5.

Sedimentation Process

Main Topics:
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9

Introduction
Discrete particle settling theory
Discrete particle settling in sedimentation basins
Flocculent particle settling in sedimentation basins
Zone settling
Conventional sedimentation basin design
Innovations in sedimentation basin design
Physical factors affecting sedimentation
Dissolved air flotation systems

Reference:
1. Crittenden et al., Water Treatment Principles and Design, Chap 10.
5.1

Introduction

Sedimentation is the process of removal of suspended particles that are heavier than water by
gravitational settling. Most raw water will contain mineral and organic particles. The density
of mineral particles is usually between 2000 to 3000 kg/m3 and can easily settle out by
gravity. Organic particles, on the other hand, have densities ranging from 1010 to 1100 kg/m3
and take a long time to settle by gravity. In conventional water treatment, coagulants are used
to destabilize particle to form larger and settlable solids. The relevant terms with respect to
sedimentation are:
(a)

Plain Sedimentation: refers to the separation of suspended particles from liquid by

gravitation and natural aggregation of settling particles. Examples are settling of sand
in filtration and the settling of grits, and sandy and silty particles in pre-sedimentation
treatment. Such particles are usually greater than 10 m in size.

(b)

Coagulation and Flocculation: the addition of chemicals or other substances to induce

or hasten aggregation and settling of finely divided suspended matter, colloidal
substances, and large molecules. Examples are the removal of colour and turbidity in
water.

(c)

Chemical precipitation: the addition of chemicals to remove dissolved impurities such

as hardness, Fe, Mn, etc. out of the solution.

The sedimentation process can be used to treat raw water containing suspensions ranging
from a very low concentration of nearly discrete particles to a high concentration of
flocculent solids. Particles can be classified based on their concentrations and morphology:
Type I discrete particles: the settling of relatively low concentration of discrete particles
that will not readily flocculate or grow in size. An example is the settling of granular particles
after backwashing in the filtration process; and in pre-sedimentation basins.

Type II flocculent particles: the settling of relatively low concentration of flocculent

material. An example is the settling of coagulated water.
Type III: also known as zone settling, occurs when the settling velocities of particles are
affected by the presence of other particles. An example is at the lower regions of the
sedimentation basin where the concentration of suspended particles is highest. Also known as
hindered settling. The material may be flocculent. Another example is sludge thickening.
Type IV: also known as compression settling occurs when particle concentration is higher
than Type III settling. The particles are not readily settled; but rather, water flows or drains
out of a mat of particles.

Fig. 1 Settling characteristics of solids in water.

5.2

Discrete particle settling theory (Type I settling)

A discrete particle is one that does not alter in size, shape or weight while settling. In falling
through a quiescent liquid, such a particle accelerates until the gravitational force (FG) is
equaled by the sum of particle drag (FD) and buoyancy forces (FB).
FG FB F D =

m dv s
dt

(1)

where m is the particle mass (kg). Thereafter, the particle settles at a uniform velocity known
as terminal velocity (vs), which is an important hydraulic characteristic of the particle. At
m dv s
= 0, and forces acting on the particle are thus: FG FB = FD
terminal velocity,
dt
s g Vp w g Vp

1
CD Ac w vs2
2

(2)

where s = density of particle, kg/m3

w = density of liquid, kg/m3 (= 1000 kg/m3 for water)
Vp = volume of particle, m3
CD = drag coefficient, dimensionless
Ac = cross-sectional area of particle, m2
vs = terminal settling velocity of particle, m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
The terminal velocity vs of a discrete particle depends on its size, shape, and density, and also
the density and viscosity of the liquid. For spherical particles,
Vp =

d3

(3)

Ac =

d2
4

(4)

The general equation for sedimentation of discrete spherical particles described by Newtons
law is by substituting Eqn. (3) and (4) into (2):
vs =

4 gd ( s w )
w
3 CD

(5)

The drag coefficient CD is dependent on the settling velocity and diameter of the particle d,
and the density and viscosity of water, which are represented by the dimensionless Reynolds
number, Re, with being the absolute viscosity of water in kg m/s or Ns/m2, and =
kinematic viscosity in m2/s.
Re =
(a)

w v s d v s d inertia forces
=

viscous forces

(6)

Laminar flow regime (Re 1)

For Reynolds numbers Re 1 (for particles that are very small, and with very low settling
velocities), CD is related to Re by the linear relationship in Eqn. 7.

Fig. 2 Drag coefficients for varying Reynolds number.

CD =

24
Re

(7)

Eqn. (5) can be simplified as follows, which is also known as Stokes law:
vs =

(b)

g (s w )d 2
18

(8)

Transitional flow regime (1<Re 10,000)

This occurs when Reynolds number is between 1<Re 10,000. The relationship between CD
and Re is non-linear but can be approximated by:
CD =

24
3
+
+ 0.34
Re
Re

(9)

In this Re range, Eqn. 5 is used to compute the settling velocity of particles.

(c)

Turbulent flow regime (Re >10,000)

In the turbulent flow regime, Reynolds numbers are high (Re >10,000), and CD is
approximately 0.4 (see Fig. 2). The settling velocity relationship becomes:
vs =

10 ( s w )
gd
w
3

(10)

Example 1
(a) Determine the settling velocity of alum (aluminum hydroxide) flocs of diameter d = 1 m
and s = 1020 kg/m3. Take of water = 0.89 x 10-3 Ns/m2 for water at 25oC.
Assume laminar flow condition. Applying Eqn (8): vs = 12247 d2 (d in metres)
For d = 1 m, vs = 1.22 x 10-8 m/s
Check Reynolds number using Eqn. 6: Re = 10-8 < 1 ok. Laminar flow condition.
(b) Determine the settling velocity of alum flocs of diameter d = 1000 m and s = 1020
kg/m3.
Assume laminar flow condition: for d = 1000 m, vs = 0.01225 m/s
Check Re = 14 > 1

Stokes law is not valid: need to use Eqn. (5).

(c) Determine the settling velocity of sand grains of diameter d = 1 mm and s = 2650 kg/m3.
Assume laminar flow condition: for d = 1 mm, vs = 1.01 m/s
Check Re = 1135 > 1

Stokes law is not valid: need to use Eqn. (5).

Note: solving Part (b) and (c) in the above example using Eqn. (5) require trial and error.
Figure 3, which is based on Eqn. (5) can be used to estimate the settling velocity for a given
particle diameter and specific gravity.

Fig. 3 Settling velocity of particles (Reynolds & Richards, 1996).

Non-spherical shaped particles

For non-spherical shaped particles, CD is higher for a given Re value, which will result in a
lower settling velocity vs. This effect is more critical in the turbulent flow region. A
correction factor for d the sphericity factor , is used. It is obtained as a ratio of the surface
area of the actual particle to that of an equivalent spherical particle:
= sphericity =

(
(

)
)particle

A / Vp
surface area of an equivalent volume sphere
sphere
=
surface area of particle
A / Vp

(11)

d = d

or

(12)

where d = effective spherical diameter to be used in the computations, m

d = diameter of actual particle, m
= 0.8 for sharp, angular sand; 0.94 for worn sand

Fractal particles
Flocculated particles have a fractal morphology composing many flocculated small particles.
They do not settle as rapidly as a hard-sphere and do not follow the Stokes or Newtons law.

Brownian Motion
There are many very small colloidal particles in natural waters that do not settle because of
Brownian motion causing them to move and overcome gravitation settling forces. This
random motion can be computed by the following equation. When vB > vs (from Stokes law),
particles will not settle out of solution.

vB =

1 2k B T

x 3d

(13)

where vB = particle velocity in one direction due to Brownian motion, m/s

kB = Boltzmanns constant, 1.38 x 10-23 Nm/K
T = absolute temperature, K (273 + oC)
x = net distance traveled in x-direction due to Brownian motion, m
= absolute or dynamic viscosity of water, Ns/m2
d = particle diameter, m

Example 2
Calculate the smallest settleable sand particle (sg = 2.65) in water at 25oC ( = 0.89 x 10-3
Ns/m2). Assume the Brownian velocity that must be overcome for settling to occur is based
on a travel distance of 0.01 m.
vB =

1 2k BT 9.81 10 17
=

m/s
d
x 3d
2

g (s )d 2 g(sg p sg w )d
vs =
=
= 1.01 x 107 d2 = (9.81 x 10-17)/d
18
18
d = 2.1 x 10-8 m = 0.02 m

5.3

Discrete particle settling in sedimentation basins

(a)

Rectangular sedimentation basins

The study on settling of discrete particles is best described using an ideal sedimentation tank
as shown in Fig. 4. There are four distinct zones in the ideal tank: inlet zone, settling zone,
sludge zone, and outlet zone.

Fig. 4 Functional regions within a rectangular basin.

The following assumptions are made in developing the tanks removal efficiency equations:

horizontal flow in the settling zone

uniform horizontal velocity in the settling zone
uniform concentration of all-size particles across a vertical plane at the inlet end of the
settling zone
particles are removed once they reached the bottom of the settling zone
particles settle discretely without interference from other particles at any depth

The theoretical design of sedimentation processes is based on the concept of the ideal settling
tank. A schematic tank with flow and dimensional parameters is shown in Fig. 5. All particles
in the settling zone travel in a straight line path.

Fig. 5 Trajectories of discrete particles in the settling zone of a rectangular basin (Crittenden).

As shown, there are two components to the particle trajectories in the settling zone: the
settling velocity vs, and the horizontal fluid velocity vh. Discrete particle 1 which enters at the
top of the basin is not removed in the sludge zone but will be carried into the outlet zone by
the flow. A second particle 2 enters at the top of the basin and settles in the sludge zone just
before the outlet, is assigned a settling velocity of vo or the critical settling velocity, which
can be computed from:
vo =

ho
t

(14)

where vo = critical settling velocity of particle, m/h

ho = depth of sedimentation basin, m
t = hydraulic detention time of basin, h
Since t = V/Q and V = A ho,

vo =

ho
h
h Q Q
= o = o = = SOR
t
V / Q Ah o A

(15)

where SOR = surface overflow rate, m3/m2.h

Q = flow rate of water, m3/h
A = area of top of basin (=length L x width W), m2
V = volume of basin, m3
The inlet zone is assumed to be homogenous and particles enter the settling zone at any
height hs. Particles with settling velocity vs vo will be removed, regardless of the height it
enters.
Particles with a settling velocity less than vo may also be removed, depending on their
position at the inlet (e.g. particle 3). The fraction of these particles that can be removed is
given by:
h
v t
v
Xr = s = s = s
ho
vo t
vo

(16)

where Xr = fraction of particles with vs < vo removed in a horizontal flow tank

vs = velocity of specified particle size, m/s
vo = critical velocity defined as ideal tank surface overflow rate, m/s
(b)

Circular sedimentation basins

The settling of discrete particles in a circular sedimentation basin is shown in Fig. 6. These
particles have a parabolic trajectory due to the change in the horizontal water velocity from
the basin centre (inlet):
vh =

Q
2(r ri )h o

(17)

where r = distance measured from centre of basin, m

ri = radius of inlet zone, m
The trajectory of particle 1 starts at the top of the inlet zone and enters the sludge zone just
before the outlet. The settling velocity of particle 1 is thus the critical settling velocity:
vo =

ho
h
h oQ
Q
Q
= o =
=
= = SOR
2
2
2
2
t
V / Q (ro ri )h o (ro ri ) A

(18)

where ro = radius of the inlet and settling zones, m

Fig. 6 Trajectories of discrete particles in the settling zone of a circular basin (Crittenden).

Scouring of bed settled material

Actual sedimentation in a water treatment plant clarifier operation is more complex than the
ideal settling concept. Particle interaction and currents in the settling area are the most
significant effects that can alter the particle settling paths and may also scour particles already
settled. To avoid bottom scouring, the flow velocity in the tank should be less than the critical
scour velocity for discrete particle suspensions:

v scour =

8k
g (S s 1)d
f

(19)

where vscour = scour velocity, m/s

k = 0.04 for sand and 0.06 for sticky material
f = Darcy Weisbach friction factor, ranges between 0.02 and 0.03

Ss = s = specific gravity of particle

w
d = diameter of particle, m

Example 3
Calculate the scouring velocity for settled particles having the following characteristics:
d = 1 mm and 0.1 mm;
f = 0.03
k = 0.06 for sticky material;
Ss = 1.1
(a) d = 1 mm
v scour =

8 0.06
9.81 (1.1 1) 1 10 3 = 0.125 m/s or 451 m/hr
0.03

(b) d = 0.1 mm
v scour =

8 0.06
9.81 (1.1 1) 0.1 10 3 = 0.04 m/s or 142.6 m/hr
0.03

Settling tanks are normally less than 100 m long, with detention times in the order of a couple
of hours. Thus, horizontal flow velocity vh = L/t is less than 100 m/hr and scouring of the
above small particles would not happen.

Removal rate for a suspension of discrete particles

A graphical procedure is often used to determine an approximation of overall removal of
discrete particles in a suspension. The results can be obtained by carrying out a settling
column test on a suspension of particles and plotted as shown:

Fig. 7 Typical discrete particle settling curve.

10

Procedure for determining the overall removal efficiency of a suspension of discrete particles:
(1) Prepare a discrete settling curve as shown in Fig. 7
(2) Integrate the area to the left of the curve representing overall removal efficiency:
Fraction removed:
Po

vs
dP
0 vo
1
= (1 Po ) +
v s P
vo i

X r = (1 Po ) +

Xr = 1

(20)

CE
CI

(21)

where Po = fraction of particles with vs < vo

(1 Po) = fraction of particles with vs vo
CE = effluent concentration
CI = influent concentration
Po v
1
s
dP or
v s P = fraction of particles with vs < vo but are removed

vo i
o vo
Fraction remained =

CE
=
CI

Po

1
v s P
vo i

(22)

Example 4: Removal of a suspension of silica particles

s = 2650 kg/m3

= 1000 kg/m3

Size interval (m)

0-10

Weight fraction

0.05

Assume laminar flow: v s =

1020
0.2

= 1x 10-3 Ns/m2
2030
0.25

3040
0.2

4050
0.15

506060
70
0.075 0.05

7080
0.02

80100
0.005

g ( s )d 2
= 0.9 x 106 d2 m/s
18

v d
Check: For largest sand size d = 100 m, v s = 0.009 m/s, Re = w s = 0.9 < 1 ok

Average size, d (m)

v s (m/s) x 10-3
v s (m/hr)
P (wt. fraction < v s)

5
0.02
0.08
0.05

15
0.2
0.72
0.25

25
0.56
2
0.5

35
1.1
4
0.7

45
1.8
6.5
0.85

55
65
75
2.7
3.8
5
9.7
13.7
18
0.925 0.975 0.995

90
7.3
26.3
1

Plot graph of settling velocity of particles v s (m/hr) versus the respective weight fraction, P.

11

Suppose vo = 4 m/hr. From plot, Po = 0.7.

Mass fraction removed

= (1 0.7) +

= 1

1
v s P 0.3 + 0.25 = 0.55 or 55%
vo i

CE
CI

If CI = 10 mg SS/L, effluent SS concentration CE = 4.5 mg/L.

Repeating procedure for different vo, relation between mass fraction removed and surface
overflow rate is obtained:

Summary for Type I discrete settling: removal efficiency in an ideal sedimentation basin
depends on the basins overflow rate only and is independent of depth and hydraulic
detention time.

12

5.4

Flocculent settling in sedimentation basins (Type II settling)

In Type II settling, particles flocculate either by velocity gradients or by differential settling

in the sedimentation basin i.e. they tend to coalesce into a bigger particle during settling.
Flocculent settling has two advantages over discrete settling:
(1) the combination of smaller particles to form larger ones results in a faster settling particle
because of increase in diameter
(2) flocculation tends to have a sweeping effect in which large particles settling at a velocity
faster than slow particles tends to sweep some of them from suspension. Tiny particles
which otherwise would not settle are removed.

Again, the design of sedimentation tanks in removing flocculent particles can be based on
settling column tests. The depth of the column is normally equal to or greater than the depth
of the proposed tank. The diameter of the column is about 150 to 300 mm and sampling ports
are provided at 500 mm intervals.
A suspension is poured into the column and gently mixed with a perforated plunger to obtain
a uniform dispersion of particles. At predetermined time intervals, samples are removed from
the ports and analyzed for suspended solids concentrations. Experimental data of suspended
solids removal are then plotted on a time-depth graph as shown:

Fig. 8 Typical pilot settling test results for flocculent suspension (for Eqn 23).

13

The overall percent removal, Xr, can be calculated using:

Xr =

Z1 R 1 + R 2 Z 2 R 2 + R 3 Z 3 R 3 + R 4

+
Z6
2
2
2
Z6
Z6

Z 4 R 4 + R 5
Zi R 5 + Rn

Z6
2
Z6
2

(23)

where Xr = percent removal of total suspended solids

Z = water depth between iso-removal lines, m
Z = water depth from surface, m
R = removal percentages (Rn = removal corresponding to design water depth & time)

Another method of computing the overall removal and is used in many other textbooks is:
h
h
h
R T = 1 (100 - R1 ) + 2 (R1 - R 2 ) + .... + n (R n -1 - R n ) + R n
ho
ho
ho

(24)

where:
h1, h2, ., hn = vertical distance from the top of the settling column to the mid-point
between two consecutive lines of iso-removal at desired detention time
ho = desired design side water depth
R1, R2,.., Rn-1 = consecutive iso-removal curves in percent removal
RT = Total removal, percent (equivalent to Xr in Eqn. 23)

Fig. 9 Settling trajectories for a flocculent suspension (for Eqn. 24).

14

The accuracy of estimation can be improved by decreasing the interval between isoconcentration lines and adding more terms to the removal equation. The test results allow the
overflow rate and detention time for a sedimentation tank to be determined.
Non-ideal conditions in actual sedimentation tanks such as short-circuiting, inlet and outlet
turbulence, density, and temperature-induced currents result in reduced removal efficiency
compared to that obtained from settling column test. To compensate for the non-ideal
conditions, a factor of safety equal to 0.65 to 0.85 for the overflow rate and 1.75 to 2 for the
detention time are recommended. (Hence, corrections are to have a smaller SOR and a longer
retention time).
Since flocculent particles tend to grow in size during settling, the depth of the settling tank
and detention time are important design parameters. Deeper tanks improve the possibility of
bigger particles to sweep smaller particles from suspension. Deeper tanks therefore perform
better in removing flocculent particles.

Example 5
The results of a column settling test are given in the following table. Find the overall removal
for a settling basin 1.75 m deep with an overflow rate of 105 m/d.

Water
depth from
surface
0.5 m
1.0 m
1.5 m

5 min
14*
13
12

Percent removal of particles at various time

10 min
20 min
30 min
40 min
17
16
17

56
49
43

66
50
47

74
71
70

50 min
79
72

* Percent removal = [(TSSI TSSF)/TSSI] x 100%

where TSSI = initial suspended solids concentration in column, mg/L
TSSF = suspended solids concentration in sample after certain time, mg/L
Indicate the numerical percent removals on a plot of time versus water depth as shown in Fig.
9. Draw the iso-removal lines at 15% intervals, by interpolating the numerical values.
Surface overflow rate = 105 m/d = ho/t
For ho = 1.75 m, the required detention time t = 1.75m/(105 m/d) = 24 min
From Fig. 9, 45% of particles are having settling velocities greater than SOR = 105 m/d
The overall particles removal can be computed using:
Equation (23): Z1 = 0.2m, Z2 = 0.3m, Z3 = 1.25m, Z4 = 1.75m,

15

R1 = 100%, R2 = 75%, R3 = 60%, R4 = 45%

Xr =

0.2 100 + 75 0.3 75 + 60 1.25 60 + 45

= 59%
1.75
2
1.75 2 1.75 2

Equation (24): h1 = 0.1m, h2 = 0.35m, h3 = 1.1m, ho = 1.75m,

R1 = 100%, R2 = 75%, R3 = 60%, R4 = 45%
RT =

5.5

0.1
0.35
1.1
(100 - 75) +
(75 - 60) +
(60 - 45) + 45 = 58.9%
1.75
1.75
1.75

Zone settling (Type III settling)

In zone settling, the settling velocities of individual particles decrease due to the interaction
of particles as they settle. When this occurs, the particle aggregates tend to form a blanket
with a distinct interface between the settling particles and the clarified supernatant. Zone
settling or Type III settling usually occurs at the lower region of a sedimentation tank where
the concentration of suspended solids is highest. In water treatment, zone settling is more of
importance to sludge thickening rather than settling tank performance. The concept of zone
settling is illustrated in the figure. Initially, a uniform suspension of concentration B is poured
into a column and a distinct interface forms at the top separating the supernatant A after some
time. The settling of particles at B is considered to be hindered, changing to compaction at C
and a layer of dense sludge forms at the bottom D.

Fig. 10 Typical zone settling column test.

16

5.6

Conventional sedimentation basin design

(a)

Pre-sedimentation basins

They are used to remove easily settleable sand and silt, especially from river raw water
source, prior to pumping to the treatment plant. A minimum of two basins is required so that
one can be taken out of service for maintenance. For rectangular basins, the length can be
estimated by:
h
L = K o v h
vs

(25)

where L = basin length, m

K = safety factor (typically 1.5 to 2)
ho = effective water depth, m
vs = settling velocity of particle to be removed, m/s
vh = mean water velocity at maximum day flow rate, m/s
Table 1 Typical pre-sedimentation basin design criteria (Crittenden).
Parameter
Depth (m)
Minimum length to depth ratio
Length to width ratio
Surface overflow rate m3/m2.d
Horizontal mean flow velocity (at maximum daily flow), m/s
Detention time, min
Minimum size of particle to be removed, mm
Bottom slope, m/m

(b)

Value
3.5 5
6:1
4: 1 to 8: 1
200 400
0.05
6 15
0.1
Minimum 1: 100

Rectangular sedimentation basins

The common shapes of conventional sedimentation tanks in water treatment and reclamation
are rectangular, circular, or square. In rectangular basins, the influent flow is distributed
across the entire cross-section of the basin by an inlet baffle structure, which provides energy
dissipation and uniform flow distribution. The outlet structure usually comprises a system of
effluent launders located on the opposite side of the tank.

17

Fig. 11 Rectangular sedimentation basin (Crittenden).

Table 2 Typical rectangular sedimentation basin design criteria (Crittenden).

Parameter
Depth (m)
Length to depth ratio, minimum
Length-to-width ratio
Surface overflow rate m3/m2.d
Horizontal mean flow velocity (at maximum daily flow), m/s
Detention time, h
Launder weir loading, m3/m.h
Reynolds number
Froude number
Bottom slope, m/m
Weir overflow rate = Q/total weir length (m3/m.h)

Value
35
15 : 1
4: 1 to 5: 1
30 60
0.005 0.018
1.5 4
9 13
<20,000
>10-5
1: 600 to 1 : 300

(26)

The Reynolds number Re and the Froude number Fr are used as a check on turbulence and
backmixing. The recommended values for settling zone design are: Re < 20,000 to avoid high
degree of turbulence; and Fr > 10-5 to prevent backmixing (back motion of water).

18

v R
Re = h h

(27)

where Re = Reynolds number based on hydraulic radius

vh = average horizontal fluid velocity in tank, m/s
Rh = hydraulic radius = Ax/Pw, m
Ax = cross-sectional area, m2
Pw = wetted perimeter, m
= kinematic viscosity, m2/s
Fr =

v 2h
gR h

(28)

where Fr = Froude number

g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2

(c)

Circular sedimentation basins

Circular basins are fed from a central inlet or from the peripheral. Effluent structures are
normally consisting of a V-notch weir constructed at the outside perimeter of the tank.
Diameters of tanks are calculated from the overflow rates. Square basins have the advantage
of common-wall construction as in rectangular tanks. Effluent launders are also constructed
along the perimeter of the basins.

Fig. 12 Circular sedimentation basins (a) centre feed (b) peripheral feed (Crittenden).

19

5.7

Innovations in sedimentation basin design

Variations in basic sedimentation basin design have been employed to enhance the
performance of the sedimentation process.

(a)

Laminar-flow devices

Sedimentation can be accelerated by increasing particle size or decreasing the distance a

particle must fall for removal. This can be achieved by coagulation and flocculation to
increase particle size. A shorter fall distance can be achieved by providing parallel plates
(commonly called plate settlers) or square-shaped tube (commonly called tube settlers) near
the outlet of the basin. The plate spacing or tube sizes and feed rates are set to maintain
laminar flow at all times. Alum coagulated sludge can remain deposited in the tubes at an
angle as steep as 60o from the horizontal. Launders are usually spaced at 3 to 4 m.

Fig. 13 Rectangular basin with (a) incline plate settlers and (c) tube settlers (Crittenden).
20

Table 3 Typical design criteria for horizontal-flow rectangular tanks

with plates and tube settlers (Crittenden).
Parameter
Depth (m)
Surface overflow rate for alum floc, m/h
Surface overflow rate for heavy floc, m/h
Typical hydraulic diameter, mm
Maximum flow velocity, m/min
Detention time in tube settlers, min
Detention time in plates settlers, min
Fraction of basin covered by plates or tube settlers
Launder weir loading, m3/m.h
Plate or tube angle
Reynolds number
Froude number

Value
35
2.5 6.25
3.8 7.5
50 80
0.15
6 10
15 25
< 75%
3.75 15
60o
<20,000
>10-5

Process configuration
There are three alternatives for placement of tubes or plates in a sedimentation basin: (a)
countercurrent (b) co-current, and (c) cross-flow. Only the countercurrent inclined settling
system is covered here.

Fig. 14 Flow patterns for inclined countercurrent settling systems (Crittenden).

The settling time for a particle to move between two parallel plates is given by:
t=

d
v s cos

(29)

21

where t = settling time of particle, s

d = distance between two parallel plates (perpendicular to plates), m
vs = particle settling velocity, m/s
= inclination angle of plates from horizon
If flow in the plates is uniform, the particle travel time spent in the plates is:
tp =

Lp

(30)

v f v s sin

where tp = particle travel time spent in the plates, s

Lp = length of plate, m
vf = fluid velocity in channel, m/s
Consider the particle trajectory shown in Fig.14, all of the particles with settling velocity vs
will be removed when tp = t. Particles with settling velocities > vs are removed. Hence, for a
given d and Lp, the smaller is the vs/vf ratio, the better is the removal of particles. Equating tp
= t,
vs =

v f d
L p cos + d sin

(31)

The fluid velocity may be determined from the number of channels:

v f =

Q
Ndw

(32)

where Q = flow rate, m3/s

N = number of channels
d = distance between two parallel plates (perpendicular to plates), m
w = width of channel, m

The fluid velocity is also related to the overflow rate of the basin assuming that the surface
area of the basin is comprised of plates:
since A = N

d
w,
sin

v f =

Q
A sin

(33)

where A = plan area of basin, m2

Example 6
A sedimentation basin is to be retrofitted with 2 m square inclined plates spaced 50 mm apart.
The plates are arranged for countercurrent flow. Determine if the angle of inclination of the
plates should be 60o or 80o from the horizon.

22

Rewriting Eqn. 31,

vs
d
0.05
=
=
v f
L p cos + d sin 2 cos + 0.05 sin

For = 60o,

vs
= 0.048
v f

For = 80 o,

vs
= 0.126
v f

Select = 60o since the vs/vf ratio is smaller for a given fluid velocity vf, vs will be small,
hence more particle can be removed (settled on the plates).

(b)

Solids-contact clarifiers

Such devices employ a sludge blanket at the bottom of the basin to promote flocculation and
enmeshment of incoming solids. The same removal efficiency as in conventional
sedimentation process can be achieved at higher loading rates.
Figure 15 shows a solids-contact clarifier where coagulation and flocculation take place with
sedimentation in one tank. The flow, however, does not pass through the sludge blanket. An
example of this kind of clarifiers is a centre feed circular tank where coagulation and
flocculation occur in a central conically shaped compartment.

Fig. 15 A solids-contact clarifier.

For sludge blanket clarifiers (Fig. 16), there is a distinct layer or blanket of suspended solids
which acts as a filter, trapping smaller particles which would otherwise following the upflowing water out of the tank.

23

Fig. 16 A sludge blanket clarifier.

(c)

Proprietary sedimentation systems

A number of proprietary systems that can enhance sedimentation are also available in the
market. These systems are mostly modifications of the solids-contact clarifier. One is the
Degremont pulsator clarifier (Fig. 17), which is used in Singapore. Water is fed through the
bottom laterals. The feed rate is not constant. Instead, a specially designed vacuum chamber
produces a pulsating flow.

Fig. 17 The Pulsator clarifier.

24

The two-tray system offers a large sedimentation area in a relatively compact space by
effectively stacking one basin on top of another. Flocculated water is fed through a perforated
wall into a bottom chamber. The water flows horizontally to the end of the basin, then
upwards into the upper chamber. The water then flows horizontally to the outlet zone in the
end of the upper chamber. A chain-and flight sludge collection system sweeps the sludge
along the floor into the lower chamber, where it settles and then raked to the sludge pit to be
pumped out of the system.

Fig. 18 The two-tray sedimentation basin.

5.8

Physical factors affecting sedimentation

A number of factors not considered in the design of sedimentation basins can affect the basin
performance. These are temperature gradients, wind effects, inlet energy dissipation, outlet
currents, and equipment movements.
Temperature differentials
When warm influent water overflows into a sedimentation basin of cold water, it flows over it
and reaches the outlet weirs in a much shorter time than the theoretical hydraulic retention
time. This leads to the phenomenon of short-circuiting where bigger suspended particles can
be carried away without settling due to the higher flow velocity.

Fig. 19 Surface density currents (Crittenden).

25

On the other hand, cold water entering a basin of warmer water tends to flow along the tank
bottom as they are heavier (e.g. at 4oC, w = 1000 kg/m3; at 20oC, w = 998 kg/m3) and rise at
the outlet end (Fig. 20).

Fig. 20 Bottom density currents (Crittenden).

Solids concentration effects

Density currents may also be caused by changes in influent solids concentration as a result of
flash flood or strong winds on reservoir surfaces which increase the suspended solids (SS)
concentration in water. Increase in solids concentration will increase the density of influent
causing it to dive to the bottom of the basin. (e.g. at 100 mg SS/L, density of mixture
=1000.06 kg/m3; at 10,000 mg SS/L, density of mixture = 1006 kg/m3)

Wind effects
Strong wind can cause water to overflow the outlet weir in addition to causing a surface
current in the direction of the wind. There will be a return flow of water at the bottom of the
tank in the opposite direction. Thus, wind actions can also cause short-circuiting of flow from
inlet to outlet as well as scouring of settled particles at the bottom of the basin.

Fig. 21 Wind-induced currents (Crittenden).

26

Inlet energy dissipation

The design of the inlet of a sedimentation tank can significantly influence its performance.
Influent water normally enters the basin via a pipe at a sufficient velocity to keep the
flocculated particles in suspension. At the inlet, the flow is distributed across the basin
section for the sedimentation process and the flow slows down significantly. This sudden
reduction in energy is achieved by using baffles to dissipate the energy. If the baffles are not
properly designed, density and eddy currents will be created and may cause short-circuiting
of flow.

Outlet currents
The design and location of the outlet weirs are of equally importance in the basin
performance. If the weir length is too short, outlet currents may form and sweep settleable
particles into the effluent. V-notch weirs are normally used to allow better lateral distribution
of outlet flow when basin level is imperfect.

Equipment movement
The movement of equipment within the basin can affect its performance. Chain-and-flight
scrapers, bridge-mounted scrappers, or hydraulic suction units are often used to remove
settled sludge from the basin. Their movements, if excessive, will introduce currents which
can stir up the settled particles and upset the sedimentation process.

27

5.9

Dissolved air flotation systems

Commonly used in waste treatment for sludge thickening, dissolved air flotation (DAF) has
also been used in water treatment. It is a unit operation where solids are removed from the
liquid by attaching to rising air bubbles. There are three steps in the flotation process: bubble
generation, attachment of solids to the bubbles, and solids separation.
The figure shows a DAF system where raw water is first coagulated and flocculated prior to
entering the DAF basin. The water enters the basin near the bottom beneath a baffle to
prevent short-circuiting. At the same entry point, a cloud of air bubbles called white water
(typically 10 to 100 m) is released and adhere to floc particles and causing them to float.
The layer of solids formed on the water surface, known as float, is collected at the effluent
end of the basin and is removed into a collection trough by a mechanical skimmer. Clarified
water is removed through a perforated pipe system near the bottom of the basin.

Fig. 22 Schematic of a DAF system (Crittenden).

Generally, DAF is most effective when it involves the removal of:

(a) low-density particulate matter such as algae
(b) water with dissolved organic matter e.g. natural colour
(c) low-density flocs resulting from coagulation and flocculation of low- to moderatelyturbidity waters
(d) low-temperature waters as particulates are more difficult to settle

Important factors affecting DAF process

Floc characteristics small, low-density floc is more suitable for DAF as oppose to large,
readily settleable floc for gravity sedimentation. This may be achieved by reducing coagulant

28

dosage, reducing flocculation time (e.g. to 5 min), higher flocculation energy (G from 50 to
100 s-1), and not using polymers.
Bubble size micro-bubbles are generated by aerating the recycled stream at an elevated
pressure. When the super-saturated air is mixed with water, pressure is released and microbubbles are formed. As floc-air bubble attachment is a surface phenomenon, bubbles must be
small enough (between 10 100 m) to have a large surface area. Bubbles must not be larger
than 130 m to maintain laminar flow conditions where maximum collision and attachment
between floc particle and bubbles occur.

Fig. 23 Bubble size versus rise velocity (Crittenden).

The density of the floc-bubble aggregate can be calculated by:

pb =

p d 3p + N ab b d 3b

(34)

d 3p + N ab d 3b

where pd = particle-bubble aggregate density, kg/m3

p = particle density, kg/m3
b = bubble (air) density, kg/m3
dp = particle diameter, m
db = mean bubble diameter, m
Nab = number of air bubbles attached to floc particle
The equivalent spherical diameter of the floc-bubble aggregate can be determined from:

1/ 3
d pd = d 3p + N ab d 3b

(35)

where dpd = equivalent spherical diameter of floc-bubble aggregate, m

29

Air loading the recycle system provides the required air loading to the water to ensure
dense bubbles form within the contact zone. Turbidity in the treated effluent declines with
increasing air loading until a breakpoint is reached. Beyond which, additional air provides no
further increase in turbidity removal.

Fig. 24 Air loading rate versus effluent turbidity (Crittenden).

The mass concentration of air released Cb, bubble volume concentration b, and bubble
number concentration Nb can be calculated from:
Cb =

C r C fl
r
1+ r

(36)

b =

Cb
air

(37)

Nb =

1012 6 b

(38)

d 3b

where Cb = mass concentration of air released, mg/L

Cr = mass concentration of air in recycle flow, mg/L
Cfl = mass concentration of air in floc tank effluent, mg/L
r = recycle ratio
b = bubble volume concentration, L/L
air = density of air saturated with water vapour, mg/L
Nb = bubble number concentration, number/mL
1012 = conversion factor, m3/mL
db = mean bubble diameter, m
Solubility of air at elevated pressure the solubility of air in water increases linearly with
increasing pressure but reduces at elevated temperatures.

30

Fig. 25 Pressure and temperature on dissolved air concentration (Crittenden).

Floc-bubble attachment: The likely mechanisms for floc-bubble attachment are (a) bubbles
adhere to preformed floc due to electrostatic or other attraction (b) bubbles become
physically entrapped within preformed floc (c) bubbles become entrapped in floc particles as
they aggregate, and (d) floc particles act as nuclei for bubble formation.

Fig. 26 Mechanisms for floc-bubble aggregation (Crittenden).

Example 7
A DAF plant is operating at 10% recycle with a saturator pressure of 500 kPa. Flocculated
water enters the contact zone with a floc particle concentration of 2000 particles/mL and a
floc volume concentration of 2 x 10-6 L/L (2 ppm).
Calculate the air mass concentration, bubble zone volume concentration, and bubble number
concentration in the contact zone. Compare the concentrations of bubbles to floc particles.

31

Assume the following:

- water temperature = 20oC
- air = 1.2 kg/m3 = 1200 mg/L
- air concentration in flocculated water = 24 mg/L
- mean bubble diameter = 40 m
From Fig 25, mass of air in recycle water Cr = 130 mg/L for 601 kPa (500 kPa gauge pressure
+ 101 kPa atmospheric pressure)
Concentration of air released C b =

C r C fl
130 24
r=
0.1 = 9.64 mg/L
1+ r
1 + 0.1

Bubble volume concentration b =

Cb
9.64
=
= 8033 10 6 L / L or 8033 ppm
air 1200

Bubble number concentration:

Nb =

1012 6 b
d 3b

1012 6 8033 10 6
40

= 2.4 105 bubbles/mL

Concentration of bubbles to floc particles = 2.4 x 105/2000 = 120 (a high ratio indicates a
high chance of particle collision and attachment with the bubbles)
Ratio of bubble volume concentration to floc volume concentration = 8033 ppm/2 ppm
= 4107 (a high ratio indicates a low floc-bubble density, resulting in a higher rise velocities of
the particle-bubble aggregate).

Table 4 Typical design criteria for DAF system (Crittenden).

Parameter
Basin design
Hydraulic loading rate, m/h
Basin length, m
Basin length-to-width ratio
Surface area, m2
Maximum hydraulic capacity for single basin, m3/s
Basin depth, m
Detention time in contact zone, s
Recycle system
Recycle ratio, % of influent
Recycle system pressure, kPa
Air loading, kg air/m3 raw water
Air bubble size, m
Bubble concentration, bubbles/mL
Bubble volume concentration, ppm

32

Value
10 20
< 11
<1
90 110
0.26 0.52
1.5 3
60 240
6 10
448 586
6000 10200
10 100
1 x 105 2 x 105
3500 8000