From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Tamil people

Tamil people

?????? Tamil people (also called Tamils)

Tamils (Tamil: ??????, tamiḻar [?]), are an ethnic
group native to Tamil Nadu, a state in India,
and the north-eastern region of Sri Lanka.
They speak Tamil (?????), with a recorded
history going back two millennia.[8] Emigrant
communities are found across the world. The
Tamils are mostly Hindus with sizable Chris-
tian and Muslim populations.
Tamil was the first Indian language to be
given classical status. The art and architec-
ture of the Tamil people encompass some of
the notable contributions of India and South-
East Asia to the art world. The music, the
temple architecture and the stylised sculp-
tures favoured by the Tamil people in their
ancient nation are still being learnt and prac-
ticed. The classical language of Tamil has the
oldest extant literature amongst other
Dravidian languages.[9] Tamils have been re-
ferred to as the last surviving classical civil-
isation on Earth.[10] The Pallava script, a
Thiruvalluvar • Srinivasa Ramanujan • M.I.A. variant of Southern Brahmi used by the Tamil
Viswanathan Anand • Rajaraja Chola • Abdul Pallava dynasty, was the basis of several of
Kalam the writing systems of Southeast Asia, includ-
A. R. Rahman • C. N. Annadurai • M. S. ing the Burmese, Khmer, Thai, Lao and
Subbulakshmi
Javanese scripts.[11]
Total population

77,000,000 [1] History of the term

Regions with significant populations See also: Sources of ancient Tamil history
It is unknown as to whether the term Tamilar
India 60,793,814 (2001)[2] and its equivalents in Prakrit such as Damela,
Dameda, Dhamila and Damila was a self des-
Sri Lanka 3,092,676 (2001)[3]
ignation or a term denoted by outsiders. Epi-
Malaysia 2,100,000 (2007)[4] graphic evidence of an ethnic group termed
as such is found in ancient Sri Lanka where a
Canada 200,000 (2007)[5]
number of inscriptions have come to light
Singapore 111,000 (1993)[4] datable from third to first century BCE men-
tioning Damela or Dameda persons. In the
Languages well-known Hathigumpha inscription of the
Kalinga ruler Kharavela, refers to a Tramira
Tamil
samghata (Confederacy of Tamil rulers)
Religion dated to 150 BCE. It also mentions that the
88% Hindu, 6% Muslim, 5.5% Christian. league of Tamil kingdoms had been in exist-
ence 113 years before then.[12] In Amaravati
Related ethnic groups in present day Andhra Pradesh there is an in-
Dravidians · Telugus · Kannadigas · Malayalis scription referring to a Dhamila-vaniya
· Giraavarus[6] · Sinhalese[7] (Tamil trader) datable to the third century
CE.[12] Another inscription of about the same

1
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Tamil people

time in Nagarjunakonda seems to refer to a

Damila. A third inscription in Kanheri Caves
refers to a Dhamila-gharini (Tamil house-
holder). In the Buddhist Jataka story known
as Akiti Jataka there is a mention to Damila-
rattha (Tamil country). Hence it is clear that
by at least the third century BCE, the ethnic
identity of Tamils has been formed as a dis-
tinct group.[12] Tamilar is etymologically re-
lated to Tamil, the language spoken by Tamil
people. Southworth suggests that the name
comes from tam-miz > tam-iz ’self-speak’, or
’one’s own speech’.[13] Zvelebil suggests an
etymology of tam-iz, with tam meaning "self"
or "one’s self", and "-iz" having the connota-
tion of "unfolding sound". Alternately, he sug-
gests a derivation of tamiz < tam-iz < *tav-iz
< *tak-iz, meaning in origin "the proper pro-
cess (of speaking)."[14]

History
See also: History of Tamil Nadu

Tamils in India
Pre-historic period
Possible evidence indicating the earliest
presence of Tamil people in modern day
Tamil Nadu are the megalithic urn burials,
dating from around 1500 BCE and onwards,
which have been discovered at various loca-
tions in Tamil Nadu, notably in Adichanallur
in Tirunelveli District[15][16][17] which con-
form to the descriptions of funerals in classic-
al Tamil literature[18].
Various legends became prevalent after
the tenth century CE regarding the antiquity
of the Tamil people. According to Iraiyanar
Agapporul, a tenth/eleventh-century annota-
tion on the Sangam literature, the Tamil
country extended southwards beyond the nat-
ural boundaries of the Indian peninsula com-
prising 49 ancient nadus (divisions). The land
was supposed to have been destroyed by a
deluge. The Sangam legends also added to
the antiquity of the Tamil people by claiming
tens of thousands of years of continuous liter-
ary activity during three Sangams.[19]
Classical period
From around the third century BC on-
wards, three royal dynasties—the Cholas, the
Cheras and the Pandyas—rose to dominate
the ancient Tamil country.[17] Each of these
dynasties had its own realm within the Tamil-
Grey pottery with engravings, Arikamedu, 1st
century CE.
speaking region. Classical literature and in-
scriptions also describe a number of Velirs,
or minor chieftains, who collectively ruled
over large parts of central Tamil Nadu.[20]
Wars between the kings and the chieftains
were frequent, as were conflicts with ancient
Sri Lanka.[21][22] These wars appear to have
been fought to assert hegemony and demand
tribute, rather than to subjugate and annex
those territories. The kings and chieftains
were patrons of the arts, and a significant
volume of literature exists from this peri-
od.[20] The literature shows that many of the
cultural practices that are considered peculi-
arly Tamil date back to the classical peri-
od.[20]
Agriculture was important during this
period, and there is evidence that irrigation
networks were built as early as 2nd century
AD.[23] Internal and external trade flour-
ished, and evidence exists of significant con-
tact with Ancient Rome.[24] Large quantities
of Roman coins and signs of the presence of
Roman traders have been discovered at

2
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Karur and Arikamedu.[24] There is also evid-
ence that at least two embassies were sent to
the Roman Emperor Augustus by Pandya
kings.[25] Potsherds with Tamil writing have
also been found in excavations on the Red
Sea, suggesting the presence of Tamil mer-
chants there.[26] An anonymous first century
traveler’s account written in Greek, Periplus
Maris Erytraei, describes the ports of the
Pandya and Chera kingdoms in Damirica and
their commercial activity in great detail.
Periplus also indicates that the chief exports
of the ancient Tamils were pepper, malabath-
rum, pearls, ivory, silk, spikenard, diamonds,
sapphires, and tortoiseshell.[27]
The classical period ended around the
fourth century AD with invasions by the
Kalabhra, referred to as the kalappirar in
Tamil literature and inscriptions.[28] These
invaders are described as evil kings and bar-
barians coming from lands to the north of the
Tamil country.[29] This period, commonly re-
ferred to as the Dark Age of the Tamil coun-
try, ended with the rise of the Pallava dyn-
asty.[28][30][31] According to Clarence Malo-
ney, during the classical period Tamils also
settled the Maldive Islands.[6]
Imperial and post-imperial periods
Although the Pallava records can be traced
from the second century AD, they did not rise
to prominence as an imperial dynasty until
the sixth century.[32] The dynasty does not
appear to have been Tamil in origin, although
they rapidly adopted the local culture and the
Tamil language. The Pallavas sought to mod-
el themselves after great northern dynasties
such as the Mauryas and Guptas.[33] They
therefore transformed the institution of the
kingship into an imperial one, and sought to
bring vast amounts of territory under their
direct rule. The Pallavas were followers of
the Hinduism, though for a short while one of
their kings embraced Jainism and later con-
verted to Hinduism[34]. The Bhakti movement
in Hinduism was founded by Tamil saints at
this time, and rose along with the growing in-
fluence of Jainism and Buddhism.[35] The Pal-
lavas pioneered the building of large, ornate
temples in stone which formed the basis of
the Dravidian temple architecture.
The Pallava dynasty was overthrown in the
9th century by the resurgent Cholas.[32] The
Cholas become dominant in the 10th century
and established an empire covering most of
southern India and Sri Lanka.[32] The empire
3
Tamil people
The Varaha cave bas relief at Mahabalipuram
built by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman II
in 7th century CE
had strong trading links with China and
Southeast Asia.[36][37] The Cholas’ navy
conquered the South Asian kingdom of Sri Vi-
jaya in Sumatra and continued as far as Thai-
land and Burma.[32] Chola power declined in
the 12th and 13th centuries, and the Pandya
dynasty enjoyed a brief period of resurgence
thereafter during the rule of Sundara
Pandya.[32] However, repeated Muslim inva-
sions from the 15th century onwards placed a
huge strain on the empire’s resources, and
the dynasty came to an end in the 16th cen-
tury.[38]
The western Tamil lands became increas-
ingly politically distinct from the rest of the
Tamil lands after the Chola and Pandya em-
pires lost control over them in the 13th cen-
tury.[39] They developed their own distinct
language and literature, which increasingly
grew apart from Tamil, evolving into the
modern Malayalam language by the 15th cen-
tury.[40]
No major empires arose thereafter, and
parts of Tamil Nadu were for a while ruled by
a number of different local chiefs, such as the
Nayaks of the modern Maharashtra (see Ser-
foji II) and Andhra Pradesh regions. From the
17th century onwards, European powers
began establishing settlements and trading
outposts in the region. A number of battles
were fought between the British, French and
Danish in the 18th century, and by the end of
the 18th century most of Tamil Nadu was un-
der British rule.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Tamil people

Tamils in Sri Lanka

There is little scholarly consensus over the
presence of the Tamil people in Sri Lanka,
also known as Eelam in early Tamil literat-
ure, prior to the medieval Chola period (circa
10th century AD). One theory states that
there was not an organized Tamil presence in
Sri Lanka until the invasions from what is
now South India in the 10th century AD; an-
other theory contends that Tamil people were
the original inhabitants of the island.[41][42]

Pre-Historic period
The indigenous Veddhas are physically re-
lated to Dravidian language-speaking tribal
people in South India and early populations
of Southeast Asia, although they no longer
speak their native languages.[43] It is be-
lieved that cultural diffusion, rather than mi-
gration of people, spread the Sinhalese and
Tamil languages from peninsular India into
an existing Mesolithic population, centuries
before the Christian era.[44]
Settlements of people culturally similar to
those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil
Nadu in modern India were excavated at
megalithic burial sites at Pomparippu on the
west coast and in Kathiraveli on the east
coast of the island, villages established
between the 5th century BC and 2nd century
AD.[45][46] Cultural similarities in burial prac-
tices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated
by archeologists to 10th century BC.
However, Indian history and archaeology
have pushed the date back to 15th century
BC, and in Sri Lanka, there is radiometric
evidence from Anuradhapura that the
non-Brahmi symbol-bearing black and red
ware occur at least around 9th or 10th cen-
tury BC.[47]
Historic period
Potsherds with early Tamil writing from
the 2nd century BC have been found in ex-
cavations in Poonagari, Jaffna, bearing sever-
al inscriptions including a clan name - vela, a
name related to velir from ancient Tamil
country.[48] There is epigraphic evidence of
people identifying themselves as Damelas or
Damedas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people)
in Anuradhapura, the capital city of Rajarata,
and other areas of Sri Lanka as early as the
2nd century BC.[49]Historical records estab-
lish that Tamil kingdoms in modern India
were closely involved in the island’s affairs
Inscription dated to 1100 AD left by Tamil
soldiers in Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka
from about the 2nd century BC.[21][22]In Ma-
havamsa, a historical poem, ethnic Tamil ad-
venturers such as Elara invaded the island
around 145 BC.[50] Tamil soldiers from what
is now South India were brought to
Anuradhapura between the 7th and 11th cen-
turies AD in such large numbers that local
chiefs and kings trying to establish legitim-
acy came to rely on them.[51] By the 8th cen-
tury AD there were Tamil villages collectively
known as Demel-kaballa (Tamil allotment),
Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages), and
Demel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and
lands).[52]
Medieval period
In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, Pandya and
Chola incursions into Sri Lanka culminated in
the Chola annexation of the island, which las-
ted until the latter half of the 11th century
CE.[51][53][54][55]
The decline of Chola power in Sri Lanka
was followed by the restoration of the Polon-
naruwa monarchy in the late 11th century
AD.[56] In 1215, following Pandya invasions,
the Tamil-dominant Arya Chakaravarthi dyn-
asty established an independent Jaffna king-
dom[57] on the Jaffna peninsula and parts of

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Tamil people

northern Sri Lanka. The Arya Chakaravarthi
expansion into the south was halted by
Alagakkonara,[58] a man descended from a
family of merchants from Kanchipuram in
Tamil Nadu. He was the chief minister of the
Sinhalese king Parakramabahu V dependence today.
(1344–59 AD). Vira Alakeshwara, a descend-
ant of Alagakkonara, later became king of the
Sinhalese,[59] but he was overthrown by the
Ming admiral Cheng Ho in 1409 CE. The
Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty ruled over large
parts of northeast Sri Lanka until the Por-
tuguese conquest of the Jaffna Kingdom in
1619 AD. The coastal areas of the island
were taken over by the Dutch and then be-
came part of the British Empire in 1796 CE.
The caste structure of the majority Sin-
halese has also accommodated Hindu immig-
rants from South India since the 13th century
AD. This led to the emergence of three new
Sinhalese caste groups: the Salagama, the
Durava and the Karava.[60][61][62] The Hindu
migration and assimilation continued until
the 18th century AD.[60]
led to the government adopting a new policy
called the "three language formula". This has
led to Tamils in India becoming increasingly
satisfied with the federal arrangement, and
there is very little support for secession or in-
In Sri Lanka, however, the unitary ar-
rangement led to a growing belief among
some Tamils of discrimination by the Sin-
halese majority. This resulted in a demand
for federalism, which in the 1970s grew into
a movement for an autonomous Tamil coun-
try. The situation deteriorated into civil war
in the early 1980s. A ceasefire in effect since
2002 broke down in August 2006 amid
shelling and bombing from both sides. Today
Tamils make up 18% of Sri Lanka’s popula-
tion (3.8 Million).[64], 6.2% of Malaysia’s Pop-
ulation (1.06 Million).
Geographic distribution
Indian Tamils

Modern period
British colonists consolidated the Tamil ter-
ritory in southern India into the Madras Pres-
idency, which was integrated into British In-
dia. Similarly, the Tamil parts of Sri Lanka
joined with the other regions of the island in
1802 to form the Ceylon colony. They re-
mained in political union with India and Sri
Lanka after their independence, in 1947 and
1948 respectively.
When India became independent in 1947,
Madras Presidency became the Madras
State, comprising present-day Tamil Nadu,
coastal Andhra Pradesh, northern Kerala,
and the southwest coast of Karnataka. The
state was subsequently split along linguistic
lines. In 1953, the northern districts formed
Andhra Pradesh. Under the States Reorganiz-
ation Act in 1956, Madras State lost its west-
ern coastal districts. The Bellary and South
Kanara districts were ceded to Mysore state,
and Kerala was formed from the Malabar dis-
trict and the former princely states of
A young Tamil girl wearing rich gold orna-
Travancore and Cochin. In 1968, Madras
ments. Source:The National Geographic
State was renamed Tamil Nadu. Magazine, April 1907
There was some initial demand for an in-
dependent Tamil state following the adoption Most Indian Tamils live in the state of Tamil
of the federal system.[63] However, the Indi- Nadu. Tamils are the majority in the union
an constitution granted significant autonomy territory of Pondicherry, a former French
to the states, and protests by Tamils in 1963 colony. Pondicherry is a subnational enclave

5
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Tamil people

situated within Tamil Nadu. Tamils account

for at least one-sixth of the population in An-
daman and Nicobar Islands.
There are also Tamil communities in other
parts of India. Most of these have emerged
fairly recently, dating to the colonial and
post-colonial periods, but some—particularly
the Hebbar and Mandyam Tamils of southern
Karnataka (2.9 million), Pune, Maharashtra
(1.4 million), Andhra Pradesh (1.2 million),
Palakkad in Kerala (0.6 million), and Delhi
(0.1 million) — date back to at least the medi-
eval period.[65] Kavadi dancers in Hamm, Germany in 2007

Sri Lankan Tamils Significant Tamil emigration began in the

There are two groups of Tamils in Sri Lanka: 18th century, when the British colonial gov-
the Sri Lankan Tamils and the Indian Tamils. ernment sent many poor Tamils as inden-
The Sri Lankan Tamils (or Ceylon Tamils) are tured labourers to far-off parts of the Empire,
descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna especially Malaya, South Africa, Fiji, Mauriti-
Kingdom and east coast chieftaincies called us and the Caribbean. At about the same
Vannimais. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Coun- time, many Tamil businessmen also immig-
try Tamils) are descendants of bonded rated to other parts of the British Empire,
laborers sent from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka particularly to Burma and East Africa.[72]
in the 19th century to work on tea planta-
tions.[66] Furthermore, there is a significant
Tamil-speaking Muslim population in Sri
Lanka; however, unlike Tamil Muslims from
India, they do not identify as ethnic Tamils
and are therefore listed as a separate ethnic
group in official statistics.[67][68]
Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the North-
ern and Eastern provinces and in the capital
Colombo, whereas most Indian Tamils live in
the central highlands.[68] Historically both
groups have seen themselves as separate
communities, although there is a greater
sense of unity since 1980s.[69] In 1949, the
United National Party government, which in-
cluded G. G. Ponnambalam, leader of the
Tamil Congress, stripped the Indian Tamils of
their citizenship. This was opposed by S. J. V.
Chelvanayakam, the leader of Tamil national-
ist Federal Party, and most Tamil people.[70]
Under the terms of an agreement reached
between the Sri Lankan and Indian govern-
ments in the 1960s, about 40 percent of the
Indian Tamils were granted Sri Lankan cit-
izenship, and many of the remainder were re-
Batu Caves temple built by Tamil Malaysians
patriated to India.[71]By the 1990s, most Indi-
in circa 1880s
an Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizen-
ship.[71]
Many Tamils still live in these countries,
and the Tamil communities in Singapore,
Tamil emigrant communities Reunion Island, Malaysia and South Africa
See also: Tamil Malaysians, Tamil South have retained much of their culture and lan-
Africans, Tamil Canadians, and Tamil British guage. Many Malaysian children attend

6
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Tamil schools, and a significant portion of
Tamil children in Mauritius and Reunion are
brought up with Tamil as their first language.
In Singapore, Tamil students learn Tamil as
their second language in school, with English
as the first. To preserve the Tamil language,
the Singapore government has made it an of-
ficial language despite Tamils comprising
only about 5% of the population, and has also
introduced compulsory instruction of the lan-
guage for Tamils. Other Tamil communities,
such as those in South Africa and Fiji, no
longer speak Tamil as a first language, but
still retain a strong Tamil identity, and are
able to understand the language, while most
elders speak it as a first language.[73]
A large emigration also began in the
1980s, as Sri Lankan Tamils sought to escape
the ethnic conflict there. These recent emig-
rants have most often fled to Australia,
Europe, North America and Southeast
Asia.[74] Today, the largest concentration of
Tamils outside southern Asia is in Toronto,
Canada.[75]
Many young Tamil professionals from In-
dia have also immigrated to Europe and the
United States in recent times in search of
better opportunities. These new immigrant
communities have established cultural associ-
ations to protect and promote Tamil culture
and language in their adopted homes.
Culture
Language and literature
An idol in Madurai representing the Tamil
language as a goddess; The caption on the
pedestal reads Tamil Annai ("Mother Tamil").
Tamils have strong feelings towards the
Tamil language, which is often venerated in
7
Tamil people
literature as "Tamil̲an̲n̲ai", "the Tamil moth-
er".[76] It has historically been, and to large
extent still is, central to the Tamil iden-
tity.[77] Like the other languages of South In-
dia, it is a Dravidian language, unrelated to
the Indo-European languages of northern In-
dia. The language has been far less influ-
enced by Sanskrit than the other Dravidian
languages, and preserves many features of
Proto-Dravidian, though modern-day spoken
Tamil in Tamil Nadu, freely uses loanwords
from Sanskrit and English.[78] Tamil literat-
ure is of considerable antiquity, and was re-
cognised as a classical language by the gov-
ernment of India.
Classical Tamil literature, which ranges
from lyric poetry to works on poetics and eth-
ical philosophy, is remarkably different from
contemporary and later literature in other In-
dian languages, and represents the oldest
body of secular literature in South Asia.[79]
Notable works in classical Tamil literature in-
clude the Tirukkural, by Tiruvalluvar, the five
great Tamil epics, and the works of Auvaiyar.
Modern Tamil literature is diverse. It in-
cludes Indian Nationalism, in the works of
Subramanya Bharathi; historical romanti-
cism, by Kalki Krishnamurthy; radical and
moderate social realism, by Pudhumaipithan
and Jayakanthan; and feminism, by Malathi
Maithri and Kutti Revathi. Sujatha Rangara-
jan, an author whose works range from ro-
mance novels to science fiction, is one of the
most popular modern writers in Tamil. Sri
Lankan Tamil literature has produced several
works reflecting the civilian tragedy caused
by decades of war. There is also an emerging
diaspora literature in Tamil.
There are a number of regional dialects in
use by the Tamil people. These dialects vary
among regions and communities. Tamil dia-
lects are mainly differentiated by the dispar-
ate phonological changes and sound shifts
that have evolved from Old Tamil. Although
most Tamil dialects do not differ significantly
in their vocabulary, there are a few excep-
tions. The dialects spoken in Sri Lanka retain
many words that are not in everyday use in
India, and use many other words slightly dif-
ferently. The dialect of the Iyers of Palakkad
has a large number of Malayalam loanwords,
has been influenced by Malayalam syntax,
and has a distinct Malayalam accent. The
Sankethi, Hebbar, and Mandyam dialects, the
former spoken by groups of Tamil Iyers, and
the latter two by Vaishnavites who migrated
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
to Karnataka in the 11th century, retains
many Vaishnavite religious and spiritual val-
ues. The Tamil spoken in Chennai infuses
English words, and is called Madras Bashai
(Madras language).[80]
Visual art and architecture
See also: Chola Art
Most traditional Tamil art is religious in some
form and usually centres on Hinduism, al-
though the religious element is often only a
means to represent universal—and, occasion-
ally, humanist—themes.[81]
Dancing Siva or Nataraja is a typical example
of Chola bronze
The most important form of Tamil painting
is Tanjore painting, which originated in Than-
javur in the ninth century. The painting’s
base is made of cloth and coated with zinc
oxide, over which the image is painted using
dyes; it is then decorated with semi-precious
stones, as well as silver or gold thread.[82] A
style which is related in origin, but which ex-
hibits significant differences in execution, is
used for painting murals on temple walls; the
most notable example are the murals on the
Kutal Azhakar and Meenakshi temples of
Madurai, the Brihadeeswarar temple of Tan-
jore.[83] Tamil art, in general, is known for its
stylistic elegance, rich colours, and attention
to small details.
Tamil sculpture ranges from elegant stone
sculptures in temples, to bronze icons with
exquisite details.[84] The medieval Chola
bronzes are considered to be one of India’s
greatest contributions to the world art.[85][86]
Unlike most Western art, the material in
8
Tamil people
Tamil sculpture does not influence the form
taken by the sculpture; instead, the artist im-
poses his/her vision of the form on the mater-
ial.[87] As a result, one often sees in stone
sculptures flowing forms that are usually re-
served for metal.[88]
The Brihadeshswara Temple at Thanjavur,
also known as the Great Temple, built by Ra-
jaraja Chola I. Tamil dynasties were patrons
of Hinduism and the arts.
As with painting, these sculptures show a
fine eye for detail; great care is taken in
sculpting the minute details of jewellery,
worn by the subjects of the sculpture. The
lines tend to be smooth and flowing, and
many pieces skillfully capture movement. The
cave sculptures at Mamallapuram are a par-
ticularly fine example of the technique, as
are the bronzes of the Chola period. A partic-
ularly popular motif in the bronzes was the
depiction of Shiva as Nataraja, in a dance
posture with one leg upraised, and a fiery cir-
cular halo surrounding his body.
Tamil temples were often simply treated
as sculptures on a grand scale. The temples
are most notable for their high spires, known
as Gopura, consisting of a number of stepped
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Tamil people

levels, and the vimanam, which rises above

the sanctum sanctorum. During the Chola
period, the vimanams had more prominence,
as seen in the Brihadīsvara temple of Than-
javur. During the Nayak period, the spires
became progressively more elaborate and or-
nate, as exemplified by the Meenakshi
Temple in Madurai, while the vimanam be-
came much smaller. From the 13th century
onwards, the entrance gates to the temples,
called gopurams in Tamil, also began to grow
bigger, and more elaborate. The temples at
Chidambaram and Srirangam have particu-
larly impressive gopurams, covered with
sculptures and reliefs of various scenes and
characters from Hindu mythology.
As with Indian art in general, Tamil art
does not traditionally aspire to portraiture or
realism. Much more emphasis is placed on
the representation of ideal prototypes, and
on depicting the symbols with which the
theme of the artistic work is associated. This
means that small details, such as the direc-
Play video
tion which a hand faces, the animals or trees
portrayed, or the time of day depicted, are of- Folk artists performing at a funeral
ten of critical importance to understanding
the meaning of a work of art.[89] surviving examples of Indian music in nota-
tion.[92] Modern Carnatic music is organized
Performing arts around the twin notions of melody types
See also: Music of Tamil Nadu and Ancient (rāgam), and cyclical rhythm types (thāḷam).
Tamil music Unlike the northern Hindustani music tradi-
The traditional Tamil performing arts have tion, carnatic music is almost exclusively reli-
ancient roots.[90] The royal courts and gious. In sharp contrast with the restrained
temples have been centres for the perform- and intellectual nature of carnatic music,
ing arts since the classical period, and pos- Tamil folk music tends to be much more ex-
sibly earlier. Descriptions of performances in uberant. Popular forms of Tamil folk music
classical Tamil literature and the Natya Shas- include the Villuppattu, a form of music per-
tra, a Sanskrit treatise on the performing formed with a bow, and the Naat-
arts, indicate a close relationship between tupurapaattu, ballads that convey folklore
the ancient and modern artforms. The aim of and folk history.
a performance in Tamil tradition, is to bring The dominant classical dance amongst
out the rasa, the flavor, mood, or feeling, in- Tamils is Bharatanatyam. Bharatanatyam is
herent in the text, and its quality is measured performative, rather than participative. The
by the extent to which it induces the mood in dance is an exposition of the story contained
the audience.[90] in a song, and is usually performed by one
Tamil shares a classical musical tradition, performer on stage, with an orchestra of
called carnatic music, with the rest of South drums, a drone, and one or more singers
India. It is primarily oriented towards vocal backstage. The story is told through a com-
music, with instruments functioning either as plicated combination of mudras (hand ges-
accompaniments, or as imitations of the sing- tures), facial expressions, and body postures.
er’s role. Ancient Tamil works, such as the Dancers used to be exclusively female, but
Cilappatikaram, describe a system of music the dance now also has several well-known
that includes old Carnatic modes,[91] and a male practitioners.[90]
seventh-century Pallava inscription at Kudim- The most notable of Tamil folk dances is
iyamalai contains one of the earliest karakattam. In its religious form, the dance is
performed in front of an image of the

9
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Young Bharatanatyam dancer
goddess Mariamma. The dancer bears, on his
or her head, a brass pot filled with uncooked
rice, decorated with flowers and surrounded
by a bamboo frame, and tumbles and leaps to
the rhythm of a song without spilling a grain.
Karakāṭṭam is usually performed to a special
type of song, known as temmanguppattu, a
folk song in the mode of a lover speaking to
his beloved, to the accompaniment of a
nadaswaram and melam. Other Tamil folk
dances include mayilattam, where the dan-
cers tie a string of peacock feathers around
their waists; oyilattam, danced in a circle
while waving small pieces of cloth of various
colors; poykkal kuthiraiyaattam, in which the
dancers use dummy horses; manaattam, in
which the dancers imitate the graceful leap-
ing of deer; paraiyattam, a dance to the
sound of rhythmical drumbeats; and thip-
panthattam, a dance involving playing with
burning torches.[93] The kuravanci is a type
of dance-drama, performed by four to eight
women. The drama is opened by a woman
playing the part of a female soothsayer of a
wandering kurava tribe, who tells the story of
a lady pining for her lover.
The therukoothu, literally meaning "street
play", is a form of village theater or folk op-
era. It is traditionally performed in village
squares, with no sets and very simple props.
The performances involve songs and dances,
and the stories can be either religious or
10
Tamil people
secular.[94] The performances are not formal,
and performers often interact with the audi-
ence, mocking them, or involving them in the
dialogue. Therukkūthu has, in recent times,
been very successfully adapted to convey so-
cial messages, such as abstinence and anti-
caste criticism, as well as information about
legal rights, and has spread to other parts of
India.[95]
The village of Melattur, in Tamil Nadu,
has a special type of performance, called the
bhagavata-mela, in honour of the local deity,
which is performed once a year, and lasts all
night. Tamil Nadu also has a well developed
stage theater tradition, which has been heav-
ily influenced by western theatre. A number
of theatrical companies exist, with reper-
toires including absurdist, realist, and hu-
morous plays.[96]
Both classical and folk performing arts
survive in modern Tamil society. Tamil
people in Tamil Nadu are also passionate
about films. The Tamil film industry, com-
monly dubbed Kollywood, is the second-
largest film industry in India.[97] Tamil
cinema is appreciated both for its technical
accomplishments, and for its artistic and en-
tertainment value. The overwhelming major-
ity of Tamil films contain song and dance se-
quences, and Tamil film music is a popular
genre in its own right, often liberally fusing
elements of carnatic, Tamil folk, North Indian
styles, hip-hop, and heavy metal. Famous mu-
sic directors of the late 20th century included
M. S. Viswanathan, Ilayaraaja, and A. R.
Rahman.
Religion
A village shrine dedicated to Lord Ayyanar,
c.a. 1911
About 88%[98] of the population of Tamil
Nadu are Hindus. Muslims and Christians
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Grave of Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed in
Erwadi durgah, Ramanathapuram, who first
brought Islam to Tamilnadu
Velankani Our Lady of Good Health Church,
a Marian church popular with adherents
across all religions
account for 6% and 5.5% respectively. Most
of the Christians are Roman Catholics. The
majority of Muslims in Tamil Nadu speak
Tamil,[99] with less than 40% reporting Urdu
as their mother tongue.[100] Tamil Jains num-
ber only a few thousand now.[101] Atheist, ra-
tionalist, and humanist philosophies are also
adhered by sizable minorities, as a result of
Tamil cultural revivalism in the twentieth
century, and its antipathy to what it saw as
Brahminical Hinduism.[102]
The most popular deity is Murugan, also
known as Karthikeya, the son of Siva.[103]
The worship of Amman, also called Mariam-
man, is thought to have been derived from an
ancient mother goddess, is also very com-
mon.[104] Kan̲n̲agi, the heroine of the Cilap-
patikār̲am, is worshipped as Pattin̲i by many
Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka.[105] There
are also many followers of Ayyavazhi in Tamil
11
Tamil people
Nadu, mainly in the southern districts.[106] In
addition, there are many temples and de-
votees of Vishnu, Siva, Ganapathi, and the
other Hindu deities.
The most important Tamil festivals are
Pongal, a harvest festival that occurs in mid-
January, and Varudapirappu, the Tamil New
Year, which occurs around mid-April. Both
are celebrated by almost all Tamils, regard-
less of religion. The Hindu festival Deepavali
is celebrated with fanfare; other local Hindu
festivals include Thaipusam, Panguni Ut-
tiram, and Adiperukku. While Adiperukku is
celebrated with more pomp in the Cauvery
region than in others, the Ayyavazhi Festival,
Ayya Vaikunda Avataram, is predominantly
celebrated in the southern districts of Kan-
yakumari, Tirunelveli, and Thoothukudi.[107]
In rural Tamil Nadu, many local deities,
called aiyyan̲ārs, are thought to be the spirits
of local heroes who protect the village from
harm. Their worship often centers around
nadukkal, stones erected in memory of her-
oes who died in battle. This form of worship
is mentioned frequently in classical literature
and appears to be the surviving remnants of
an ancient Tamil tradition.[108]
The Saivist sect of Hinduism is signific-
antly represented amongst Tamils, more so
among Sri Lankan Tamils, although most of
the Saivist places of religious significance are
in northern India. The Alvars and Nayanars,
who were predominantly Tamils, played a key
role in the renaissance of Bhakti tradition in
India. In the 10th century, the philosopher
Ramanuja, who propagated the theory of Vis-
ishtadvaitam, brought many changes to wor-
shiping practices, creating new regulations
on temple worship, and accepted lower-caste
Hindus as his prime disciples.[109]
Christianity is believed to have come to
Tamil Nadu with the arrival of St. Thomas
the apostle, and the number of Tamil Christi-
ans grew during the colonial period. Most
Tamil Christians are Catholic and Protestant.
Islam started flourishing in Tamilnadu after
the arrival of Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed,
descendant of Prophet Muhammmad who
came from Madinah, Saudi Arabia during
12th century. His grave is found in Erwadi
dargah in Ramanathapuram district. Tamil
Muslims are mostly either mainstream Sunni
or Sufi.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Cuisine
Each geographical area where Tamils live
has developed its own distinct variant of the
common dishes plus a few dishes distinctly
native to itself. The Chettinad region, com-
prising of Karaikudi and adjoining areas, is
known for both traditional vegetarian dishes,
like appam, uthappam, paal paniyaram, and
non-vegetarian dishes, made primarily using
chicken.
Rice, the major staple food in most of
Tamil, is usually steamed and served with
about two to six accompanying items, which
typically include sambar, dry curry, rasam,
kootu, and thayir (curd) or moru (whey or
buttermilk).
Tiffin or Light meals usually include one
or more of Pongal, Dosai, idli, Vadai along
with sambar and Chutney is often served as
either breakfast or as an evening snack. Ghee
Clarified butter called neyyi in Tamil, is used
to flavor the rice when eaten with dhal or
sambar, but not with curds or buttermilk.
Morkulambu, a dish which can be spiced with
moru, is also popular with steamed rice.
Martial arts
Various martial arts including Kuttu Varisai,
Varma Kalai, Silambam Nillaikalakki,
Maankombukkalai (Madhu) and Kalarippay-
attu, are practised in Tamil Nadu and Ker-
ala[110]. The weapons used include Silam-
bam, Maankombukkalai, Yeratthai Mulangkol
(double stick), Surul Pattai (spring sword),
Val Vitchi (single sword), and Yeretthai Val
(double sword)[111].
The ancient Tamil art of unarmed bull-
fighting, popular amongst warriors in the
classical period[112][113], has also survived in
parts of Tamil Nadu, notably Alanganallur
near Madurai, where it is known as Jallikaṭṭu
or mañcuviraṭṭu and is held once a year
around the time of the Pongal festival.
Institutions
The global spread of the Tamil diaspora has
hindered the formation of formal pan-Tamil
institutions. The most important national in-
stitutions for Tamils have been the govern-
ments of the states where they live, particu-
larly the government of Tamil Nadu and the
government of Sri Lanka, which have collab-
orated in developing technical and scientific
12
Tamil people
The Tamil flag adopted by the World Tamil
Confederation to represent Tamil people
everywhere.
terminology in Tamil and promoting its use
since the 1950s.
Politics in Tamil Nadu is dominated by the
Self-respect movement (also called the
Dravidian movement), founded by E.V.
Ramasami, popularly known as Periyar, to
promote self-respect and rationalism, and to
fight casteism and the oppression of the low-
est castes. Every major political party in
Tamil Nadu bases its ideology on the Self-re-
spect Movement, and the national political
parties play a very small role in Tamil polit-
ics. (see Dravidian parties)
In Sri Lanka, Tamil politics was dominated
by the federalist movements, led by the
Federal Party (later the Tamil United Libera-
tion Front), until the early 1980s. In the
1980s, the political movement was largely
succeeded by a violent military campaign
conducted by several militant groups. The
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, which
emerged as the most important force
amongst these groups in the 1990s, controled
a third of Sri Lanka, and had attempted to es-
tablish its own government there, which it
called the government of Tamil Eelam.
In the 1960s, the government of Tamil
Nadu held a World Tamil Conference, which
has continued to meet periodically since
then. In 1999, a World Tamil Confederation
was established to protect and foster Tamil
culture and further a sense of togetherness
amongst Tamils in different countries. The
Confederation has since adopted a Tamil flag
and Tamil song[114] to act as trans-national
symbols for the Tamil people; the words on
the flag quote the opening line of a poem by
the classical poet Kanian Poongundranaar,
and means "Everyone is our kin; Everyplace
is our home".
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
See also
• List of Indian languages by number of
native speakers
• Tamil Language
• Tamil script
• List of Tamil people
• Tamil diaspora
• Ancient Tamil country
• Dravidian martial arts
• List of languages by first written accounts
• Tamil Classical Dance
• Chronology of Tamil history
• Tamil Cinema (Kollywood)
Notes
[1] "Top 30 Languages by Number of Native
Speakers: sourced from Ethnologue:
Languages of the World, 15th ed.
(2005)". Vistawide - World Languages &
Cultures. http://www.vistawide.com/
languages/top_30_languages.htm.
Retrieved on 2007-04-03.
[2] "Indian Census - Abstract of Strength of
Mother Tongues". Indian Census, 2001.
http://www.censusindia.gov.in/
Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/
Language/Statement1.htm. Retrieved on
2008-01-07.
[3] "Brief Analysis of Population and
Housing Characteristics" (PDF). Sri
Lanka census of population and housing
2001. http://www.statistics.gov.lk/
PopHouSat/PDF/
p7%20population%20and%20Housing%20Text-11-12-06.pdf.
Retrieved on 2008-01-07.
[4] ^ "Ethnologue report for language code
tam". Ethnologue: Languages of the
World. http://www.ethnologue.com/
show_language.asp?code=tam. Retrieved
on 2007-07-31.
[5] "Tamils:Population in Canada (2007)"
(html). Ryerson University.
http://www.diversitywatch.ryerson.ca/
backgrounds/tamils.htm. Retrieved on
2008-02-19.
[6] ^ Maloney, Clarence. "Maldives People".
http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/iiasn5/insouasi/
maloney.html. Retrieved on 2008-06-22.
[7] Kshatriya, G.K. (1995). "Genetic affinities
of Sri Lankan populations". Human
Biology (American Association of
Anthropological Genetics) 67 (6):
843–66. PMID 8543296.
13
Tamil people
[8] M. B. Emeneau (Jan-March 1956). "India
as a lingustic Area". Language 32 (1): 5.
doi:10.2307/410649.
http://links.jstor.org/
sici?sici=0097-8507%28195601%2F03%2932%3A1%
Retrieved on 2007-05-03. "Of the four
literary Dravidian languages, Tamil has
voluminous records dating back at least
two millennia".
[9] Burton Stein (November 1977).
"Circulation and the Historical
Geography of Tamil Country". The
Journal of Asian Studies 37 (1): 7–26.
doi:10.2307/2053325.
http://links.jstor.org/
sici?sici=0021-9118%28197711%2937%3A1%3C7%3
Retrieved on 2007-05-03. "Tamil is one of
the two longest-surviving classical
languages in India.".
[10] Martin Wood, BBC
[11] Daniels, Peter T. (2008). "Writing
systems of major and minor languages".
in Kachru, Braj B.; Kachru, Yamuna;
Sridhar, S.N.. Language in South Asia.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0521781418. at p. 291
[12] ^ Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic
identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka,
p.155-156
[13] Southworth, Franklin C. (1998). "On the
Origin of the word tamiz". International
Journal of Dravidial Linguistics 27 (1):
129–132.
[14] Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1992). Companion
Studies to the history of Tamil literature.
Leiden: E.J. Brill. at pp. x-xvi.
[15] John, Vino (2006-01-27). "Reading the
past in a more inclusive way:Interview
with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne".
Frontline. http://www.flonnet.com/
fl2301/stories/20060127003610200.htm.
Retrieved on 2008-07-09. "But Indian/
south Indian history/archaeology has
pushed the date back to 1500 B.C., and
in Sri Lanka, there are definitely good
radiometric dates coming from
Anuradhapura that the non-Brahmi
symbol-bearing black and red ware occur
at least around 900 B.C. or 1000 B.C."
[16] K. De B. Codrington (October 1930).
"Indian Cairn- and Urn-Burials". Man 30:
190–196. doi:10.2307/2790468.
http://links.jstor.org/
sici?sici=0025-1496%28193010%291%3A30%3C190
Retrieved on 2007-05-03. "...at
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Perambair & Pallavaram a second type of
burial exists in legged urns...".
[17] ^ Comparative excavations carried out
in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli district
and in Northern India have provided
evidence of a southward migration of the
Megalithic culture - K.A.N. Sastri, A
History of South India, pp49–51
[18] K. De B. Codrington (October 1930).
"Indian Cairn- and Urn-Burials". Man 30:
194. http://links.jstor.org/
sici?sici=0025-1496%28193010%291%3A30%3C190%3A1ICAU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1.
Retrieved on 2007-05-03. "It is necessary
to draw attention to certain passages in
early Tamil literature which throw a
great deal of light upon this strange
burial ceremonial...".
[19] Nilakanta Sastri, A history of South
India, p 105
[20] ^ K. Sivathamby (December 1974).
"Early South Indian Society and
Economy: The Tinai Concept". Social
Scientist 3 (5): 20–37. doi:10.2307/
3516448. http://links.jstor.org/
sici?sici=0970-0293%28197412%293%3A5%3C20%3AESISAE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U.
Retrieved on 2007-05-03. "Those who
ruled over small territories were called
Kurunilamannar. The area ruled by such
a small ruler usually corresponded to a
geographical unit. In Purananuru a
number of such chieftains are
mentioned;..".
[21] ^ de Silva, C.R. Sri Lanka — A History,
pp. 30–32
[22] ^ Mendis, G.C.Ceylon Today and
Yesterday, pp. 24–25
[23] "Grand Anaicut". Encyclopædia
Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/
eb/article-9021884/Cauvery-River.
Retrieved on 2006-05-03. .
[24] ^ M. G. S. Narayanan (September 1988).
"The Role of Peasants in the Early
History of Tamilakam in South India".
Social Scientist 16 (9): 17–34.
doi:10.2307/3517170.
http://links.jstor.org/
sici?sici=0970-0293%28198809%2916%3A9%3C17%3ATROPIT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V.
Retrieved on 2007-05-03.
[25] "Pandya Dynasty". Encyclopedia
Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/
eb/article-9058245/Pandya-Dynasty.
Retrieved on 2007-05-03.
[26] "Archaeologists Uncover Ancient
Maritime Spice Route Between India,
Egypt". Veluppillai, Prof. A.,. dickran.net. [39] Freeman, Rich (February 1998). "Rubies
http://www.dickran.net/history/
14
Tamil people
india_egypt_trade_route.html. Retrieved
on 2006-11-15.
[27] The term Periplus refers to the region of
the eastern seaboard of South India as
Damirica - "The Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the
Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First
Century". Ancient History source book.
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/
periplus.html. .
[28] ^ The Indian Geographical Journal.
Indian Geographical Society. 1941.
pp. 69. "These Kalabhras were thrown
out by the powerful Pallava dynasty in
the fourth century AD ... this period is
aptly known as "Dark Ages" of Tamil
Nadu. ..."
[29] ’Kalabhraas were denounced as ’evil
kings’ (kaliararar) - K.A.N. Sastri, A
History of South India, pp 130
[30] K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India
[31] Marilyn Hirsh (1987). "Mahendravarman
I Pallava: Artist and Patron of
Mamallapuram". Artibus Asiae 48 (1/2):
122. http://links.jstor.org/
sici?sici=0004-3648%281987%2948%3A1%2F2%3C1
Retrieved on 2007-05-03.
[32] ^ Smith, Vincent Arthur (1904). The
Early History of India. The Clarendon
press. pp. 336–358.
[33] V., Venkayya (1907). Annual Report
1906–7, Archaeological Survey of India.
Delhi: reprint Swati Publications.
pp. 217–243.
[34] (Source- K.A.Nilakanta Sastri’s "History
of South India")
[35] Chandra, Satish (1997). Medieval India:
From Sultanat to the Mughals
(1206–1526) - I. Har-Anand Publications.
pp. 250. ISBN 8124110646. "...Starting
from the Tamil lands under the Pallava
kings, bhakti spread to different parts of
south India..."
[36] Srivastava, Balram (1973). Rajendra
Chola. National Book Trust, India.
pp. 80. "The mission which Rajendra sent
to China was essentially a trade
mission,..."
[37] D. Curtin, Philip (1984). Cross-Cultural
Trade in World History. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 101. ISBN
0521269318.
[38] K.A.N. Sastri, Srinivasachari, Advanced
History of India, pp 296–297
and Coral: The Lapidary Crafting of
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Language in Kerala". The Journal of
Asian Studies 57 (1): 38–65. doi:10.2307/
2659023. at pp. 41-43.
[40] "Malayalam first appeared in writing in
the vazhappalli inscription which dates
from about 830 CE." "Writing Systems
and Languages of the world". Omniglot.
Omniglot.com. http://www.omniglot.com/
writing/malayalam.htm. Retrieved on
2006-11-15.
[41] Natarajan, V., History of Ceylon Tamils,
p. 9
[42] Manogaran, C. Ethnic Conflict and
Reconciliation in Sri Lanka, p. 2
[43] "Vedda". Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
London: Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/
topic/624466/Vedda. Retrieved on
2008-06-23.
[44] Indrapala, K. The Evolution of an ethnic
identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, pp.
53–54
[45] de Silva, A. History of Sri Lanka, p. 129
[46] Indrapala, K. The Evolution of an ethnic
identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p. 91
[47] Subramanian, T.S. (2006-01-27).
"Reading the past in a more inclusive
way:Interview with Dr. Sudharshan
Seneviratne". Frontline.
http://www.flonnet.com/fl2301/stories/
20060127003610200.htm. Retrieved on
2008-07-09.
[48] Mahadeva, I. Early Tamil Epigraphy:
From the Earliest Times to the Sixth
Century A.D., p. 48
[49] Indrapala, K., The Evolution of an ethnic
identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p. 157
[50] Nadarajan, V., History of Ceylon Tamils,
p. 40
[51] ^ Spencer, George W. "The politics of
plunder: The Cholas in eleventh century
Ceylon". The Journal of Asian Studies
(Association for Asian Studies) 35 (3):
408.
[52] Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic
identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, pp.
214–215
[53] de Silva, C.R. Sri Lanka — A History, pp.
46, 48, 75
[54] Mendis, G.C. Ceylon Today and
Yesterday, pp. 30–31
[55] Smith, V.A. The Oxford History of India,
p. 224
[56] de Silva, C.R.Sri Lanka — A History, p.
76
15
Tamil people
[57] de Silva, C.R. Sri Lanka — A History, pp.
100–102
[58] de Silva, C.R. Sri Lanka — A History, pp.
102–104
[59] de Silva, C.R. Sri Lanka — A History, p.
104
[60] ^ de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka, p. 121
[61] Spencer, Sri Lankan history and roots of
conflict, p. 23
[62] Indrapala, K., The Evolution of an ethnic
identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p. 275
[63] Vinoj Kumar, P.C.. "Tamil Nadu at the
Crossroads". www.tehelka.com.
http://www.tehelka.com/
story_main19.asp?filename=op092306Tamil_Nadu.as
Retrieved on 2006-12-02.
[64] Template:Http://www.tourism-
srilanka.com/population.html
[65] Almost 5 million Tamils live outside
Tamil Nadu, inside India
[66] de Silva, C.R. Sri Lanka — A History, pp.
177, 181
[67] de Silva, C.R. Sri Lanka — A History, pp.
3–5, 9
[68] ^ Department of Census and Statistics of
Sri Lanka. "Population by Ethnicity
according to District" (PDF).
statistics.gov.lk.
http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/
PDF/Population/p9p8%20Ethnicity.pdf.
Retrieved on 2007-05-03.
[69] V. Suryanarayan (2001). "In search of a
new identity". Frontline.
http://www.flonnet.com/fl1816/
18160950.htm. Retrieved on
2008-07-02.
[70] Hoole, Ranjan; Sritharan, Kopalasingam
(2001). "Missed Opportunities and the
Loss of Democracy: The
Disfranchisement of Indian Tamils:
1948-49". UTHR. http://www.uthr.org/
BP/volume1/Chapter1.htm. Retrieved on
2008-06-26.
[71] ^ de Silva, C.R. Sri Lanka — A History,
p. 262
[72] Christophe Z Guilmoto. "The Tamil
Migration Cycle 1830–1950".
Tamilnation.org.
http://www.tamilnation.org/diaspora/
articles/guilmoto.htm. Retrieved on
2006-12-04.
[73] "TAMIL DIASPORA - A TRANS STATE
NATION". Tamilnation.org.
http://www.tamilnation.org/diaspora/
southafrica.htm. Retrieved on
2006-12-04.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
[74] McDowell, Chris (1996). A Tamil Asylum
Diaspora: Sri Lankan Migration,
Settlement and Politics in Switzerland.
New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN
1571819177.
[75] "Tamil Studies - History". Tamil Studies
at the University of Toronto. The
University of Toronto.
http://tamilstudies.org/history.html.
Retrieved on 2006-12-04.
[76] See Sumathi Ramasamy, Passions of the
Tongue, ’Feminising language: Tamil as
Goddess, Mother, Maiden’ Chapter 3.
[77] (Ramaswamy 1998)
[78] Kailasapathy, K. (1979). "The Tamil
Purist Movement: A Re-Evaluation".
Social Scientist 7 (10): 23–51.
doi:10.2307/3516775. .
[79] See Hart, The Poems of Ancient Tamil:
Their Milieu and their Sanskrit
Counterparts (1975)
[80] See the dialects listed at "Ethnologue
report for language code:tam".
http://www.ethnologue.com/
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Population data
All population data has been taken from Eth-
nologue, with the exception of the data for
Sri Lanka, which was taken from the CIA
World Factbook’s Sri Lanka page.

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