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Table of contents
1. Cross-cultural consumer values, needs and purchase behavior.................................................................. 1
Bibliography...................................................................................................................................................... 21

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Document 1 of 1

Cross-cultural consumer values, needs and purchase behavior

Author: Jai-Ok, Kim; Forsythe, Sandra; Gu, Qingliang; Moon, Sook Jae
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Abstract: This study examined the relationship of consumer values, needs and purchase behavior in two Asian
consumer markets, China and South Korea. Between self-directed values and social affiliation values, selfdirected values were the underlying determinant of needs to be satisfied by apparel products. Among the three
types of needs identified to be satisfied through apparel (i.e. experiential, social and functional needs),
experiential needs were the most important needs that influenced apparel purchases of female consumers in
both Asian markets. Consumers in both country markets exhibited brand loyal behavior in apparel purchases,
fulfilling all three needs. However, actualization patterns of each need through brand loyal behavior differed
between the two consumer samples. While for brand-loyal Chinese consumers experiential image was the most
important aspect of the branded apparel appeal to female consumers, social image with performance quality
assurance was a more important feature of the branded apparel appeal to consumers in Korea. Implications for
brand image management for international markets were discussed.
Full text: Headnote
Keywords Consumer behaviour, Clothing, China, South Korea
Headnote
Abstract This study examined the relationship of consumer values, needs and purchase behavior in two Asian
consumer markets, China and South Korea. Between self-directed values and social affiliation values, selfdirected values were the underlying determinant of needs to be satisfied by apparel products. Among the three
types of needs identified to be satisfied through apparel (ie. experiential, social and functional needs),
experiential needs were the most important needs that influenced apparel purchases of female consumers in
both Asian markets. Consumers in both country markets exhibited brand loyal behavior in apparel purchases,
fulfilling all three needs. However, actualization patterns of each need through brand loyal behavior differed
between the two consumer samples. While for brand-loyal Chinese consumers experiential image was the most
important aspect of the branded apparel appeal to female consumers, social image with performance quality
assurance was a more important feature of the branded apparel appeal to consumers in Korea. Implications for
brand image management for international markets were discussed.
Meeting changing customer needs by providing the right products/services has been an ongoing marketing
challenge for retailing in competitive global markets. Consumers may choose particular products/brands not
only because these products provide the functional or performance benefits expected, but also because
products can be used to express consumers' personality, social status or affiliation (symbolic purposes) or to
fulfill their internal psychological needs, such as the need for change or newness (emotional purposes).
Consumer needs, to be fulfilled through consumption of particular products or brands, however, vary
considerably with the socio-economic and cultural differences among consumer markets. According to Yau
(1994), consumers' product choice and preference for a particular product or brand are generally affected by
very complex social influences. Thus, consumers' values, which reflect social influences and environment,
should affect needs to be fulfilled through purchase and consumption decisions, and therefore consumption
behavior. Consumers' preferences for certain products also change over time as their consumption situation
and environment change (Yau, 1994).
Personal values have been shown to be the underlying determinant of consumer attitudes and consumption
behavior (Scott and Lamont, 1977; Homer and Kahle, 1988). According to social adaptation theory (Kahle,
1983; Piner and Kahle, 1984), values are a type of social cognition that function to facilitate adaptation to one's
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environment through continuous assimilation, accommodation, organization, and integration of environmental

information. Earlier research on values and behaviors by Williams (1979) demonstrated the role of consumer
values in subsequent behavior noting that "actual selections of behavior result from concrete motivations in
specific situations which are partly determined by prior beliefs and values of the actors"(Williams, 1979, p. 20).
Homer and Kahle (1988) and Erdem et al. (1999) referenced several previous studies on values-behaviors to
support the linkage of values, attitude and behavior, showing that individual value differences are related to
significant differences in a variety of attitudinal and behavioral outcomes with respect to automobile purchase,
mass media subscription, cigarette smoking, etc.
More recently, several researchers (Allen, 2001; Erdem et aL, 1999; Homer and Kahle, 1988; Shim and
Eastlick, 1998) have attempted to establish a hierarchical causal influence of values on subsequent attitudes
and behaviors pertaining to consumers' choices of product classes, brands, store outlets, and shopping malls.
Shim and Eastlick's (1998) study found a direct and positive relationship between consumers'values and
favorable attitudes toward patronizing shopping malls. They also found that social affiliation values influenced
favorable shopping mall attitude more strongly than selfactualization values. Another study (Homer and Kahle,
1988) supported the causal relationship between the values, nutrition attitude, and natural food shopping
behavior. They found a positive relationship between internal values and nutrition attitude, and a negative
relationship between external values and attitude. A recent study conducted by Allen (2001) on the impact of
human values on product (brand) preference also suggested that values influence product preference directly
and indirectly, via prioritizing the importance of tangible attributes.
These studies suggest that, as consumer values influence product attitudes and purchase behavior, they may
also affect the prioritization of needs to be met through purchase of particular consumer products (Yau, 1994).
Needs to be met through consumption of goods and services were considered as a part of attitudinal variables
measured as activities, interests, and opinions (Homer and Kahle, 1988), and needs can be an antecedent of
attitudes and purchase behavior establishing a hierarchical linkage of consumer values-needs-- behaviors.
Values have been widely viewed as the outcomes of culture and ethnicity of a society (e.g. Phinney, 1992;
Rokeach, 1973), and have underlying multi-dimensions. Thus, certain types of values may be regarded as more
important to consumers in one country market than to those in another country market because of differences in
culture and socio-economic conditions. Thus, certain values affect more significantly consumers' attitudes and
purchase decisions in specific country markets. The importance of understanding consumer behavior in a
particular cultural setting (understanding social values) was addressed in Yau's (1994) book on consumer
behavior in China. However, little research has examined how consumer values in different country markets
influence the shaping of consumer needs to be met via particular products/brands and how these consumer
needs affect subsequent purchase behaviors. Thus, it is important for global marketers to identify prevalent
types of consumer needs in targeted international consumer markets and to understand how these needs affect
purchase behaviors. Identifying types of needs in selected international consumer markets can aid in
developing effective marketing strategies appealing to the specific needs of those markets. This void in the
research of consumer needs in international markets prompted us to empirically study the relationship between
cross-national consumer values-needs-purchase behavior in two international consumer markets.
Study design
The purposes of this study were to:
* examine the relationship between consumer values and the types of needs to be met through apparel
products/brands in two Asian markets, China and South Korea; and
* examine the relationships between the type of needs to be met through apparel/brands and apparel purchase
behaviors among consumers in these two markets.
Consumers in China and South Korea were chosen because these countries represent rapidly growing
consumer markets in Asia with substantially different economic and retail market development and cultural
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values. Many Western marketers may assume these two country markets to be similar international markets
owing to their geographic proximity. However, these two markets are vastly different in that consumers in these
countries not only have different cultural backgrounds but also went through different paths to a free market
economy and retail market development resulting in different levels of consumer exposure to material
consumption experiences and to global markets. For foreign investors, South Korean markets are now identified
as a market with a wealthy consumer base along with Japan and Taiwan, whereas China is viewed as the
market with the giant population (Frank, 2001).
Consumer needs and purchase behaviors in these two country markets were explored in order to study the
relationships among consumer values-needs-- purchase behavior exhibited toward apparel products. Apparel is
commonly considered a high-involvement shopping item which consumers often buy for its symbolic meanings,
image reinforcement or psychological satisfaction and is also a product category that is known to reflect
consumers' social life, aspirations, and fantasies and their affiliation (e.g. Solomon, 1986; Blumer, 1969; Levy,
1959). According to Kaiser (1990), clothes can manifest the wearer's social status, self-image and other
personality characteristics resulting from complex social influences. Thus, it is believed that needs to be met
through apparel products and apparel purchase behavior of consumers would provide appropriate indicators to
reflect the social, economic and consumption experience factors that would affect consumers. By examining the
relationships of values, needs, and purchase behavior in two markets, this cross-national consumer behavior
study may help to elucidate the impact of values on shaping consumer needs and purchase decisions.
We hypothesized a conceptual framework addressing the relationship between consumer values, consumer
needs, and purchase behaviors. First, underlying dimensions of consumer values were identified and
categorized into self-directed values and social affiliation values. Consumer needs were identified into
functional, social, and experiential needs as identified by Park et al. (1986). Next, we examined the relationships
among consumer values, needs to be met through apparel, and apparel purchase behavior of consumers in two
countries. Finally, findings are discussed in light of market differences as these may be reflected in the impacts
of consumer values and needs on purchase behavior between the two country markets. The relationship
between the hypotheses and the findings is discussed for both consumer markets. We also explored the
implications of consumer needs for developing successful needs-based product image marketing strategies.
Background
Two Asian markets: China and South Korea
Although frequently undifferentiated by Western managers, these two Asian markets differ considerably in terms
of their cultural and socioeconomic environments. Generally, Asian individuals are relatively collectivistic in their
social values compared to people in Western countries (Hofstede, 1984). However, among Asian multinational
marketers, it has been recognized that there are substantial cross-national differences in culture (e.g. value)
and socioeconomics, and thus expected differences in consumer behavior among Asian markets. Specifically,
South Korean socioeconomic conditions are far more advanced than China's markets, with the former
possessing a higher per capita GNP than China. Korea ranks as the 12th largest in per capita GDP among
nations world-wide (Director, 1997). Moreover, South Korea's per capita GDP of US$8,871 for 1999 was much
greater than China's per capita GDP of US$798 for the same year (United Nations Statistics Division, 2001). As
a result of improved income and standard of living, as well as earlier liberalization policies for traveling abroad
and opening domestic markets for imports into Korea, a growing number of Koreans have the opportunity to
travel abroad and experience consumption of foreign consumer products. Another indicator of market exposure
among Korean consumers is the large increase in imports of luxury foreign goods, such as apparel, into Korea.
For example, Korea has imported overseas clothing at an average rate of 62 per cent increase annually for the
past four years (The Korea Textile Economic News, 1997). In short, Korean consumer markets represent a
more wealthy consumer base market with higher disposable income than the Chinese consumer markets
(Frank, 2001). Compared to China, Koreans' exposure to foreign cultures and brands through travel, as well as
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the import of Western goods into Korea's markets, is much more extensive.
Until recently, a wide variety of consumer goods was simply not available to the average Chinese citizen, and
consumption of goods and services was very limited. However, China has undergone considerable social and
economic change in recent years. As a result, a strong consumer market is now developing in China (Chan,
1995), and more Chinese consumers are in a position to purchase a wide variety of non-staple consumer goods
(e.g. fashion apparel). Sales of consumer goods in modern retail outlets even reached 40 per cent of total sales
volume in China in 2000, resulting in falling prices of general consumer household goods (Chang, 2001).
The products and brands people buy, and the benefits they desire from their purchases are all culturally based.
One recent study found that Chinese consumers use high profile brand names to provide security because of
their limited experience with a modem free market system (Eckhardt and Houston, 1998), rather than for
symbolic or status reasons, as prevalent in more developed economies. Pan and Schmitt (1995) found that
Chinese consumers use brands as an indicator of product function to a greater extent than US consumers .
Thus, culture and socio-economic conditions in China and Korea are expected to shape the types of needs to
be met through apparel products.
Socioeconomic conditions and consumer needs
The socioeconomic conditions of markets (e.g. income, mobility, media access) significantly affect consumer
behavior (Inkeles, 1983; Tse et aL, 1989). Per capita income and disposable income have been observed as
good indicators of the amount of resources consumers allocate to consumer goods (Johansson and Moinpour,
1997). For example, when resources are limited, consumers may focus more heavily on price and performance
attributes in making product evaluations and purchase decisions. However, as more resources become
available, consumers may desire more hedonic or emotional image attributes in products or brands. Often
foreign brands or goods imported from advanced Western economies are desired for those reasons. Lack of
mobility and limited exposure to media typically limit people learning about the more symbolic aspects of
consumption, resulting in greater reliance on performance and functional capabilities of consumer goods. As
markets become more modem and affluent with increased exposure to other material-oriented cultures,
consumers may want the goods they see being consumed in other cultures. This trend suggests consumer
values shape motivations to purchase particular products or brands by prioritizing consumer needs, and
influencing consumers' product evaluation and consumption decisions. Given Chinese consumers' relatively
limited economic resources and their restricted exposure to Western culture (relative to Korean consumers),
they have had less opportunity to learn about symbolic aspects of consumption. Thus, it is anticipated that the
needs to be met through apparel products will differ among Chinese and Korean consumers.
Consumer values and needs
Personal values have been assumed to influence behavioral and consumption decisions through attitudes (e.g.
Carman, 1977; Williams, 1979), thus creating desires, influencing needs to be satisfied, and driving consumers
to select products that fulfill specific needs (c.f. Gutman, 1982). Personal values have been found to be the
underlying determinants of various aspects of consumer attitudes and behavior (Homer and Kahle, 1988).
Hence, values may be regarded as one of the most influential factors that affect the type of needs consumers
try to satisfy through purchase and consumption behaviors (Tse et al., 1989). In other words, consumers' needs
and desires are shaped by their values which are influenced by the society they belong to.
Several marketers have attributed differences in consumers' behaviors to different social values held by
consumers in a particular country. To understand cross-cultural consumer behavior, various methods of
measuring social values have been proposed by researchers in the USA (e.g. Hofstede, 1984) However, Yau
(1994) suggested that different measurement methods are more appropriate to the China market, since different
values, unidentified by research with US consumers, may play a significant role in consumers' attitudes and
consumption patterns in Chinese markets. These efforts demonstrate the importance of social values to
consumer product/service preferences and consumption behaviors.
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Values help people adapt to their circumstances by directing both their effort and resources toward achieving
desirable goals (Kahle, 1983); thus, values have been identified as a powerful force in shaping consumer
product choice and therefore in prioritizing needs to be fulfilled (cf. Tse et al., 1989; Homer and Kahle, 1988).
There has been scant research devoted to the importance of personal values as an influence in prioritizing
needs to be met through apparel in different country markets.
The list of values (LOV) developed by Kahle (1983) and his colleagues is a measure of values that has been
widely used to study the influence of social values on consumption behavior. The LOV is based on Maslow's
(1954) and Rokeach's (1973) theories and includes nine values: a sense of belonging, excitement, fun and
enjoyment in life, warm relationships with others, self-fulfillment, being well-respected, sense of
accomplishment, security, and self-respect. The LOV typology broadly distinguishes these values into two
dimensions; external, i.e. social-affiliation or instrumental values vs internal, i.e. self-actualization or terminal
values. These external and internal values indicate the importance of both interpersonal relationships (e.g.
sense of belonging, warm relationship with others) and individual inward directed factors (e.g. self-fulfillment,
sense of accomplishment and self-respect) in people's everyday life. Several researchers (Beatty et al., 1985;
Kahle et al., 1986; Homer and Kahle, 1988; Shim and Eastlick, 1998) have shown that the LOV is an effective
way to measure values resulting from lifestyle, consumption activities, and product preferences.
The LOV is chosen for this study because of its convenience of administration with large consumer samples
(e.g. Homer and Kahle, 1988; Shim and Eastlick, 1998) and its proven utility in cross-cultural applications in
earlier studies (Beatty et al., 1991; Goldsmith et al., 1993). The current study examines which values are the
strong motivators of needs to be met by apparel in two different country markets. Understanding the relationship
between values and types of needs to be met by a particular product class or brand would help marketers
segment their target market and build an image consistent with the needs of the target market.
Types of consumer needs
Meeting consumers' needs is the fundamental goal of marketers. Consumer products are generally marketed to
appeal to three basic types of consumers' needs: functional, social and experiential needs (Park et al., 1986;
Keller, 1993). A product's functional attributes satisfy the consumer's need to prevent or solve problems. These
needs are considered fairly low-level motivators encouraging consumers to focus on intrinsic advantages of the
product. For example, Allen's (2001) study found that consumers' brand preference for Toyota Corolla was
based on their positive evaluation of the functional aspects of the brands (e.g. safety and reliability) to meet their
functional needs. Social images satisfy social needs such as social approval, affiliation, or personal expression
(e.g. status, prestige) and outward directed self-esteem. Consumers higher in social needs may value a socially
visible product or brand that provides prestige and exclusivity (Solomon, 1983; Keller, 1993). For example,
Western brands or imported goods may be used to convey social status in non-Western consumer markets
(Muller, 1987). Experiential needs reflect consumers' needs for novelty, variety, and sensory
gratification/pleasure (Park et al., 1986) and have been recognized as an important aspect in consumption,
especially evoking new demand of consumer products.
In segmenting apparel markets, shoppers have been identified as qualityconscious, social directed, appropriate,
or economic (Shim and Drake, 1988). Jenkins and Dickey (1976) segmented female consumers into four
groups: fashion advocates, quality seekers, frugal aesthetics, and concerned pragmatics. Other researchers
have segmented clothing shoppers similarly (Aiken, 1963; Sproles, 1979). Consumer needs identified by
previous segmentation studies may be subsumed into the following three categories proposed by Park et al.
(1986):
(1) functional needs (e.g. quality seeker/concerned pragmatics);
(2) social needs (social directed); and
(3) experiential needs (fashion advocates).
Several studies have shown a strong positive relationship between fashion leadership and experiential needs in
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which fashion leaders look for change, variety, venturesomeness, and new experiences (Schrank, 1973;
Summers and King, 1969; Workman and Johnson, 1993). Fashion leaders strive to fulfill experiential needs
(Kaiser, 1990; McCracken, 1986; O'Shaughnessy, 1987), as fashion stimulates constant demand for new
apparel products by satisfying individuals' need to experience change and variety (O'Shaughnessy, 1987).
Hence, fashion leadership may be regarded as a surrogate for experiential needs, as they appear to represent
essentially the same construct.
Previous studies on the relation between social values as measured by LOV and fashion leadership show that
persons scoring high in fashion leadership ranked the values of fun/enjoyment and excitement as important to
them (Goldsmith et al., 1991). Studies of market segmentation (Workman and Johnson, 1993; Shim and Bickle,
1994) have yielded similar findings, suggesting that values and type of needs to be met through clothing are
significantly related. Roth (1995) supported the presence of a strong linkage between social values and
consumers' needs to be fulfilled in country markets that represented different socio-economic status and
culture. These findings support the hypothesis that regional socio-economic and cultural environments affect the
types of needs to be satisfied through apparel products.
Consumer needs are also affected by the value system of the society (i.e. culture). Markets with low
individualism (self-actualization or inward direction values) would value products to fulfill social or functional
needs to reinforce group membership and affiliation or reduce the risk of not being accepted. On the other hand,
consumers in markets with high individualism would value products that appeal to their experiential needs
(Roth, 1995). Thus, it is anticipated that values considered to be important in each country market will be related
to the consumer needs to be met through apparel products.
Although considerable research has identified various market segments, researchers have often failed to relate
these segments to product or brand strategies designed to address specific consumer needs. Furthermore, past
segmentation research has focused almost exclusively on US consumers; therefore, these segmentation
studies may have limited applicability to international markets. For instance, global apparel product marketers
may exert their promotion efforts without being informed regarding consumer needs to be met through apparel
products in some international markets. Based on the review of the literature, the conceptual model guiding this
research is presented in Figure 1 and we propose the following hypotheses to examine the relationships of
consumer values-needs-purchase behavior.
H1a: Consumers' self-directed values significantly influence the type of needs to be met through apparel in
Chinese and Korean markets.
H1b: Consumers' social affiliation values significantly influence the types of needs to be met through apparel in
Chinese and Korean markets.
H2a: Experiential needs positively influence apparel purchase behavior: (a) the amount of purchase; (b) brand
loyal behavior among consumers in China and Korea.
H2b: Social needs positively influence apparel purchase behavior; (a) the amount of purchase; (b) brand loyal
behavior among consumers in China and Korea.
H2c: Functional needs positively influence apparel purchase behavior: (a) the amount of purchase; (b) brand
loyal behavior among consumers in China and Korea.
Method
Data collection

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We employed a shopping center intercept procedure to collect consumer information on types of clothing needs,
consumer values, and purchase behaviors. Samples consisted of 399 female shoppers in major shopping areas
in Shanghai, China, and 418 female shoppers in Seoul, Korea. These cities represent the largest consumer
markets and major commercial centers for fashion trends in each country. Surveys were administered by local
college graduate students at the shopping areas which cater to somewhat upscale shoppers in both countries.
Female shoppers in these shopping areas were surveyed because these shoppers were potential consumers
for a wide range of branded clothing to fulfill a variety of needs.
Respondent characteristics
Table I presents the profile of each country's sample. Samples in both countries are similar in terms of
educational background but differ in age and marital status. The China sample is somewhat younger and
skewed toward to unmarried in marital status. Differences in the results, however, should not pose any problem
in comparing the results, since the shoppers surveyed reflect typical shoppers who shop in those shopping
areas looking for wide range of better quality merchandise.
Questionnaire development
The questionnaire designed for this study was originally drafted in English and translated into Chinese and
Korean respectively. It was then back-translated into English to maintain consistency with original meanings.
The questionnaire consisted of scales to identify:
* values;
* needs to be met thh apparel products;
* purchase behavior (ie. the amount of purchase; brand loyal behavior); and
* other demographic information.
Scales
Consumer values. Section one included questions on consumer values. Kahle's (1983) nine value items of LOV
were used to measure consumer values. Value items included the following: sense of belonging, warm
relationships with others, self-fulfillment, being well-respected, fun/ enjoyment, security, self-respect, a sense of
accomplishment, and excitement. The original study by Kahle (1983) found the LOV to be significantly
correlated with various measures of wellbeing, adaptation to society and self, providing evidence for the
nomological validity of this measure. Other researchers (Goldsmith et al., 1991; Kahle et al., 1986) also have
found this scale to be a valid measure of social values and provided evidence of LOV's association with
consumer behavior. Respondents were asked to indicate the importance of each value item on a seven-point
Likert-type scale (where 1 = not important at all; 7 = greatly important).
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Instead of examining the impact of the individual LOV items, two main factors were identified by principal
component factor analysis using combined data of the Chinese and the Korean samples. The data were
combined in order to extract the common factor items as a primary factor that influenced subsequent consumer
needs and behaviors in two different markets. Factors were extracted using the criteria of an eigenvalue of one
or greater. Items with factor loading greater than 0.60 in one factor and less than 0.40 in other factors were
retained. Table 11 shows the scale items for each factor and the factor reliability coefficients. The two factors
identified were labeled as the self-directed and social affiliation values. The first factor was named as selfdirected values because the items are all related to self- or inward fulfillment value items. The other factor was
labeled as social affiliation values since these items related to outward social affiliation or relationships with
others.
Consumer needs. Section two examined needs to be satisfied from clothing. Likert-type items adopted from
previous studies (Goldsmith et al., 1991; Shim and Bickle, 1994) were included to identify clothing needs.
Respondents were asked to rate their level of agreement with each statement on a seven-point Likert scale
(where 1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree). Principal component factor analysis was performed using the
data of each country sample to identify consumer needs. An eigenvalue of one or greater was used as the
criterion for extracting the number of factors. Three factors, representing three types of consumer needs, were
extracted and labeled as experiential needs (fashion leadership), social needs (status/ prestige), and functional
needs (function/comfort). Table III shows the scale items for each type of need and the reliability coefficients for
the Chinese sample and Korean sample separately. Correlation coefficients for social and functional needs
seem somewhat low, but both items for both needs types were kept. because two items may reflect underlying
social and functional needs better than one item.

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Purchase behavior. Section three requested demographic and purchase behavior information. In the consumer
behavior literature (Shim and Eastlick, 1998; Homer and Kahle, 1988), purchase/repatronage intentions
(intentions to purchase products or to visit stores or shopping malls) and/or shopping frequency, frequency of
mall visits, and amount of purchase, have been widely used to measure brand/store loyalty or shopping mall
patronage. The impacts of consumer values, attitudes, or perceptions of attributes of the products/brands, retail
store or shopping malls on such behavioral outcomes were examined (Shim and Eastlick, 1998; Homer and
Kahle, 1988). The impact of consumers' needs to be satisfied through particular products on behavioral
outcomes may differ depending upon the type of behavioral outcomes. Thus, in this study two purchase
behavioral variables were employed. One purchase behavior variable operationalized for this study was the
number of apparel items (ladies' blazer-type jackets) purchased during a given time period multiplied by the
average amount spent for each item. Thus, it was defined as purchase amount and this total spending on a
specified apparel category was used to examine the impact of needs on quantitative purchase behavior.
Another behavioral variable selected for the study was brand loyal behavior measured by two scale items (i.e.
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when I buy clothing, I usually buy the same brand I bought last time; I usually buy the same brands of clothing).
The correlation coefficient of these two items was 0.76, indicting a good reliability of the measure of brand loyal
behavior.
Data analysis
A simple regression was used to examine the relationship between the two behavioral variables (i.e. purchase
amount and brand loyal behavior). Using the factors identified for consumer values and types of needs for
apparel products, multiple regression analyses were employed to examine the impact of consumer values on
each need and that of needs on purchase behavior. Multiple regression analysis was chosen because the
review of literature suggested that a hierarchical relationship exists among consumer values, and attitude
(needs in this study) and behavior. Thus, each need (i.e. a dependent variable) was regressed using the
combination of the self-directed values and the social affiliation values (i.e. independent variables). Similarly, for
the relationships between the types of needs and purchase behavior, the purchase behavior variables (i.e.
purchase amount and brand loyal behavior) were each regressed using the combination of the three types of
needs. In employing the multiple regression analysis, multicollinearity among independent variables often poses
problems. In this study, however, it was deemed to be an appropriate method of data analysis, since all
correlation coefficients between any two independent variables were below 0.4 (Asher, 1983; Emory and
Cooper, 1991). For the purpose of direct comparison of means of the groups, Duncan post hoc tests were
employed.
Results and discussion
Consumer values
The consumer values as measured by Kahle's individual LOV items in the two country markets are summarized
in Table IV. Consumer values were grouped into the two types, the self-directed and social affiliation values (as
shown in Table V), to examine how these two values influence consumer needs in each country. An
examination of the means of the individual values (Table IV) shows that both Chinese and Korean consumers
accepted all but one of the LOV items as important (means greater than 4 on a seven-point scale). Chinese
consumers do not appear to consider "excitement in life" as an important social value, whereas Korean
consumers pursue excitement in life as being as important as other values. With the exception of excitement,
LOV ratings by both consumer groups are generally consistent with the ratings found in previous studies on
social values and fashion leadership (Goldsmith et al., 1991, 1993). However, Chinese participants in this study
rated excitement much lower than have US and UK consumers in previous studies. This finding is consistent
with Tse et al.'s (1989) finding of a lack of emphasis on hedonic appeals among PRC's advertisements. Korean
consumers' higher rating of excitement in life seems consistent with their high ratings for experiential needs.
That is, the greater the importance of excitement, the greater the experiential needs (i.e. fashion
consciousness) of the market in general. When the market is more developed and advanced, there is a greater
desire for experiential needs to be satisfied.
An examination of the self-directed and social affiliation values for the two country markets shows that both
country samples rate the self-directed values as more important than the social affiliation values and that
Chinese consumers rated both values somewhat higher than did Korean consumers (Table V). The higher
ratings on self-directed values among consumers of both countries suggest that, although Asian consumers are
considered to be highly concerned about social affiliation or relationship with others for social acceptance, the
self-directed values such as self-respect or being well respected, security, and fun and enjoyment in life are
more valued than social-oriented values.
Consumer needs
The importance of three types of consumers' needs to be satisfied through apparel - functional, social, and
experiential - was examined for Chinese and Korean female shoppers (Table VI). Consumers in both samples
rated functional needs highest. These high ratings for functional needs imply that functional needs represent the
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lowest level of needs in the hierarchy and must be fulfilled through clothing before any other needs should be
fulfilled. Chinese consumers ranked social needs second highest after functional, and rated experiential needs
as least important with almost equal distance among the ratings of the three needs. In contrast, Korean
shoppers indicated that both social and experiential needs are similarly important to be satisfied with clothing,
but experiential needs are statistically significantly higher than social needs, suggesting experiential needs are
more important to be fulfilled through clothing than social needs.

The relatively high level of social needs among Chinese consumers suggests that, among those female
consumers in China, clothing is regarded as a symbolic medium to demonstrate one's social status or express
one's social image. This finding may be considered to be typical of newly emerging consumer markets as was
indicated in Roth's (1995) study. For participants in China, the functional and social image needs to be met
through clothing appear to be of greater importance than the experiential needs.
Korean consumers rated experiential needs somewhat higher than social needs to be met through clothing.
Since consumers in Korea have enjoyed wide exposure to Western culture through mass media and travel
abroad and a long period of exposure to a variety of domestic and imported branded products much in contrast
with most consumers in China, these experiences may already have allowed the Korean consumers to meet
lower-level consumer needs. Now Korean consumers look for clothing that can fulfill more of their desire for
change, newness or emotional expression (i.e. experiential needs) than for demonstration of their social status
or prestige. In addition, relatively low ratings of social needs by Korean female consumers - compared with
functional and experiential needs - indicated that apparel may be less important as a major symbolic medium to
express one's social status or success for female consumers in Korea. These results of the relative ranking of
the three needs within each country's consumer market indirectly demonstrate the influence of cultural and
economic market conditions on shaping consumer needs by prioritizing the importance of needs to be met
through clothing.
Impact of social values on needs
Relationships between consumer values and each of three types of needs were examined using multiple
regression analysis. Table VII (part A) shows the impact of both self-directed and social affiliation consumer
values on each of the three types of consumer needs. For both the Chinese and Korean samples, self-directed
values were significantly related to either experiential needs or functional needs; whereas social affiliation

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values were not related to any needs identified to be met through clothing. Thus, HIa was supported. In
contrast, Hlb was rejected. It appears that self-directed values do

influence the type of needs to be met through clothing in both country markets.
For the Chinese sample, self-directed values only related to experiential needs. For the Korean sample, selfdirected values were found to be related to female consumers' desire for experiential and functional needs to be
met through clothing. The linkage between self-directed values and both experiential and functional needs
found among Korean participants suggested that consumers who rated self-directed values very important
expect apparel product to fulfill their functional/performance expectations, as well as their experiential needs
(e.g. newness, fashion leadership, means for change). For the Chinese sample, their self-directed values were
expressed by trying to fulfill their experiential needs to be met through apparel. In short, Korean female
consumers seem more demanding in terms of product quality and emotional satisfaction and to behave more
like experienced Western shoppers.
This result supports the findings of the earlier studies by Homer and Kahle (1988). In their studies, selfactualization or internal consumer values were more closely related to favorable nutrient attitudes toward
natural food than were self-actualization values. In contrast, Shim and Eastlick (1998) found that social affiliation
values were more strongly related to favorable attitudes toward shopping malls than were self-- actualization
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values. This suggests that consumers consume different products or services to fulfill different values (e.g. selfactualization vs socialization values) in their daily life. For the two countries' samples of female consumers, the
self-directed values (internal values) were found to lead consumers to desire the experiential needs (the
newness and change, being trendy and in fashion) to be satisfied through apparel. Overall, results confirmed
the hypothesis that clothing serves as a medium to realize female consumers' self-directed values (self-respect,
being well respected, security, fun and enjoyment in life) by fulfilling their experiential needs.
Impact of needs on purchase behaviors
The impact of needs on purchase behavior is examined by multiple regression analysis using purchase
behavior variables as dependent variables and three types of needs as independent variables (Table VII, part
B). The type of needs to be met through clothing significantly influenced the clothing purchase behavior of the
consumers in both country markets. Among both Chinese and Korean consumers, experiential needs had a
strong positive impact on purchase amount (Table VII, part B). Thus, H2a was supported. That is, those
consumers higher in experiential needs tended to spend more money on purchasing apparel. This finding lends
support to the concept that experiential needs exerted a positive influence on the Chinese and Korean female
consumers in these samples to purchase more apparel. Among Korean consumers, there was a somewhat
weaker, but a significant, positive relationship between social needs and purchase amount; however, functional
needs did not significantly influence purchase behavior of the Korean participants.
By contrast, the Chinese participants' purchase behavior (purchase amount) was negatively influenced by
functional needs. A significant but negative relationship between functional needs and purchase amount
suggests that the Chinese consumers who focused on functional/comfort aspects of clothing tended to spend
less on clothing purchases. Overall, the experiential needs were the major positive determinant of the amount of
purchase (i.e. number of jackets times price typically paid for jacket) among both Chinese and Korean female
consumers. Social needs appeared to play a role in determining purchase amount of apparel only among
Korean participants, but its impact was much weaker than the experiential needs. Thus, H2b was partially
supported. H2c was rejected.
Relationships between needs and brand loyal behavior were examined to study the impact of consumer needs
on their apparel brand loyal purchase behavior. All three types of needs in both China and Korea were satisfied
through their brand loyal behavior. In other words, consumers tended to buy the same brands because their
loyal apparel brand products fulfilled their expectations of experiential, social, and functional needs to be met
through apparel products. Thus, H2a-c, which proposed that respective experiential, social and functional needs
positively influence purchase behaviors (brand loyal behavior) among consumers in China and Korea, were
supported.
Chinese female consumers buy the same apparel brands because they satisfy their experiential needs (b =
0.278) as their primary needs first, and social needs (b = 0.184) next; and to a much lesser extent, they also
satisfy consumers' functional needs (b 0.094). In contrast, for the Korean female participants, functional needs
(b 0.225) and social needs (b = 0.216) were stronger determinants of their brand loyal behavior than were
experiential needs (b = 0.147). This illustrates that consumers' social needs and functional needs were stronger
drivers for brand loyalty in apparel purchase than were experiential needs among Korean female shoppers. In
other words, Korean participants were brand loyal because the brands provided them with appropriate social
status or prestige images as well as with function/ performance quality; and at the same time fulfilled their
experiential motivations. The somewhat lower regression coefficient for the relationship between experiential
needs and brand loyal behavior may be reasonable considering that the same brands may be difficult to satisfy
both the experiential needs that constantly seek for changes, newness or fashion leadership, and the need to
maintain a consistent image even with new product offerings. Korean consumers may become more loyal to
certain apparel brands because they consistently provide a desirable social statement with proven quality.
The relationship between the two purchase behavioral variables (Table VII, part C) showed that there was
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strong positive relationship between volume purchase behavior and brand loyal behavior among consumers of
both countries. That is, consumers in both country markets who are brand loyal are those who tend to spend
more on apparel products.
Conclusions and implications
Using Kahle's LOV, two dimensions of consumer values: self-directed values and social affiliation values, were
identified in this study. Grouping of the LOV items in these two dimensions of values are more similar to Shim
and Eastlick's (1998) dimensions of self-actualization vs social affiliation than the categorization of internal vs
external value dimensions by Homer and Kahle (1988). While social affiliation values were found to strongly
influence favorable attitudes toward shopping mall attributes in the previous study (Shim and Eastlick, 1998),
our findings demonstrated that only self-- directed consumer values were significantly related to types of needs
to be satisfied by apparel products for Chinese and Korean female consumers. The role of values in
determination of type of consumer needs to be satisfied by apparel products was supported by the strong
positive regression coefficients of self-directed values on experiential needs among Chinese and Korean
participants. Korean female consumers also try to realize their self-directed values by fulfilling their functional
needs of apparel.
The finding is that, although types of needs to be satisfied with apparel differ between the two country samples,
these needs were influenced by the same self-directed values. While Chinese female consumers tried to realize
their self-directed values through fulfilling their experiential needs, Korean female consumers realized their selfdirected values through fulfilling both experiential and functional needs.
The Chinese female consumers who rated high in experiential needs purchased more apparel, while those who
were high in functional needs spent less money on apparel. For Korean female consumers, those with higher
experiential and social needs tended to purchase more clothing. Experiential needs were a stronger, more
universally common motivator for apparel purchases than were social needs among the two country's female
consumers.
Chinese consumers who were brand loyal were more likely to satisfy their experiential needs with fashion
statements or their social needs with prestige or social status statements. By contrast, Korean female
consumers' apparel brand loyal behavior seems to be attributed to the fact that their loyal brands fulfilled more
of their social needs and expectations of performance quality (i.e. functional needs) than their experiential
needs. The amount of apparel purchases and the brand loyal purchase behavior were closely related. For both
Chinese and Korean consumers, those who were brand loyal spent more on purchasing apparel.
Our findings indicate that Asian markets vary in terms of needs to be fulfilled through purchase of apparel.
Although Asian countries are considered to be more collectivistic or relationship focused societies, the
relationship or social affiliation values did not affect consumers' purchase motivations of apparel in this study.
Rather, in both Asian market samples, self-directed values were fulfilled through the purchase of apparel. This
result suggests that self-directed values were expressed in apparel purchases by trying to satisfy particular type
of needs. It also suggests that different values might be achieved through consumption of different products or
services.
Consumers' general purchase behavior (the amount of purchase) reflected utilization of different needs from
brand loyal behavior (usually buy the same brands of clothing). While brand loyal behavior reflects the behavior
of shoppers who wanted to fulfill all three types of needs, the general purchase behavior reflects how
consumers generally prioritize their needs to be satisfied in apparel purchase decisions.
Overall, this empirical study supported the hierarchical relationships of value-needs-purchase behavior. Thus,
consumer values and needs may be used to characterize international consumer markets to develop successful
marketing strategies that appeal to the needs of consumers in each country. As our findings imply, apparel
product images presented to each market should be tailored according to consumers' needs in each market.
For example, in the case of Korean markets (Table VII, part B, purchase amount), female consumers generally
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expected apparel to meet both experiential needs and functional needs, but purchase decisions were influenced
more by how apparel products met their experiential needs and social needs. For Chinese apparel markets, the
sample depended more on how well the apparel products met their experiential needs, a major determining
factor to apparel purchase decisions. That is, the experiential image should appeal to Chinese consumer upmarkets for clothing purchase.
These findings also imply that, in order to build brand loyalty, the apparel brands have to meet all three needs.
For Korean consumers, social image and consistent performance quality are the strong points that customers
sought from their apparel brands in addition to satisfaction of some experiential image. For Chinese consumers,
both experiential and social images were much sought from their loyal brands and thus important features of the
brands in building brand loyalty.
Limitations and future research
While previous studies established relationships among values, attitudes and consumer purchase behavior, this
exploratory cross-cultural study on the relationships of values-needs-purchase behavior was designed to
expand our understanding of the impact of values on the needs to be met through specific products or service
and the role of consumer needs in purchase behavior in international markets. Direct comparisons between the
two market samples were avoided in this study, since we believe that it is hard to match the consumer samples
in terms of socio-economic background which may play a more important role in shaping consumer needs. In
addition, because the sample in each country was selected in specific retail areas in two major metropolitan
cities, the results reflect female consumers' behavior of sub-markets of relatively affluent shoppers in both
country markets, thus limiting its generalization and application. Therefore, future study should be conducted
across consumers in different socio-economic backgrounds within the same country (or huge metropolitan cities
like Shanghai or Seoul) markets. Furthermore, even within a country's markets, consumers may be segmented
into sub-markets representing different types of needs consistent with their social values. Therefore, it is
necessary to understand consumer needs and the underlying social values in each country's market to develop
effective needs-based marketing strategies. This approach may provide more detailed information for marketers
to develop specific needs-based marketing strategies.
In addition, consumers' values in Asian markets seem to change more quickly today than before, because of
the sweeping influence of globalization in every aspect of consumers' life in developing countries. Therefore,
consumers' needs regarding particular products may also change accordingly. For example, TV was one of the
luxury, conspicuous signature products to Chinese consumers before the 1980s, but it may no longer be a
luxury. The importance of apparel, as expressive and signature products to convey consumers' success or to
fulfill their psychological emotional desire, may also change over time. Thus, continuous updating of studies for
understanding changing consumer needs in each market should be conducted.
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This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this
article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of
the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the
material present
Executive summary and implications for managers and executives
How different are consumers in different countries?
Differences in consumer values, behaviour and attitude across international boundaries are well documented.
At the same time, however, we should recognise that much in consumer behaviour is consistent wherever we
go in the world. The majority of variations lie in the degree of emphasis placed on, for example, determinants of
buying behaviour.
Kim et al. present a detailed comparison between two Asian countries that, in the West, are often seen as very
similar - China and South Korea. The authors point out the significant socio-economic and cultural differences
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between the two countries as a preamble to examining whether these identifiable differences result in different
consumer values, needs and purchase behaviour.
The impact of economic development on consumer behaviour
Kim et al. suggest that differences between China and South Korea may derive from the very different economic
conditions in the two countries. South Korea is, in per capita terms, a much richer country than China -- indeed
this country is among the 20 richest (on these terms) in the world. In contrast, China's per capita GDP still
places it among the world's poorer countries, something that can be masked by the vast population.
We can compare how consumer behaviour varies according to per capita GDP with the way in which behaviour
varies across class and income boundaries. We know that, in general, lower income individuals focus more on
price considerations in their purchases than do higher income individuals. It is not an unreasonable
extrapolation from this finding to suppose that a similar pattern will be seen when we compare countries rather
than individuals. After all, a nation is merely (for the purpose of this argument) a collection of individuals.
The resulting finding is that a comparatively rich country (as South Korea is in this instance) will witness more
hedonistic consumer behaviour than a comparatively poor country. Consumers can afford to consider
something other than whether the particular purchase fulfils a given need.
But Asian countries are different?
Kim et al. note that both the countries they study are usually characterized (along with other East Asian
countries) as "collectivist" rather than "individualistic". Such a position suggests that consumer purchasing
behaviour will focus more on the satisfaction of group needs rather than individual requirements. Consumers
making a purchase will be influenced by the group mores and driven to buy something that will make them fit in.
The argument as to whether the "collectivism" of East Asia is the result of politics or culture is perhaps a
discussion for a different place (although my view is that it is mostly politics). But we should note something
from Kim et al.'s findings:
... although Asian countries are considered to be more collectivistic or relationship-focused countries, the
relationship or social affiliation values did not affect consumers' purchase motivations for apparel in this study.
This is a very interesting finding - admittedly for one type of purchase - that challenges some of our fundamental
assumptions about purchase behaviour in East Asian countries. We are not selling "group conformity" as many
thought but should consider that, at least for clothing purchases, the consumer's individual likes and dislikes are
just as important (if not more important) in determining the purchase.
Image or function - which matters more?
The decisions we make when we buy something are guided by a variety of influences - we want clothes to
cover and protect our body but clothing also makes a statement about who we are and about the group we are
associated with. Nothing new in this observation - indeed, it is likely that for much of human history clothing has
said something about us as an individual, has connected us to a tribe or group and has performed the basic
function (more or less) of clothing.
However, the balance in the consumer's mind between these different motivations is very important to the
marketer. We need to understand what expectations the consumer has when they make a purchase. We need
to recognise that different cultures have different priorities influencing individual purchasing decisions.
Looking at Kim et al.'s findings we can see how this variation becomes real. Consumers have a basic level of
expectation about a purchase (e.g. Korean female consumers ". . . expected apparel to meet both experiential
needs and functional needs") and needs that are most significant in the purchase decision (Korean females
were ". . . influenced more by how apparel products met their experiential needs and social needs").
As consumers we take some things as given (a given item of clothing will fulfil its function, for example) but
require something more - status, image, group conformity - to actually make the purchase. Marketers need to
focus on the factors that influence the decision rather than on factors that the consumer takes for granted.
International comparisons are always tricky but the value that derives from studies such as this one lies in the
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reduction of prejudgement about how individuals in a given market will behave. Most studies show that
consumers everywhere share a similar set of criteria when purchasing. It is the relative importance - to those
consumers - of the various criteria that produces what we might call "cultural" variation. And, as noted already,
factors such as relative income levels can be as significant as perceptions about real cultural differences.
(A precis of the article "Cross-cultural consumer values, needs and purchase behavior". Supplied by Marketing
Consultants for Emerald.)
Sidebar
An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article
Sidebar
The research register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregisters
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/07363761.htm
AuthorAffiliation
Jai-Ok Kim
Auburn University, Auburn, USA
AuthorAffiliation
Sandra Forsythe
Auburn University, Auburn, USA
AuthorAffiliation
Qingliang Gu
Dong Hua University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
AuthorAffiliation
Sook Jae Moon
Ehwa Woman's University, Seoul, South Korea
Subject: Cross cultural studies; Consumer behavior; Clothing industry; Statistical analysis; Brand loyalty; Market
strategy;
Location: China, South Korea
Classification: 9179: Asia & the Pacific; 7000: Marketing; 9130: Experimental/theoretical; 8620: Textile &
apparel industries
Publication title: The Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume: 19
Issue: 6
Pages: 481-502
Number of pages: 22
Publication year: 2002
Publication date: 2002
Year: 2002
Publisher: Emerald Group Publishing, Limited
Place of publication: Santa Barbara
Country of publication: United Kingdom

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Publication subject: Business And Economics--Marketing And Purchasing

ISSN: 07363761
Source type: Scholarly Journals
Language of publication: English
Document type: Feature
ProQuest document ID: 220135511
Document URL: http://search.proquest.com/docview/220135511?accountid=149759
Copyright: Copyright MCB UP Limited (MCB) 2002
Last updated: 2014-05-25
Database: ProQuest Research Library

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Bibliography
Citation style: Harvard - British Standard
JAI-OK KIM, FORSYTHE, S., GU, Q. and SOOK, J.M., 2002. Cross-cultural consumer values, needs and
purchase behavior. The Journal of Consumer Marketing, 19(6), pp. 481-502.

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