic in depth with our
Biology teacher and also incorporated the insight of physical
phenomenon associated to Biophysics from our honourable
Physics teacher. A healthy and strong discussion on the topic
with other concerned people also added up a new dimension in
my findings.
In this investigatory project I have tried my level best to bring
out all ins and outs associated with the same.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
No any constructive work can successfully be accomplished
without the support and help of able hands. This project work is
also not an exception.
Here I take the opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to
3

those supporting hands. I am greatly indebted to

Shri
S.K.Ojha, PGT (Biology) for his constant guidance and
constructive support in carrying out this project work
successfully and for providing such an opportunity in learning.
The undersigned is also thankful to Mr. M. C. Nath, Lab
Attendant for the laboratory support in this context.
Last but not the least; Im thankful to my parents who rendered
their support in every possible way to complete the Project
Work successfully.

Khooshboo Agarwal
Class: - X II
K.V. NEIST JORHAT

CONTENTS
Page No.
CERTIFICATE

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES OF EXOBIOLOGY

EXISTENCE OF LIFE OUT FROM EARTH

UNIVERSAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIFE

10

EMERGENCE OF LIFE: CONDITIONS

12

EXTRATERRESTRIAL ORGANISMS

21

EXTRATERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

22

CRITICISMS AGAINST EXOBIOLOGY

25

DETECTION OF BIOMOLECULES IN SPACE

28

RECENT FINDINGS

29

UP TO DATE EXPERIMENTATION

31

CONCLUSION

32

PHOTO GALLERY

33

BIBLIOGRAPHY

35

INTRODUCTION
From the biophysical background explain, we can obtain a
conceptual definition of Exobiology. Exobiology is a term derived
from three Greek roots :- = extension; external, outside;
= life and = science, treatise, discourse.
From here, the concept takes the following form:
Astrobiology is a biological science that studies the origin and
the existence of living beings in the Universe, besides Earth.
SYNONYMS OF EXOBIOLOGY:
The synonyms of Exobiology are diverse; however, the synonyms
5

were structured in relation to the most important sciences

implied in its development, Astronomy and Biology:

OBJECTIVES OF EXOBIOLOGY
The efforts of the exobiology direct to the search of:
a. The origin and evolution of the Universe.
b. The origin and evolution of living beings on Earth.
c. The distribution of living beings in the known Universe.
d. The existence of living beings on other worlds besides Earth.
SCIENCES ON SUPPORT OF EXOBIOLOGY:
The exobiology is a biological science that is supported by other
factual disciplines, for example, Physics, Chemistry, Geology,
astrophysics, Astronomy, paleontology, Cosmology, Molecular
Biology, Mathematics, etc.
Relation of exobiology with physics:a.
Because life can be reduced to well-known thermal
phenomena.
6

b. Because the living beings obtain, store and manipulate the

energy of the cosmos.
c.
Because we can formulate the densities, positions and
movements of the energy usable by living beings.
Relation of exobiology to chemistry:a. Because the biosystems are molecular systems.
b. Because the synthesis of living beings derived from the
inorganic synthesis of simple and complex biomolecules.
c. Because the life of an organism is maintained and continued
through chemical processes.

EXISTENCE OF LIFE, OUT FROM EARTH

The number of stars in the Milky Way is from 200 to 400 billion
stars. Besides, there are approximately 500 billion galaxies in
the Universe. If each galaxy had from 200 to 400 billion stars,
then there would be from 20 to 200 trillion stars in the
observable Universe. If each star were encircled by 10 planets,
then there would be from 500 to 2000 trillion planets in the
Universe. A quantity very low from the trillions that the actor
Sam Neill claims in a program of Discovery Channel about Life in
the Universe.
It would seem that the probabilities of the presence of Earthlike planets in the universe, inhabited by intelligent beings,
would be very high. However, we do not have the most minimum
evidence about their existence. We have not found a single
extra solar planet alike Earth.

UNIVERSAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIFE

a. The thermodynamic laws operate in the known Universe.
8

b. The particles are the same in the whole Universe.

Few inferences of Astrobiologists:
A) The living forms in the entire Universe should depend on
liquid water.
Because:
1. Water is available in the entire observable Universe.
2. Water is a thermo regulator for the atmosphere and into the
bodies of living systems by the next properties:

Its specific heat, that is to say the quantity of heat needed to

increase the temperature of one gram of a substance in one
degree Celsius. For water, it is one calorie.
Its boiling point, which consists of the change of phase of a
substance from a liquid phase to a gas phase. We need to apply
540 calories to evaporate one gram of water.
Its solidification point, that is to say, the heat we have to
extract so that a substance changes from the liquid phase to a
solid phase.
3. Water is the universal solvent.
B) Life in the known Universe should be experienced by
structures made with Carbon.
Because
1. It is an abundant element in the Universe.
2. It is available for living beings like carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere and in water, and like carbonates in soil.
9

3. It is the most versatile element to form compounds.

4. The compounds formed by Carbon are very stable.

EMERGENCE OF LIFE: CONDITIONS

A THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE- Living system (biosystems) needs a
field in the Universe containing a space with three dimensions,
longitude, width and deepness.
TIME- Living systems need a field in the Universe that
includes available microstates to which their internal energy
can be transferred and from which they can obtain energy.
The measurement of the flow of energy toward more
available microstates is what makes perceptible the
dimension of time. Time flow is constant, although it
appeared to be changeable from the human perspective.
10

SOURCE OF ENERGY- Living beings must receive a stable and

continuous supply of energy from a star. Earth receives a
continuous and stable tide of energy from a star (the Sun);
besides, Earth is positioned at a suitable distance from the Sun
(the Earth is placed at 1 AU = 1.49597870691 x 10 11 meters far
from the Sun), not too near as to be scorched by the intense
solar radiation (as Mercury and Venus), neither too far as to be
frozen in the cold sidereal space (as the outer planets like Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, etc.). The source of energy may not be
necessarily a star. The planet that shelters living forms can be
itself the source of that energy needed for life.
G class stars (yellow-white, with nuclear fusion reactions of
Hydrogen and effective temperatures of 5300-6000 K. G Class
are Sun-like stars) that belong to the main sequence (V or
dwarf) are the most possible stars to have planets with optimal
conditions for the origin and evolution of living beings. The Sun
is a star of class G2V (surface effective temperature of 5800 K).
A STEADY AXIS OF ROTATION- The planet should have a stable
axis of rotation. Earth has a big Moon that controls its
spinning. The Sun and the Moon control the rotary motion and
the orbital trajectory of Earth. However, even when this
factor has been greatly important for living beings on Earth, it
could be not obligatory for life forms on other planets. There
are zones between the hemisphere that always faces to sun
and the hemisphere that never faces to sun called twilight
zones; life may flourish at twilight zones on planets without a
big satellite as well as at planets with a stable axis of
rotation.
11

A MAGNETIC FIELD- The planet that would hold living beings

must have a protective field shield against massive particle's
radiance during solar electromagnetic storms. Earth has an
efficient magnetic field shield.
A PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE- The planet which would give
shelter to living forms must have a protective atmosphere
against cosmic radiation. Earth has an ozone layer, but it could
be also dense clouds of dust and water vapor.
WATER- Living beings have to be formed in environments rich on
water. This is certain because water has unique physicochemical
qualities.
For example water molecules are disintegrated during the
photosynthesis process, freeing oxygen atoms and electrons.
Water acts as a thermo regulator for climate and living systems.
HOW THERMOREGULATOR?
Water maintains the climate of the Earth stable. Water works
also as a thermo regulator in living systems, especially in
endothermic animals.
It is possible because of the specific heat of water (specific heat
is the heat in calories necessary to elevate the temperature of
one gram of a substance in one degree Celsius), which for water
is one calorie. In biological terms it means that before an
elevation of the temperature in the surrounding environment,
the temperature of a mass of water will rise with greater
12

slowness than the temperature of other materials. Equally, if

the surrounding temperature diminishes, the temperature of
that mass of water will diminish with more slowness than that of
other materials. Thus, this thermal property of water permits
that the aquatic organisms live relatively placidly in an
environment with a stable temperature.
Evaporation is the change of the physical phase of a substance
from a liquid phase to a gaseous phase. We need 540 calories to
evaporate a gram of water. At this point water boils (point of
boiling). This means that we have to rise the temperature at
100C to do water boils. When evaporates from the surface of
the skin or from the surface of the leaves of a plant, the water
molecules hold large quantities of heat. This feature works in
the organisms like a cooling system.
Another advantage of water is its melting & freezing point.
The extraction of heat from a substance changes it from a
liquid phase to a solid phase. The temperature at which a
substance changes from a liquid phase to a solid phase is
called the freezing point. To change the water physical phase
from liquid to solid we have to diminish the surrounding
temperature at 0C. The change of one gram of ice to liquid
water requires a supply of 79.7 calories. When ice melts, the
same amount of heat is released to the environment. This
allows that the environmental temperature does not decrease
to the point of annihilate all the life on the planet through
winters.

13

Besides, water is a universal solvent. Almost all substances

essential to sustain the living forms can be dissolved in water.
Besides of being accessible for living beings, water acts as the
best vehicle for food transporting so in the external environment
as in the internal environment of all known organisms.
CARBON- Carbon is available for living beings mainly in the form
of atmospheric carbon dioxide. It can be also found in
carbonates in the soils. The Carbon has six electrons in its first
level of energy and four in the second level of energy, sharing
electrons with other elements in four covalent bonds
(tetravalent), which makes it the most flexible element to form
compounds (organic compounds, because they have Carbon in
their skeletons) For example, Silicon atoms have also four
electrons in its outer shell, but Silicon is heavier than Carbon
(Silicon's atomic weight is 28.0855, instead, Carbon's atomic
weight is 12); because of it, Silicon cannot offer the versatility
presented by Carbon. The skeletons formed by Carbon atoms
can vary in length and array (linear and ring structures of the
same compound). Until now we have not found life systems
based on other elements.
Recently, the scientists of NASA( National Aeronautics and space
administration) and ESA (European Space Agency) discovered
that the Calcium Carbonate can be synthesized in the
interstellar and interplanetary media without the presence of
water (Cooper et all, 2001). This put in doubt the affirmations
that the small carbonated globules found on Mars have
originated in deposits of water. It is more probable that those
14

Carbonates have been placed on the planet by a continuous and

prolonged precipitation of dust from the Martian planetary cloud
and from the Interstellar Medium, just as it occurred and
continues occurring until now on Earth. The fractals of Calcium
Carbonate in the planetary nebula would be suitable for the
synthesis of biopolymers.
CONDENSER AGENTS- Substances that promote the abiotic
synthesis of biomolecules, from simple biomolecules to complex
biomolecules. For example, the HCN (Hydrogen Cyanide) and
Acetylene. These compounds abound in the early interplanetary
media and both have been tested artificially as condenser
agents. The evidence indicates that the bio-polymerization of
proteins and carbohydrates was facilitated by these agents and
through reactions promoted mainly by high energy discharge.
Fractals are granules of cosmic dust. Fractals could work in a
similar way by:
a. Shielding the biomolecules against cosmic radiation of high
energy density.
b. As agglomerative substrates that dehydrated the niches
wherein the synthesis of polymers occurred by the action of
light and heat on the globules contained by water into the
holes and fissures of dust grains, helping to the
polymerization of simple molecules to form larger
biomolecules. Many fractals contained drops of water which
suffered regular phase transitions from liquid to solid and
15

vice versa. Those fractals, or dust granules, could also

function like agglomerative substrates.
All our observations on the abiotic synthesis of biological
polymers point to the previous conclusions.
The ozone has become necessary and indispensable for the living
beings on Earth; however, not only the ozone functions like a
protector of living beings against the Cosmic Radiation. Dust and
water vapor also act like shields against Cosmic Radiation. From
the theory on the origin of life that when living beings emerged
on Earth there was not an ozone layer and that the first bionts
had to be protected against the cosmic radiation, composed
mainly by wide streams of X-rays, emitted by an incipient Sun.
The fractals with frozen water trapped in their holes and
fissures can act like shields against cosmic radiation. The
protoplanetary disks are constituted by fractals of diverse
dimensions and by heterogeneous substances that can act like
protective screens.
The fractals or granules of forsterite or magnesium silicate are
Olivines produced at very high temperatures. This indicates that
the comet Wild-2 -from where we have obtained fractals of
olivine- was formed in a zone very close to the Sun or at a very
hot place out from our solar system, at temperatures near or
over 1000 K. In this class of comets there could not have been
synthesized complex organic compounds. It is more feasible than
the biomolecules have been synthesized in the environment of
planetary nebulas.
16

The grains of silicon carbide ejected by supernovas could

have acted like agglomerative substrates wherein the
biomolecules and the microspheres with lipidic membranes
could have been synthesized. Those fractals have also holes
and fissures that could have been filled with water and
fundamental substances that would build biopolymers.
Also the sidereal porous fractals, as the type Porous Chondrites
formed by silicates, which molecular structure is not altered by
heat, water and the chemical reactions that occur among simple
molecules, could have acted like agglomerative substrates for
the formation of biomolecules. It has been confirmed
experimentally that some biomolecules, like ribose and amino
acids, were synthesized in porous fractals. Later, the
polymerization into the holes of the granules there could
happen.
The question is whether those processes that occurred during
the gestation of our Solar System could be frequent events in
the whole Universe.
At least, we know that the chronicle of life on Earth shows a
sequence of events strictly connected to the physical and
chemical universal laws. So, the life on Earth is not unique and
it has not derived from events given by accident. (Christian de
Duve; 2006)
The occurrence of life on Earth has been determined by the
17

Universal physical laws; consequently, the life on other worlds of

our Cosmos cannot be microstructurally very different to the
terrestrial life.
If there were a possibility of existence of other biotic
configurations, these would exist now on Earth because the
Fundamental Laws operate in the whole Universe and the
particles and their properties are the same in the whole
Universe.

EXTRATERRESTRIAL ORGANISMS
We could speculate a great deal on the probable appearance of
the extraterrestrial living beings whenever we had taken into
account the conditions of the probable environments of other
planets. For` example, we can guess on the homeostatic
systems of an organism living on a planet with a more or less
dense atmosphere than the terrestrial atmosphere, or under a
gravity force greater or lesser than the terrestrial gravity force,
under a sulfurous atmosphere, etc. However, the astrobiologists
have verified that the probabilities to find extraterrestrial
intelligent organisms are extremely low. The signal "Wow!
registered by SETI (The Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence)
in 1951, was an electromagnetic oscillation reemitted or
bounced back by a fragment of spatial waste.
However, we can almost be sure that apparently the life can
only be experienced by systems built with organic compounds
18

(those built with Carbon), and that the biosystems living on

other worlds should be similar to the terrestrial biosystems; at
least, on microscopic structure and thermodynamic qualities,
although their macroscopic appearance be totally different to
the terrestrial organisms.

EXTRATERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS
There are organisms that live in highly hostile environments for
most terrestrial species; for example, Sulfolobus solfataricus,
which tolerates sulfurous environments with acidity at pH 3.5
and temperatures at 90 C. Recently, it was discovered that the
cooler effect of the cytosol of Sulfolobus solfataricus is due
thanks to a protein (enzyme) called Alcohol Dehydrogenase.
Throughout the last 15 years, the astrobiologists have centered
their attention on extremophiles. That obeys to the inhospitable
environmental conditions exhibited by the planets at the scope
of our technology which would be lethal for almost all the
terrestrial living beings. Perhaps, some day we will find an
Earth-like planet on where we will find not only extremophile
prokaryotes, but also protists, plants and animals.
Extremophiles are organisms that live in extreme environments
that would be deadly for the greater part of the terrestrial living
beings; for example:
19

A.
Thermophiles:
Resistant
to
(Pyrococcus lives in water at 113 C).

high

B. Psychrophiles: Resistant to very low

(Cryotendolithotrophus lives in water at -15 C).

temperatures
temperatures

C. Acidophiles: Resistant to acidic environments (pH 0).

D. Alkalophiles: Resistant to alkaline environments (pH 9-11).
E. Xerophiles: Organisms that live in waterless environments.
F. Halophiles:Organisms that live in hypersaline environments
(some halophiles tolerate environments with a 30% of salinity).
G. Deinococcus survives after being exposed to 500 thousand
rads; besides, it tolerates high levels of UV light and
radioactivity at the same time.
The human beings are not extremophiles because we live in the
middle part situated between the extremes of the
environmental variables. The extremophiles live in those
extremes.
However, the planets that could shelter extremophiles must
have environments with the following features:
A) The conditions of the biosphere should be heterogeneous.
B) There must be sectors with conditions that permit the
spontaneous synthesis, the molecular stability and the thermal
activation of biomolecules.
20

C) Under these two conditions, the extraterrestrial biosphere

must have the next physical characteristics:

The climatic variability must occur into the ideal patrons for the
survival of bionts.
It should possess the basic nutrients, sufficient for the
subsistence of bionts.
It
should
maintain
protective
units
against intense oscillations of the flow of energy from the
source (a star, a planet core, etc.).
The fluctuations of the chemical surroundings should not be
extreme or abrupt.

CRITICISMS AGAINST EXOBIOLOGY

Some censors say that the extremophiles could have adapted to
the hostile environments millions of years after the emergence
of the first biotic forms. I agree, although it could also have
been the opposite. The conditions considered today like deadly
conditions were the prevailing optimum conditions for the
occurrence of abiogenesis, and that the modern extremophiles
can be the offspring of the survivors of those times.

21

They also argue that the possible extraterrestrial biosystems

could follow evolutionary trajectories different to the
trajectories followed by the terrestrial biosystems. Those
probable extraterrestrial organisms could follow evolutionary
trajectories different to the evolutionary trajectories of the
terrestrial living forms, but hooked on the set of potential
trajectories in the cosmos, not in a set of trajectories invented
by the scientists.
The detractors noisily express that to think that all the biotical
structures in the Universe are based on Carbon and Water is
dogmatic and restrictive, and that the exobiologists should be
open-minded towards the opinion of others. We hold an openmind, but only toward things that are adjusted to the behavior
of nature. Our duty is to reject every vestige of ideological
pseudoscience. One thing is how nature behaves and another
very different thing is what we know about that behavior. Our
ignorance or our erudition do not influence in facts of nature.
The anti-exobiologists adduce that any living form in the
universe would possess complex molecular structures, and that
there would be no reason to be similar to the terrestrial bionts.
There are cosmic molecular structures more complex than the
living beings and they are not alive; for example, the Earth, an
asteroid, Jupiter, the Sun, etc.
Some detractors of Exobiology have expressed that it seems that
the exobiologists do not bear in mind the evolution when they
are only seeking for primitive microorganisms on Mars. The
22

reason to seek only for microorganisms on Mars is because it is a

planet that has been vastly explored on which we have not
observed multicellular living forms as those macroscopic bionts
on Earth. There is no moss, lichens, grass, trees, insects, snails,
worms, fungus, etc. They look for primitive microorganisms
because we know that the favorable conditions for the evolution
of multicellular organisms ceased some four billion years ago on
Mars.
The emergency of living beings on Earth is not special and we
assume that it is not unique. We unquestionably know that the
emergence of life on our planet obeyed to the universal
physicochemical laws and that it occurred simply because it had
to occur like a natural and basic process, as well as it has to
occur at any place of the Universe where the conditions that
propitiated its development on Earth restage. This it is not a
matter of conjectures, but of scientific knowledge that we have
found out from nature.
Many detractors say that exobiology is not a science because it
does not have a real object of study. Those antiscientific people
do not have idea about what they claim because the living
beings on Earth are creatures of the Universe, open to be
studied because we have them here. Earth is a tiny part of the
Universe, and astrobiologists are qualified to study the life at
any nearby segment from the Universe.

23

DETECTION OF BIOMOLECULES IN SPACE

A) Through Indirect Observation. For example, through infrared
radiation telescopes, radio-telescopes, space telescopes, etc.
B) Through indirect observation by robotized probes carrying
specialized laboratories to the planets or other sidereal bodies
to be investigated; for example, Spirit, Viking, Opportunity, Mars
Explorer, etc.

RECENT FINDINGS THROUGH INDIRECT

24

OBSERVATION
The spectrum of the star HH46-IR of the nebula IC1396 in the
constellation of Cepheus, made by the infrared telescope
Spitzer, reveals the existence of methane, water, carbon
dioxide, silicates and methanol.
In Antenna galaxy, which actually consists of two colliding
galaxies, scientists have detected sulfurous compounds,
carbonates, water and heavy elements, like iron and
magnesium.
In Orion Nebula scientists have detected large volumes of water.
They have also detected Polycyclic Aromatic Carbohydrates,
water, methane and oxygen in the Horse Head Nebula. They
found Glyceraldehydes in the most brilliant zones.
Supernovas are sidereal deposits of carbonates. Scientists have
detected large quantities of oxygen, water and sulfurous
compounds in remnants of supernovas.
The findings achieved from the mission Huygens-Cassini on
Titan, a satellite of Saturn, confirm one of the predictions of my
theory about the ringed planetary cloud. The theory explains
the presence of methane, acetylene and ethanol of abiotic
origin in abundant quantities in the external sidereal bodies
(external bodies are those which orbit more distantly from the
Sun than Earth).
25

In the South Pole Martian, the European Space Agency (ESA) has
verified the existence of frozen water in relatively small
quantities. The largest mass of the ice is frozen carbon dioxide.

UP TO DATE EXPERIMENTATION
Currently, the astrobiological experimentation is focused on the
following aspects:
a. The modeling of the early conditions of the terrestrial
reductive atmosphere which data we have known through the
paleontology and geological observation.
b. The synthesis of prebiotic molecules and other organized
structures through abiotic procedures.
c. The Experimentation with diverse factors that could activate
26

the synthesis of prebiotic molecules in the primal terrestrial

atmosphere and that can be applied to the observation of other
stellar systems.
d. Trials with diverse electrodynamic fields to recognize stellar
systems where the synthesis of biotic compounds may be
occurring currently.
In astrobiological experimentation the investigator must abstain
to get involved in the processes to avoid the effect of "external
operator".

CONCLUSION
Until now, we know that we are alone at this side of the
Cosmos. Nevertheless, may be we are not the unique "alone"
living beings in the Cosmos. Perhaps, at this time, on a sidereal
body barely heated by a small star, or on a world illuminated by
a binary or a multiple star system, someone is asking itself (him,
her or both) the same thing.
If the humanity takes care of the own humanity, attends his nonhuman brothers, those that barely think or that do not think,
and takes care of the non-living things, the future of
Astrobiology is promissory whenever we explore what we have
to explore, on feasible places to be explored.

27

PHOTO GALLERY

Fig: Panoramic view of planet Mars

28

Fig: Interactions with Physics Sir

Fig: Browsing net with Biology Sir for search of project material

Fig: Showing draft of the project to Biology Sir

BIBLIOGRAPHY

29

Campbell, Neil A., et al. Biology. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

1999, Menlo Park, CA.
Chandrashekhar, Joshi.
Plasma Accelerators. Scientific
American. February 2006; Vol. 294, No. 2; pp. 40-47. New York.
Cooper, G., Kimmich, N., Belisle, W., Sarinana, J., Brabham, K.,
Garrel, L. Carbonaceous Meteorites as a Source of Sugar-Related
Organic Compounds for the Early Earth. Nature 414, 879 - 883;
20 December 2001.
Duve, Christian de. Fox, S. W. and Pappelis, A. Synthetic
Molecular Evolution and Protocells: a review of Blueprint for a
Cell: the Nature and Origin of Life. 1993, Quarterly Review Biol.
68: 79-82.
Fox, S. W. The Emergence of Life; Darwinian Evolution from the
Inside. 1988, Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, New York, New York.
Gawiser, E., Silk, Joseph. Extracting Primordial
Fluctuations. Science 1998 May 29; 280: 1405-1411.

30

Density