CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOVOLTAIC
AND PHOTOELECTROCHEMISTRY

Photovoltaic (or PV) systems convert light energy into electricity. The term
photo is a stem from the Greek phos, which means light. Volt is named
for Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), a pioneer in the study of electricity. Photovoltaics, then, could literally mean light-electricity. Photovoltaics (PV) is a
method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct
current electricity (converts sunlight into electricity).
IUPAC definition of Photoelectrochemistry: A term applied to a hybrid field
of chemistry employing techniques which combine photochemical and electrochemical methods for the study of the oxidation-reduction chemistry of the ground or
excited states of molecules or ions. In general, it is the chemistry resulting from the
interaction of light with electrochemical systems. (See also photoelectrochemical,
photogalvanic, photovoltaic cell)

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

1.1

Photovoltaic History

The first photovoltaic observation: A. E. Becquerel discovered the first photovoltaic effect, the operating principle of the solar cell, in 1839.1

Figure 1.1: The first PV observation

1.1.1

Figure 1.2: The first sesitization

solar cell

Some milestones

The origin of photovoltaic effect started from the observation at the solid-liquid
interface of a photoelectrochemical cell called the Becquerel effect[1] as a
coincidence, just like many other discoveries in the science history. Forty years
later, photovoltaic effect was observed by Adams and Day[2]. In parallel with
the technology progress of photography, photoelectric effect remained a focus
of scientific interest, though this phenomenon was not well understood till the
1
A. E. Becquerel, (1839). Memoire sur les effets electriques produits sous linfluence des
rayons solaires. Comptes Rendus 9: 561

1.1. Photovoltaic History

modern era of photochemistry in 1954 when Brattain and Garrett presented the
electrochemistry on Ge electrode by controlling the semiconductor properties
and light illumination[3]. The pioneering work of Ge was rapidly followed up
with other semiconductor electrodes such as Si, CdS, ZnS, CdSe, ZnO, TiO2 ,
SrTiO3 Ta2 O5 ... etc[4]. The fundamental was established by Gerischer on the
work of kinetics and energetics of electron transfer across the semiconductorelectrolyte junction and the characteristics of the space charge layer at the semiconductor surface in contiguous to the semiconductor-electrolyte interface. In
brief, the junction is formed between a semiconductor and another phase initially with difference of Fermi level between them. The majority carrier, upon
contact, will transfer through the interface to equalize the Fermi level and establish a thermodynamic equilibrium which generate a potential barrier at the
interface. Based on the new equilibrium, phenomenon of current rectifying
diode behavior and photovoltaic response upon illumination will prevail at the
junction. Some valuable reviews and books describe well the history and fundamentals of this type of photoelectrochemical photovoltaic cells [4, 5, 6, 7, 8].
The first solid state photovoltaic effect with Se was discovered by Willoughby
Smith in 1873[9]. In 1876, R. E. Day, W. G. Adams found that illuminating a
junction between selenium and platinum also has a photovoltaic effect, and an
EMF (Electromotive force) is produced. These two discoveries were a foundation for the first selenium solar cell construction, which was built in 1877[2].
Charles Fritts first described them in detail in 1883. This effect is the basis for
the modern solar cell. The silicon solar cell has remained essentially dominating the market since it was invented in 1954 by three American researchers,
Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin, who designed a silicon solar
cell capable of a six percent energy conversion efficiency with direct sunlight
at Bell Labs[10]. A comprehensive account on solar cell history can be found

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

elsewhere [11, 12, 13].

1.2

Energy and CO2 emission

1.2.1

Fossil energy:How much is the reserve of fossil energy?

To estimate the maximum reserves of fossil energy, we assume that neither

free carbon or free oxygen was present on the earth before the beginning of
organic life. During photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide combine to form
carbohydrate with the reaction below :
n (H2 O + CO2 ) ! n CH2 O + n O2

(1.1)

1.2. Energy and CO2 emission

(Glucose is a typical product of photosynthesis, C6 H12 O6 = 6 CH2 O).

This means 1 mole O2 ! 1 mole C or 32g O2 ! 12g C stored in carbohydrate.

12
(MC = MO2 )
32
Then, the amount of oxygen :

So we get the amount of carbon :

The reserves which have accumulated over millions of years will go up in the air
in a time of only hundred years!!! However, the elimination of energy is not yet
a major problem. A much worse issue will be the alternation of the atmosphere
and climate change as a result of the product of combustion. These effects last
long and have profound impact on our life and environment.

Figure 1.3: Annual consumption of oil (From P. W

urfel)

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.4: CO2 content raising

1.3

Energy Demand and Supply

Figure 1.5: Forecast energy demand

1.3. Energy Demand and Supply

Some Facts
1. Current global energy consumption rate : 13 1012 W

(13T W )

2. About 3T W is needed to maintain the current quality of life in USA.

3. The weather is getting more and more extreme.
4. Other choices of energy sources: geothermal, solar, wind, bio, ocean, etc.

Figure 1.6: Energy supplies from 1971 to 2008

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.7: Scale of different energy supplies

And ....

1.3. Energy Demand and Supply

Figure 1.8: Energy supplies from different sources

Figure 1.9: Area required for various energy supplies to satisfy the US demand

10

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

1.4

Solar Energy Resource

1.4.1

Scale of solar energy and earth temperature

Figure 1.10: Absorption of sunlight from species in the atmosphere

The pros and cons of solar energy:

1.4. Solar Energy Resource

Figure 1.11: Cost of PV as function of mass production

Figure 1.12: Cost of PV as function of different technologies

11

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Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

From http://pv.energytrend.com.tw/

1.4. Solar Energy Resource

Figure 1.13: Capacity of Si solar cell

How the energy is managed.

The indicator of happiness : energy/capital.
But, how effective this value is created : GDP/energy.

13

14

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.14: The cost of GDP per Watt

1.5. Radiation

1.5

15

Radiation

1.5.1

Blackbody Radiation

An object that absorbs all radiation incident upon it, regardless of the frequency,
is consider as a blackbody. An blackbody can be approximated by a hollow
object with a very small hole leading to its interior (Fig. 1.15). Any radiation
strikes the hole enters the cavity where it is trapped until being absorbed. At
equilibrium, radiation emitted must equal radiation absorbed. Therefore, the
body that emits the maximum amount also absorbs the maximum amountwhich
should look black. Practically, a blackbody is constructed by opening a small
hole on a large cavity.

Figure 1.15: Blackbody Radiation

Rayleigh-Jeans Law and Plancks Formula

(, T ) =

(f rom

standing

wave

in

cavity)

(1.2)

16

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Equation 1.2 is the energy density of radiation per unit frequency interval in a
cavity of temperature T . It is not directly observable. The directly observable
quantity is the spectral radiance (, T ), that is, the energy radiating from a
unit area of the hole per unit frequency range.

1
2 2
(, T ) = c(, T ) = 2 kB T
4
c

(1.3)

The Rayleigh-Jeans distribution fits the low-frequency behavior of the experimental energy density very well. However, as the frequency increases, the
spectral irradiance increases, the total irradiation energy is infinite (so called
ultraviolet catastrophe). This contradicts the experimental fact that the total
blackbody radiation is finite, and the spectral density has a maximum. Max
Planck found an empirical formula that fits accurately the experimental data
using the energy quantum and Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. He assumed
that the energy of radiation with frequency can only take integer multiples of a basic value h. The probability of finding a state with energy nh
is exp( nh/kB T ). Then, the average value of energy of a given component of
radiation with frequency is

P1
nh e nh/kB T
P1
= n=0
=
nh/kB T
n=0 e

(1.4)

Replacing the kB T in Equation 1.2, with Equation 1.4, Max Planck found
an empirical formula that fits accurately the experimental data:
(, T ) =

2 2
h
h/k T
2
b
c
e

(1.5)

1.5. Radiation

17

Initially, Max Planck believed that the quantization of energy is only a mathematical trick to reconcile his empirically obtained formula with the knowledge
of physics known at that time. The profound significance of the concept of
quantization of radiation and the meaning of Plancks constant were discovered
by Albert Einstein in his interpretation of the photoelectric effect, which is the
conceptual foundation of solar cells.

Figure 1.16: The discrepancy between the Rayleigh-Jeans formula

and the observed blackbody radiation.

Figure 1.17: Comparison between

Rayleigh-Jeans Law and Plancks
Law

Planks Radiation Formula

() d =

8h
3 d
c3 eh/kT 1

where h is the Plancks constant given by h=6.626 10

(1.6)
34

(J s).

18

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

The power of radiation-Stefans Law

G. Kirchhoff proved that any object in thermal equilibrium with radiation the
emitted power is proportional to the power absorbed:
(1.7)

e = (, T )A

where e is the power emitted per unit area per unit frequency by a heated
object. A is the fraction of the incident power absorbed per unit area per
unit frequency by the heated object, and (, T ) is a universal function for all
materials that depends only on frequency and temperature. A blackbody that
absorbs all the electromagnetic radiation falling on it would have A = 1 for all
frequency and so Kirchhoffs theorem for a blackbody becomes
(1.8)

e = (, T )

Stefan found experimentally the that the total power per unit area emitted
at all frequencies by a hot object, U (T ), was proportional to the fourth power
of its absolute temperature.
U (T ) =

U (T ) =

Z
Z

(1.9)

e d = T 4

0
1
0

2 2
h
h/k T
2
b
c
e

d =

(1.10)

where U is the power per unit area emitted at the surface of the blackbody, T is
the absolute temperature of the body, and
given by = 5.67 10

(W m

is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

K 4 ).

Example 1 - Stefans Law Applied to the Sun

Estimate the surface temperature of the sun from the following information. The

1.5. Radiation

19

suns radius with Rs =7.0 108 m. The average Sun-Earth distance R= 1.5

1011 m. The power per unit area from the Sun (for all frequencies) is measured at
the Earth to be 1400 W/m2 . Assume that the Sun is a blackbody.

Example 2 Derive Stefans Law from Planck Distribution

Show that the Planck spectral distribution formula leads to the experimentally observed Stefan Law forthe total radiation emitted by a blackbody at all wavelength
is U (T ) = 5.67 10 8 T 4 (Wm
Ans-

20

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Example 3 Wiens displacement Law

Consider the black body radiation, we note that as T increases, the wavelength
maximum

max

shifts toward shorter wavelengths.

(a) Show that there is a general relationship between T and

T

max

= const

(b)Obtain the numerical value for this constant.

Ans-

max

stating that

1.5. Radiation

1.5.2

Solar Radiation

The Solar Radiation can be considered as a blackbody around 5800c.

21

22

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.18: The earths orbital around the sun and the position of the earths
axis at various seasons over a year

Figure 1.19: Solar radiation at different seasons

1.5. Radiation

23

(a) Solar declination angle over a year

(b) Description of the suns position

(c) Solar path for different months

(d) Relationships between various irradiances

(e) Variation of extraterrestrial global daily

irradiation at different geographic latitudes

(f) Variation of extraterrestrial global daily irradiation versus latitude of locations

Figure 1.20: Solar Radiation in different conditions-1

24

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

(a) Daily variation of global irradiation G

(b) Monthly mean values of global daily irradiation H

(c) Tilting an angle relative to the horizontal

plane increases the solar irradiation from the
sun

(d) Effect of tilting angle HG on a clear winter

day in Burgdolf (CH)

(e) Effect of tilting angle on a overcast winter

day in Burgdolf (CH)

(f) Variation of global radiation at different

locations

Figure 1.21: Solar Radiation in different conditions-2

1.5. Radiation

25

Figure 1.22: Mean monthly global radiation varies over years

Figure 1.23: Components of radiation G and H

Figure 1.24: Formation of reflected

radiations HR and GR

26

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.25: Irradiance GG and irradiation HG arriving at a tilted PV received

from direct beam, diffuse solar and diffuse reflected radiation

Figure 1.26: Shadowing diagram for location at 47o N

1.5. Radiation

27

Air Mass
The Air Mass is the ratio of path length which light travels through the atmosphere normalized to the shortest possible path length (that is, when the sun is
directly overhead). The Air Mass quantifies the reduction in the power of light
as it passes through the atmosphere. The Air Mass is defined as:
AM f actor =

optical length to the sun

1
=
sun directly overhead optical length
cos

Figure 1.27: The angle to define Air Mass

Figure 1.28: The solar intensity mapping

(1.11)

28

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.29: The distribution of solar energy received per day

Example 4 Installation of Solar Panel

A house consumes energy 500W per day (in average). If the solar radiation intensity per day (insolation) is 6 kWhm 2 . What area of solar panel (10 % PV
module) do we have to install to fulfil the energy demand for a house?
Ans-

1.5. Radiation

29

Estimating solar land area

Example 5 Solar land Requirement for Taiwan

Find out the energy consumption of Taiwan per year. Assume we have an average
insolation value of 4 kWhm 2 /day. Suppose you have a PV system with 10%,
what is the size the solar land if we like to cover the energy demand.
Ans-

30

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Example 6 Green House Effect

The energy current density outside the earths atmosphere : jE,sun = 1.3kW/m2 .
The energy current on earth : IE,abs = Re 2 jE,sun
From Stefan-Boltzman Law : jE,earth = T 4

(Re = 6370km)

( = 5.67 10 8 W/m2 K 2 )

The energy current emitted by the entire earth : IE,emi = 4Re 2 Te 4

For steady-state condition, IE,abs = IE,emi , we have the mean temperature of the
earth Te = 275K.
Green House effect : A great part of the energy emitted from the earth surface is
absorbed by the atmosphere and re-emitted back to the earth. This warm up the
atmosphere and rise the temperature. From Fig1.30, we have the relation of
1
IE,earth = IE,sun + IE,atm
2

Figure 1.30: Balance of the absorbed and emitted energy current on the surface
of the earth.(From P. W
urfel)
What is the temperature ( Tegh =?) with such greenhouse effect
gh
0.5IE,atm = IE,sun this leads to IE,earth
= 2IE,sun = 2IE,abs = 2IE,emi = 8Re 2 Te 4
gh
Since IE,earth
= 4Re 2 Tegh

Tegh = 54 C

we have

Tegh = 2Te 4

1.5. Radiation

31

Figure 1.31: The Solar Spectral and its current density

Figure 1.32: Theoretical current

density vs absorber bandgap

Figure 1.33: Theoretical efficiency

vs absorber bandgap

32

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

1.5.3

Quantifying Solar Radiation

Solar Spectrum

Figure 1.34: The Solar Spectral Irradiance

Photon Flux-the number of photons per second per unit area:

=

N umber of photon
second area

Homework 1 Transfer Solars Irradiance spectrum (Power) into Flux spectrum

(No. of photons).
Ans-

1.6. Basics in Photovoltaics

1.6

33

Basics in Photovoltaics

What is a Photovoltaic device or a solar cell?

Figure 1.35: A simple model of PV converter

Figure 1.36: Comparison of photoelectric effect (left) and a photovoltaic device (right). The photovoltaic device needs certain spatial asymmetry such as
selective contact to drive excited charges to external circuit.

34

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.37: Various mechanisms of photovoltaics devices

Figure 1.38: I-V characteristics of a diode

1.6. Basics in Photovoltaics

35

How do their I-V characteristics look like?

Figure 1.39: I-V characteristics of a solar cell under dark and illumination

Figure 1.40: A typical IV cure of a

solar cell

Figure 1.41: Characteristics of the

current-voltage and power-voltage
an ideal solar cell

FF =

(1.12)

n=

(1.13)

36

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.42: Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

Figure 1.43: Equivalent circuit of a solar cell with series and shunt resistance

Iph = Is [exp(

qv
)
kt

1]

Il

photocurrent equation

(1.14)

1.6. Basics in Photovoltaics

37

High Rs and low Rsh will kill the performance of a solar cells.

Figure 1.44: Effects of series (a) and shunt resistance (b) in a solar cell.

Figure 1.45: Effects of light intensity on the IV cure of a solar cell

Figure 1.46: The efficiency of an

ideal Si solar cell as function of light
intensities

Crystalline Si solar cell performs much better at high illumination intensity.

However, not all the solar cells behaves the same. For example, dye-solar cells
work better under low light and higher temperature.

A STUDY OF DYE SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS UNDER INDOOR AND LOW LEVEL OUTDOOR
LIGHTING: COMPARISON TO ORGANIC AND INORGANIC THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS AND METHODS
TO ADDRESS MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

Nagarajan Sridhar1 and Dave Freeman1

Texas Instruments, 13560 N. Central Expressway, MS 3747, Dallas, TX 75243, USA.

ABSTRACT: With increasing applications in consumer electronics such as smart phones, laptops and tablet PCs, the
need for pervasive computing with a requirement of lower power consumption is increasing every day, This opens the
door for energy harvesting that could charge the batteries in these devices to keep them continually functioning in
some useful state. There has been a lot of attention on flexible thin film solar cells, such as dye sensitized (DSSC),
organic and inorganic, given their low cost and improving efficiency. Such cells are suitable for these applications
both under outdoor and indoor conditions due to their larger spectral response. Understanding the behavior of solar
cells such as DSSC under indoor light conditions along with power management algorithms to extract maximize the
collected energy is vital for consumer electronics applications. This analysis is compared to organic and inorganic
thin film solar cells.
Keywords: Dye-sensitized, Spectral response, Shading, Power Conditioning.
1

WHY ENERGY HARVESTING?

With the advent of ubiquitous computing and

information exchange through consumer applications
using smart phones and laptops to name a few, power
consumption requirements are expected to become
stringent. Furthermore, the usage of conventional
batteries is becoming a concern as it requires constant
replacement or maintenance. Energy harvesting has
gained a lot of attention to address this challenge. Energy
harvesting is defined as the process of utilizing ambient
energy to perform functionalities of mobile/small
electronic devices. Typical such sources are light,
mechanical (vibration), and thermal. Table I summarizes
these sources with respect to performance and harvesting
techniques to extract each of these energy sources [1]. In
addition to performance, other factors such as integration
of energy harvesting methods to a self-rechargeable
battery, size, shape, weight, mechanical flexibility, water
resistance and operating temperature ranges strongly
dictate the choice of the energy harvesting methods.
While it is clear that all these techniques have the
potential and hurdles to climb, solar cells appear to be a
preferred choice in many of these applications. Mobile
applications are used in locations where there is always
some availability of light, thereby making solar cells as a
convenient solution. It is important to note that there is a
lot of ongoing work on embedding multiple energy
harvesting methods into the same system [2, 3], which
would ideally be the best solution. The challenge of such
systems however is enormous as they involve
optimization of power electronics topologies and
intelligence to ensure maximum energy extraction and
power conditioning. The discussion in this paper is
limited to light energy harvesting using solar cells.

spectrum is quite different when it comes to indoor

applications. Therefore it is vital to look at other cell
types that may have a stronger spectral response which in
turn has an impact on cell efficiency. The cell efficiency
which is defined as the ratio of the solar cell peak output
power divided by the incident power on the solar cell is
dependent on the lighting source. A significant portion of
the spectrum under outdoor light conditions falls in the
red region of visible light. It turns out that crystalline
silicon has a much stronger spectral response in this
region in comparison to lower wavelengths. Whereas,
indoor conditions which is primarily fluorescent lighting
have a significant portion of the spectrum in the 600 nm
range and below. The other indoor lighting source is
incandescent. Solar cell technologies based on
amorphous silicon (a-Si), organic solar materials (OPV),
and dye sensitized materials (DSSC) [4, 5] fit this regime
very well. They are therefore thought to be more suitable
for indoor applications. DSSC technologies in particular,
even though are lagging in conversion efficiencies
compared to inorganic cell technologies such as
crystalline Si and a-Si, they have the advantages of low
cost processing, flexibility, conformabilities to different
shapes a key enabler for consumer applications, light
weight and display of different colors.
The goal of this paper is to discuss a quantitative
feasibility analysis of DSSC in response to indoor and
low light outdoor conditions, while also addressing
power management algorithms that help maximize the
collected energy. This analysis is compared to organic
and inorganic thin film solar cells. Finally, the paper will
discuss single and multi-cell topologies and the effect of
shading on the robustness of these algorithms.
3

SOLAR CELLS FOR INDOOR APPLICATIONS

Since majority of the mobile devices are primarily

used in indoor applications, it is important to understand
the behavior of solar cells in indoor lighting.
Currently, crystalline silicon solar cells dominate the
solar cell market. However, this technology is targeted
for high power outdoor applications due to their coverage
of the solar spectrum. On the other hand, the light

MEASUREMENT SETUP

There are three categories of indoor lighting:

fluorescent, incandescent, and daylight. Even though a
brief comparison will be made across all the three these
lighting conditions, predominant focus will on
fluorescent lighting, due to its popular use in home,
business, and warehouses.
The cell performance measurements are made inside
a Pantone color viewing light box that has three sources:
fluorescent, incandescent and daylight. This box allows

experiments to be conducted in a controlled manner. Care

is taken to ensure that there is no stray light affecting the
measurements. The solar cells are placed in a horizontal
position (parallel to the light source).
Illuminance values are measured used a lux meter.
Combinations of neutral density filters are used to obtain
different illuminance values. Lux is a typical unit for
measuring indoor lighting. For outdoors, irradiance is
measured in Watts/m2.
Fundamental difference between illuminance and
irradiance is the weighting of the spectral response.
Irradiance includes the power from all wavelengths
weighted equally, whereas illuminance weights the power
from each wavelength in proportion to the sensitivity of
the human eye, which in turn is most sensitive to green
light.
Majority of the solar cell characterization studies are
reported under outdoor or sunlight conditions. The peak
output is reported at standard test conditions (STC)
conditions with intensities of 1000W/m2. On the other
hand, indoor lighting conditions are significantly
different. Table II shows these values that were measured
in this study in various zones of an office environment.
The lower limit of the office environment could be
extended down that may include a conference room
where lighting was turned down during projected
presentations, that is 50 100 lux. On the other hand, the
higher limit was extended in a bright indoor lighting such
as a studio, assembly areas and warehouse lighting to
3000 lux. Based on the empirical relationship between
lux and W/m2, it turns out that the average indoor lighting
is approximately 1 to 2 W/m2, less than 500 times lower
than outdoor conditions. As a result, all of our
measurements and analysis are done using lux values.
IV measurements are done using a Keithley 2400
source meter to measure the solar cell open and short
circuit values, as well as the maximum power parameters
of the solar cell. Normalization is done for current and
power to one square centimeter to perform comparative
studies among the various solar cells.
Cell and maximum power point parameter
correlations are done as part of maximum power point
(MPP) algorithm determination.
4 SOLAR CELL BEHAVIOUR UNDER VARIOUS
INDOOR LIGHTING CONDITIONS
Fig. 1 illustrates the various solar cell maximum
power density (mW/cm2) values that were determined
from the IV scan for different illuminance conditions at
room temperature for fluorescent lighting. Further
demarcation is highlighted in Fig. 2 using the light level
measurements done for realistic indoor office lighting
environment as shown in Table II. This demarcation
method helps the understanding of the applicability for a
given solar cell for a given light condition.
This analysis indicates that among the various cells
measured, DSSC shows higher power density across
indoor conditions relative to a-Si and (OPV) solar cells.
On the other hand, similar drill down analysis done
under incandescent lighting conditions indicates that poly
Si solar cells show a superior performance over others as
shown in Fig. 3. These results, in general is consistent
with the spectral response curves that therefore results in
poly Si showing the best performance relative to other
cells considered in our study for incandescent conditions.

While it is known that the wide band-gap for DSSC [5]

would explain the higher performance for fluorescent
conditions, it is relatively better than other wide band-gap
materials in incandescent conditions as well as indicated
in Fig. 3. A slightly lower performance for DSSC for a
given lux value under fluorescent condition compared to
daylight condition (Fig. 4) can be explained by the
additional infrared component in the daylight spectral
response.
For indoor conditions, since fluorescent light is more
popular, it is vital to understand the amount of power that
can be generated for realistic lighting conditions of
around 250 500 lux is in the order of 25 uW/cm2. This
number is key for the end product manufacturers to wrap
an energy harvesting solution to their application. The
other challenge is to ensure that the system extracts MPP
from the solar cell and the method of extraction.
5

MPP ALGORITHMS

It is well known that cell parameters and the

maximum power parameters strongly predict the
efficiency of the solar cell. Most studies focused on STC
conditions or primarily outdoor conditions. However, a
quantitative understanding the behavior under low-light
(indoor) conditions is vital. Reason is that this enables the
system to maintain or work towards staying at the MPP
location under varying conditions such as lighting change
due to source distance or light source, angle of incidence,
or temperature change. This is done through the
implementation of an appropriate MPP algorithm.
Several MPP algorithms have been developed [6 - 8],
some of which are used very commonly in high power
applications such as the P&O, incremental conductance
etc. However, the implementation of such algorithms
requires high performance controllers which could be
costly as well as high in power consumption. It turns out
that for energy harvesting systems, the MPP algorithm
developed is the one that needs the least amount of
resources or circuits as these systems are embedded in
consumer applications which need to be low cost and
ones that need to consume very low power.
Detailed investigation for all three cells reveals that
the short circuit and maximum current are strongly linear
with illuminance. Similarly, the open-circuit voltage and
the maximum voltage show linearity on a logarithmic
scale of illuminance, all with extremely high correlations.
Figure 5 and 6 shows the correlation plots between V max
versus Voc and Imax versus Isc respectively for the DSSC
cell.
These strong correlations open the door to design
simple cost-effective MPP algorithms for controllers
associated with these solar cells for indoor applications
where cost is a priority for commercial feasibility.
Equation 1 is called the fractional voltage method that
can be used to estimate the maximum power point
voltage (V max) after finding the open circuit voltage (Voc).
Similarly, Equation 2 is called the fractional current
method that estimates the maximum power point current
(Imax) based on the short circuit current (Isc). Figure 2
shows a simple algorithm that corrects the maximum
power point voltage for changes in illumination. The
following relationships are simple MPP algorithms for
indoor applications of a DSSC cell.

Fractional voltage method

Vmax = 0.74*Voc
Fractional current method
Imax = 0.93*Isc

(1)

(2)

Equations 1 and 2 are simple algorithms that are

adapted as most suitable choices considering their
spectral response and their ability to conform to the
application.
It turns out that the values of the constants in the
fractional methods are very close for the various cells
considered in this study. Besides, the same is true across
fluorescent and incandescent light sources for a given cell
type, suggesting these fractional methods could be used
with little loss of MP for a system independent of the
type of solar cell used.
However, these techniques are presented with some
challenges due to non-optimal conditions such as shading
that will be discussed in the next section.
6 SINGLE VERSUS MULTI CELLS AND THE
EFFECT OF SHADING
The effect of implementing multi- versus single-cell
solar panels in low-power energy harvesting systems is
considered to understand the impact on non-optimal
conditions such as shading. Multi-cell systems produce
higher output voltages, whereas single-cell systems
produce a low voltage. However, this is well below what
is the usability by the majority of electronics produced
today. Ten single-cells connected in series generate
approximately 10 x Voc of a single cell which is usually
around 5.0 V. This can be used directly by todays
electronics or regulated down to a lower voltage to
support the current micro-controllers that run at 3.3V or
1.8 V. The easy use of this voltage has contributed to
multi-cell popularity. However, multi-cell topologies are
more expensive relative to the system cost for these
applications. Moreover, multi-cell topologies suffer from
the shading problem that could hamper the effectiveness
of the simple fractional MPP algorithms.
In more recent history, single-cell panels are
receiving a stronger focus. This is most likely the result
of the convergence of several factors. The cost of a
single-cell panel is lower than a multi-cell. Construction
of single-cell panels is simpler and maximizes the cell
area since there is less wiring for inner-connecting the
cells. Also, the area available on todays electronic
products is smaller and the overhead of the innerconnection of a multi-cell takes up precious area that
could be used to generate current. Lastly, the single-cell
does not have the same weakest cell problem like the
multi-cell when shadowing occurs. However, a singlecell generates approximately 0.5V, which is a relatively
low voltage and difficult to use to directly power existing
electronics.
Shading is a known non-optimal condition that could
occur often in indoor applications. For example,
consumer applications like cell phones or remote controls
could have some unavoidable temporary one or more cell
shading issue by a person or an object while the device is
in use. Shading can severely distort the IV and PV curve.
End result is that the system would no longer be able to
extract maximum power under such conditions. Fig. 7
shows a set of PV curves for a 4 cell DSSC connected in
series with and without shading (simulated using opaque

strips of various thicknesses) under realistic indoor office

condition. The multiple MPP peaks and the shift of the
single peak cases due to shading changes the value of the
constant in the fractional MPP algorithms.
This explains why the MPP algorithm might need to
be sophisticated besides simply using fractional methods
that are applicable under optimal conditions. However as
explained before, sophisticated methods involve the use
of a more complex power conditioning electronics that
might make the solution more expensive for a given
application while consuming a lot more power than the
ones using simple fractional methods.
An alternative solution is to use a single-cell topology
that can avoid multiple peaks in the PV curve. The
tradeoff is low-cell voltage and lower efficiency
compared to a multi-cell with a same area and cell type.
On the other hand, implementation of MPP method in a
single-cell is much simpler since there is only one peak
on the PV curve and also the power required to
implement the MPPT function would be significantly
smaller than in the multi-cell system.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Our study shows that DSSC under indoor conditions for
energy harvesting applications is a better candidate than
a-Si and OPV in terms of maximum power density.
Derivation of the constants in the fractional MPP
algorithms indicate that they could be implemented with
little loss of maximum power across various solar cell
types as well as across fluorescent and incandescent
conditions. However, shading could render the method
ineffective for the popular multi cell solutions. One
solution to this problem is to implement a single cell
topology.
8

ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS

8.1 Illustrations

Figure 1: Cell comparison under fluorescent lighting

condition.

Figure 5: Vmax plotted as a function of Voc for a

fractional voltage algorithm for DSSC.

Figure 2: Windowing cell comparison for realistic indoor

conditions.

Figure 6: Imax plotted as a function of Isc for a fractional

current method algorithm for DSSC.

Figure 3: Cell comparison under incandescent lighting

condition.

Figure 7: Effect of shading in a multi-cell topology.

8.2 Tables
Table I: Performance and harvesting techniques by
energy source [1]

Figure 4: DSSC cells under different lighting conditions

Table II: Measurement of lighting in indoor conditions

8.3 References
[1] B. Atwood, B. Warneke, K. S. J. Pister, Proceedings
of 14th Annual International Conference on
Microelectromechanical Sytsems, (2001) 357.
[2] S. Chalasani, J. M. Conrad, Southeastcon IEEE,
Vol. III (2008) 442.
[3] J. Colomer-Farrarons, P. Miribel-Catala, A. SaizVela, J. Samitier, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, Vol. 58, (2011) 4250.
[4] B. ORegan, M. Grtzel, Nature 335 (1991) 737
[5] M. Grtzel, Journal of Photochemistry and
Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews, Vol. 4
(2003) 145.
[6] N.Femia, D.Granozio, G.Petrone, G.Spaguuolo,
M.Vitelli, IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst., Vol.
2 (2006).
[7] D.P.Hohm, M.E.Ropp, Proc. Photovoltaic Specialist
Conference (2000) 1699.
[8] R. Faranda, S. Leva, V. Maugeri, Power and Energy
Society General Meeting - Conversion and Delivery
of Electrical Energy in the 21st Century, IEEE,
(2008) 1.

1.6. Basics in Photovoltaics

Figure 1.47: Effects of temperature

on the IV cure of a solar cell

43

Figure 1.48: Temperature dependency on the photovoltaic characteristics of a Si solar cell

Figure 1.49: Photon flux under various environment

44

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

1.6. Basics in Photovoltaics

45

Figure 1.50: Progress roadmap of different type of Solar Cells

Figure 1.51: 1st generation solar cell

Figure 1.52: 2nd generation solar

cell

46

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.53: Various type of Solar Cells based on Solution Process

1.6. Basics in Photovoltaics

Figure 1.54: Quantum effect tuning the absorption for PV

47

48

1.7

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Basics of Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.55: The utilization of solar energy

1.7. Basics of Photoelectrochemistry

49

Figure 1.56: Energy diagrams of photocatalytic water splitting based on (a)

one-step excitation and (b) two-step excitation (Z-scheme); and PEC water
splitting using (c) a photoanode, (d) photocathode, and (e) photoanode and
photocathode in tandem configuration. The band gaps are depicted smaller in
(b) and (e) to emphasize that semiconductors with a narrow band gap can be
employed. (From Chem. Soc. Rev., 2014, 43, 75207535)

50

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.57: Different types of phooelectrochemical systems

1.7. Basics of Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.58: Photocleavage of H2 O at n-type electrode

Figure 1.59: Photocleavage of H2 O at p-type electrode

Figure 1.60: Photocleavage of H2 O at n-type Ru2 S under external bias.

51

52

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Homework 2 Can you draw a p-n H2 O photoelectrolysis cell?

Ans-

Figure 1.61: Band edge position of various metal oxide

1.8. Structure of real Solar Cells

1.8
1.8.1

53

Structure of real Solar Cells

Crystal Si Solar Cells

Figure 1.62: Crystal structure

of Si

Figure 1.63: Intrinsic Si crystal and and

bandgap

Figure 1.64: n type Si crystal and

and bandgap

Figure 1.65: p type Si crystal and

and bandgap

54

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.66: Characteristics of a pn junction

1.8. Structure of real Solar Cells

55

Figure 1.67: Basic structure of a crystalline Si solar cell (150 - 300 um)

Figure 1.68: Appearances of mono crystalline Si (right) and polycrystalline (or

multicrystalline) Si (left) solar cells.

56

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.69: Structure of a back surface field solar cell

Figure 1.70: Charge separation

rate profile in a solar cell

Figure 1.71: Buried-contact, surface texture and back surface field design

1.8. Structure of real Solar Cells

57

Figure 1.72: Special design of a sc-Si PERL solar cell with inverted pyramids
and bilateral area parallel point contacts back surface field architecture

1.8.2

Thin film Solar Cells

Thin film a-Si solar cells

Semiconductor compound thin film solar cells

58

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.73: Stucture of p-i-n Si thin film solar cell

Figure 1.74: Structure of amorphous Si

Figure 1.75:
Wronski effect

Process of Staebler-

1.8. Structure of real Solar Cells

59

Figure 1.76: Degradation behavior of a-Si solar cell

Figure 1.77: CdTe thin film solar

cell

Figure 1.78: CIS solar cell

Figure 1.79: CIGS solar cell

60

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.80: Cross section of CIGS solar cell

1.8.3

Tandem Solar Cells

To improve the efficiency of a sold cell. we can combine a complementary

absorber into one solar cell.

1.8. Structure of real Solar Cells

Figure 1.81: CIS and a-Si tandem solar cell

Figure 1.82: Semiconductor compound tandem solar cell

61

62

Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

Figure 1.83: mc-Si and a-Si tandem solar cell

Figure 1.84: Triple tandem Si solar cell

1.9. Further Readings:

1.9

Further Readings:

Please see the contents on the Moodle.

63

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Introduction to Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemistry

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] A. E. Becquerel, C. R. Acad. Sci., 1839, 9, 561.

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[4] A. J. Nozik, Annu .Rev. Phys. Chem., 1978, 29, 189.
[5] V. A. Myamlin and Y. V Peskov, Electrochemistry of Semiconductors; New
York: Plenum, 1967.
[6] Semiconductor Photoelectrochemistry; Y. V Pleskov and Y. Gurevich, 1986.
[7] S. R. Morrison, Electrochemistry at Semiconductor and Oxidized Metal Electrodes; 1980.
[8] R. Memming, Semiconductor Electrochemistry; WILEY-VCH, 2001.
[9] W. Smith, Nature, 1873, 7, 303.
[10] D. M. Chapin, C. S. Fuller, and G. L. Pearson, J. App. Phys., 1954, 25, 676.
65

66

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[11] R. H. Bube, Photovoltaic Materials; Vol. 1 of Properties of Semiconductor

Materials; Imperial College Press, 1998.
[12] J. Nelson, The Physics of Solar cells; Imperial College Press, 2003.
[13] S.-S Sun and N. S. Sariciftci, Ed., Organiv Photovoltaics-Mechanisms, Materials, and Devices; CRC Press, 2005.
[14] W. Schockley and H. J. Queisser, J. App. Phys., 1961, 32, 510.
[15] P. W
urfel, J. Phys. C, 1982, 15(3967).
[16] K. Pabitra, J. Bisquert, and D. Cahen, Adv. Mater, 2011, 23, 2870.