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#%,,
")/#(%-)3429
4(% "5),$).' ",/#+3 /& ,)&%
&OUR TYPES OF MACROMOLECULES LARGE CARBON
BASED ORGANIC
MOLECULES ARE FOUND IN LIVING ORGANISMS -OST ARE POLYMERS
CHAINS OF MOLECULES THAT FORM THROUGH DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS
THE LOSS OF A WATER MOLECULE
ING MOLECULES CONTAINING CAR
BON HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN IN A
RATIO -ONOSACCHARIDES
SUCH AS GLUCOSE #(/ ARE
SINGLE
SUGAR SUBUNITS OFTEN
FOUND AS RINGS $ISACCHARIDES
HAVE TWO MONOSACCHARIDE
SUBUNITS 0OLYSACCHARIDES
SUCH AS STARCH GLYCOGEN AND
CELLULOSE ARE LONG CHAINS OF
SUGARS
" ,IPIDS (YDROCARBON
BASED MOLECULES THAT ARE HYDROPHOBIC
INSOLUBLE IN WATER 4HERE ARE THREE PRIMARY FAMILIES OF LIPIDS
&ATS ,ARGE ENERGY STORING MOLECULES EACH BUILT FROM
TWO COMPONENTS
A /NE MOLECULE OF GLYCEROL A THREE CARBON ALCOHOL
B 4HREE FATTY ACIDS LONG HYDROCARBON CHAINS THAT ATTACH
TO THE GLYCEROL BACKBONE (ENCE FATS ARE ALSO CALLED
TRIGLYCERIDES
3TEROIDS &OUR FUSED HYDROCARBON RINGS SUCH AS CHOLESTEROL
0HOSPHOLIPIDS 'LYCEROL WITH TWO FATTY ACIDS AND A PHOS
PHATE GROUP ATTACHED FOUND IN MEMBRANES
# 0ROTEINS ,ONG POLYMER CHAINS CALLED POLYPEPTIDES BUILT
FROM AMINO ACID SUBUNITS LINKED BY PEPTIDE BONDS %VERY
AMINO ACID CONTAINS A CENTRAL CARBON WITH AN AMINO GROUP
"IOLOGICAL LIFE SURVIVES BY RELYING UPON HIGH
YIELD ENERGY SOURCES
SUCH AS SOLAR RADIATION TO FUEL LIFE PROCESSES BEFORE RELEASING THAT
SAME ENERGY AS SIMPLER LOW
YIELD END PRODUCTS SUCH AS HEAT
&2%% %.%2'9 #(!.'%
!LL CHEMICAL REACTIONS INVOLVE A CHANGE IN FREE ENERGY '
%XERGONIC REACTIONS RELEASE FREE ENERGY ' IS NEGATIVE AND ARE
SPONTANEOUS %NDERGONIC REACTIONS ABSORB FREE ENERGY ' IS
POSITIVE AND ARE NON
SPONTANEOUS 4HE ACTIVATION ENERGY OF A
REACTION REFERS TO THE ENERGY REQUIRED TO INITIATE THE REACTION
! #ARBOHYDRATES %NERGY STOR
$ .UCLEIC ACIDS 0OLYMERS OF
NUCLEOTIDES THAT ENCODE
%.:9-%3
%NZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS PROTEINS CAPABLE OF SPEEDING
GENETIC INFORMATION 4HERE
ARE TWO FORMS DEOXYRI
BONUCLEIC ACID $.! AND
RIBONUCLEIC ACID 2.!
)NDIVIDUAL NUCLEOTIDES ARE
LINKED BY PHOSPHODIESTER
BONDS AND CONTAIN THREE
BASIC PARTS
0HOSPHATE GROUP
&IVE
CARBON SUGAR
DEOXYRIBOSE IN $.!
RIBOSE IN 2.!
/NE OF FOUR NITROGENOUS BASES
A !DENINE AND GUANINE DOUBLE
RINGED PURINES
B 4HYMINE AND CYTOSINE SINGLE
RINGED PYRIMIDINES
C 2.! CONTAINS THE PYRIMIDINE URACIL INSTEAD OF THYMINE
4(%2-/$9.!-)#3
4HE l RST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS STATES THAT ENERGY IS NEVER CRE
ATED OR DESTROYED ONLY TRANSFORMED 4HE SECOND LAW OF THERMO
DYNAMICS STATES THAT ENTROPY OR RANDOMNESS IS ALWAYS INCREAS
ING %VERY TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY CREATES GREATER DISORDER
CHEMICAL REACTIONS WITHOUT BEING CONSUMED %NZYMES LOWER
THE ACTIVATION ENERGY OF A REACTION BUT DO NOT AFFECT ' THE
FREE ENERGY CHANGE 4HE SUBSTRATE BINDS TO THE ENZYMES
ACTIVE SITE IN AN INDUCED l T IN WHICH THE ENZYME CHANGES ITS
SHAPE TO WRAP ITSELF AROUND THE SUBSTRATE %NZYMATIC ACTIVITY
CAN BE ACTIVATED OR INHIBITED BY OTHER MOLECULES
! #OFACTORS 3OME ENZYMES REQUIRE INORGANIC COFACTORS OR
ORGANIC COENZYMES TO REACT
" #OMPETITIVE INHIBITORS .ON SUBSTRATE MOLECULES THAT BLOCK
THE ENZYMES ACTIVE SITE
# .ONCOMPETITIVE INHIBITORS "IND TO AN ALLOSTERIC SITE RECEPTOR
SITE AWAY FROM THE ACTIVE SITE AND CHANGE THE ENZYMES CON
FORMATIONAL SHAPE SO THAT IT NO LONGER ACCEPTS THE SUBSTRATE
$ !CTIVATORS &IT INTO AN ALLOSTERIC SITE AND OPEN THE ENZYMES
ACTIVE SITE
% &EEDBACK INHIBITION (ALTS ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY BY AN END
PRODUCT THAT ALLOSTERICALLY INHIBITS FORMATION OF AN INTERMEDI
ATE PRODUCT
& #OOPERATIVITY /CCURS WHEN A SUBSTRATE BINDS TO AN ACTIVE
SITE OPENING ADDITIONAL ACTIVE SITES
#%,,3
%VERY LIVING ORGANISM IS MADE UP OF CELLS WHICH ARE THE
LOWEST LEVEL OF STRUCTURE CAPABLE OF PERFORMING ALL THE
ACTIVITIES OF LIFE !LL CELLS ARISE FROM PREEXISTING CELLS
#%,,5,!2 02%#523/23
"#)$ &*)#$
'& "! ' % !
$ &%$%$(
#$ $&% %$ %&$&$ $
"#$ "&%
$ !& !&
.( A CARBOXYL GROUP #//( HYDROGEN ( AND ONE OF
SIDE GROUPS 2 THAT DEl NE THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE AMINO ACID
#ONDITIONS ON THE EARLY %ARTH ALLOWED FOR THE SPONTANEOUS
ABIOTIC SYNTHESIS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 4HIS SYNTHESIS WOULD
HAVE REQUIRED AN ABSENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN BECAUSE
OXYGEN NATURALLY BREAKS DOWN COMPOUNDS AND BECAUSE THE
OZONE / LAYER TODAY BLOCKS THE INTENSE 56 RADIATION THAT
FUELED SUCH SYNTHESIS
! 0ROTOBIONTS COLLECTIONS OF ABIOTICALLY SYNTHESIZED ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS FORMED SPONTANEOUSLY AS THE PRECURSORS TO
CELLS 0ROTOBIONTS SUCH AS COACERVATES COLLECTIONS OF MAC
ROMOLECULES THAT ASSEMBLE SPONTANEOUSLY WHEN SHAKEN IN
WATER MICROSPHERES COLLECTIONS OF PROTENOIDS AND LIPO
SOMES MOLECULES WITHIN A LIPID BILAYER CAN COMBINE INTO
LARGER CELLS OR BUD INTO SMALLER ONES AND CAN USE ENZYMES
TO CATALYZE REACTIONS
" 4HE GENESIS OF 2.! WITH ITS CAPACITY TO ACT AS BOTH A CATA
LYST AND A HEREDITY BLUEPRINT WOULD HAVE PAVED THE WAY FOR
THE l RST REAL CELLS
#%,, 3425#452%
! #ELL MEMBRANE 3ERVES AS AN EXTERNAL BARRIER AND ENCLOSES
ORGANELLES
4HE BASIC UNIT IS A PHOSPHOLIPID MOLECULE WITH A POLAR
PHOSPHATE GROUP AS ITS HYDROPHILIC HEAD AND TWO NON
POLAR FATTY ACID CHAINS AS HYDROPHOBIC TAILS
)NDIVIDUAL PHOSPHOLIPIDS FORM A m UID PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER
WITH HYDROPHILIC HEADS FACING OUT AND HYDROPHOBIC TAILS
FACING IN TO FORM A NONPOLAR ZONE THAT SEPARATES THE
WATERY CELL INTERIOR FROM THE EXTRACELLULAR ENVIRONMENT
#ELL MEMBRANES ARE SEMIPERMEABLE ALLOWING PASSAGE OF
GASES LIPIDS AND SMALL POLAR MOLECULES BUT NOT CHARGED
MOLECULES IONS AND PROTEINS OR LARGE POLAR MOLECULES
" -EMBRANE PROTEINS 0ROTEIN MOLECULES EMBEDDED IN THE
BILAYER THAT TRANSPORT MOLECULES UNABLE TO CROSS THE MEM
BRANE INDEPENDENTLY ASSIST IN BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT REAC
TIONS AND INTERACT WITH MEMBRANES OF NEIGHBORING CELLS
# #YTOPLASM 3EMIm UID MEDIUM CALLED CYTOSOL AND ALL THE ORGAN
ELLES INSIDE THE PLASMA MEMBRANE BUT OUTSIDE THE NUCLEUS
$ #YTOSKELETON ! SYSTEM OF PROTEIN l LAMENTS IN THE CYTO
PLASM INCLUDING MICROTUBULES AND MICROl LAMENTS THAT
GIVES THE CELL SHAPE AND HELPS DIRECT MOVEMENT
% 2IBOSOMES 0ROTEINS THAT WORK WITH 2.! TO SYNTHESIZE POLY
PEPTIDES
& #HOLESTEROL 4YPE OF STEROID LIPID WITH A CARBON SKELETON OF FOUR
FUSED RINGS THAT ACTS AS PRECURSOR TO MANY ANIMAL HORMONES )T
STABILIZES THE LIPID BILAYER OF ANIMAL CELLS PREVENTING SOLIDIl CA
TION AT LOW TEMPERATURES AND m UIDITY AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
490%3 /& #%,,3
#%,,
#ELLULAR
GLUCOSE
TRIPHOSP
',9#/
'LYCOLYSI
AND A PRE
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PROCESS U
.!$( AN
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" #ITRIC A
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REGENE
OF EUK
' 0LANT CELLS CONTAIN SEVERAL ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS
#HLOROPLASTS 3ITES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS #ONTAIN CHLORO
PHYLL A GREEN PIGMENT AND HAVE A DOUBLE MEMBRANE
6ACUOLE 6ESICLE USED TO STORE WATER PROTEINS AND WASTES
#ELL WALL 2IGID CELLULOSE LAYER AROUND THE CELL MEMBRANE
#%,,3 /& 02/+!29/4%3
0ROKARYOTES INCLUDE THE SIMPLEST UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS AND EARLI
EST CELLS TO EVOLVE BACTERIA -AJOR DIFFERENCES FROM EUKARYOTES
! 'ENETIC MATERIAL m OATS IN
THE CYTOPLASM IN A CON
CENTRATED BUT UNBOUNDED
REGION CALLED THE NUCLEOID
" 4HERE ARE NO MEMBRANE
BOUND ORGANELLES
#%,, 42!.30/24
#%,,3 /& %5+!29/4%3
0!33)6% -%#(!.)3-3 2%15)2% ./ %.%2'9
%UKARYOTES INCLUDE MULTICELLULAR PLANTS AND ANIMALS AND SOME
UNICELLULAR PROTISTS 4HEIR CELLS CONTAIN MEMBRANE
BOUND
ORGANELLES EACH OF WHICH PERFORMS SPECIl C FUNCTIONS AND
INCREASES EFl CIENCY
! .UCLEUS -EMBRANE BOUND STORAGE SITE OF GENETIC INFORMATION
THAT DETERMINES HEREDITY AND DIRECTS THE ACTIVITIES OF A CELL
" -ITOCHONDRIA $OUBLE MEMBRANED POWER PLANT OF THE CELL
AND THE LOCATION OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION
# 3MOOTHROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM 3%22%2 .ETWORK
OF MEMBRANES WHERE LIPIDS AND PROTEINS ARE SYNTHESIZED
2OUGH %2 IS COVERED WITH RIBOSOMES
$ 'OLGI APPARATUS /RGANELLE THAT PACKAGES AND EXPORTS PRO
TEINS AND LIPIDS PRODUCED IN THE %2
% 6ESICLES 3ACS IN WHICH SUBSTANCES ARE TRANSPORTED OR STORED
& ,YSOSOMES 6ESICLES OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES THAT DEGRADE OLD
CELLULAR COMPONENTS
! $IFFUSION -OLECULES MOVE FREELY ACROSS A MEMBRANE TO BAL
ANCE A CONCENTRATION GRADIENT FROM REGIONS OF HIGH TO LOW
CONCENTRATION $IFFUSION OF WATER IS CALLED OSMOSIS
" &ACILITATED DIFFUSION -OLECULES CROSS AN IMPERMEABLE OR
SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANE DOWN THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADI
ENT BUT MUST DO SO VIA SPECIAL CHANNELS
!#4)6% -%#(!.)3-3 2%15)2% %.%2'9
! !CTIVE TRANSPORT 4RANSPORT OF MOLECULES FROM LOW TO HIGH
CONCENTRATIONS ACROSS A MEMBRANE USING AN ENERGY
DEPEN
DENT TRANSPORT PROTEIN
" %NDOCYTOSIS %NVELOPING OF AN EXTERIOR SUBSTANCE WITHIN A
MEMBRANOUS VESICLE FOR ADMISSION TO THE CELL INTERIOR
0INOCYTOSIS %NDOCYTOSIS OF DISSOLVED LIQUID MOLECULES
0HAGOCYTOSIS %NDOCYTOSIS OF UNDISSOLVED SOLID MATTER
# %XOCYTOSIS %XTRUSION OF MATERIAL FROM A CELL BY DISCHARGE
FROM VESICLES AT THE CELL SURFACE
# #HEMI
DRIA E
TRON TR
ENERGY
PROTON
DRIA /
THESIZE
THROUG
-%
'ENETIC
GENE IS
TWO OR M
).42/
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AND SH
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4HIS DOWNLOADABLE 0$& COPYRIGHT BY 3PARK.OTES ,,#
30!2+#(!243 "IOLOGY PAGE OF
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A CHANGE IN FREE ENERGY '
E ENERGY ' IS NEGATIVE AND ARE
TIONS ABSORB FREE ENERGY ' IS
EOUS 4HE ACTIVATION ENERGY OF A
EQUIRED TO INITIATE THE REACTION
TS PROTEINS CAPABLE OF SPEEDING
EING CONSUMED %NZYMES LOWER
CTION BUT DO NOT AFFECT ' THE
BSTRATE BINDS TO THE ENZYMES
N WHICH THE ENZYME CHANGES ITS
HE SUBSTRATE %NZYMATIC ACTIVITY
Y OTHER MOLECULES
REQUIRE INORGANIC COFACTORS OR
N
SUBSTRATE MOLECULES THAT BLOCK
IND TO AN ALLOSTERIC SITE RECEPTOR
E AND CHANGE THE ENZYMES CON
NO LONGER ACCEPTS THE SUBSTRATE
ERIC SITE AND OPEN THE ENZYMES
ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY BY AN END
HIBITS FORMATION OF AN INTERMEDI
N A SUBSTRATE BINDS TO AN ACTIVE
VE SITES
0ROPHASE 2EPLICATED CHROMOSOMES CONDENSE 3PINDLE
FORMS ALONG CELL EQUATOR .UCLEAR ENVELOPE BREAKS DOWN
SPINDLE MICROTUBULES ENTER NUCLEAR REGION EVENTUALLY
ATTACHING TO CENTROMERES OF CHROMOSOMES
-ETAPHASE #HROMOSOMES ALIGN ALONG CELL EQUATOR CALLED
THE METAPHASE PLATE BUT DO NOT YET SEGREGATE TO OPPOSITE
POLES #ENTROMERES DIVIDE FREEING SISTER CHROMATIDS
!NAPHASE 3ISTER CHROMATIDS SEPARATE TO OPPOSITE POLES
4ELOPHASE #HROMOSOMES UNCOIL AT OPPOSITE ENDS AND
BECOME ENCLOSED BY A REFORMED NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
# #YTOKINESIS 0HYSICAL DIVISION OF THE CYTOPLASM INTO TWO
DAUGHTER CELLS
#ELLULAR RESPIRATION IS THE CELLULAR PROCESS OF OXIDIZING
GLUCOSE TO OBTAIN ENERGY IN THE FORM OF ADENOSINE
TRIPHOSPHATE !40
',9#/,93)3
'LYCOLYSIS IS THE OLDEST METABOLIC PATHWAY USED BY ALL CELLS
AND A PRECURSOR TO BOTH THE AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATORY
PATHWAYS 'LYCOLYSIS OCCURS IN THE CYTOPLASM 4HE SIX
CARBON
SUGAR GLUCOSE IS DEGRADED TO FORM TWO MOLECULES OF THREE
CAR
BON PYRUVATE RESULTING IN TWO .!$( AND TWO NET !40
-%)/3)3
&%2-%.4!4)/.
/8)$!4)6% 2%30)2!4)/.
)F OXYGEN IS PRESENT GLYCOLYSIS LEADS TO AEROBIC RESPIRATION
WHICH PRODUCES A NET TOTAL OF !40 PER MOLECULE OF GLUCOSE
! /XIDATION OF PYRUVATE #ARBON DIOXIDE SPLITS OFF FROM PYRU
VATE TO PRODUCE ACETYL
#O! AND .!$(
" #ITRIC ACID CYCLE +REBS CYCLE "EGINS WITH ACETYL #O! JOIN
ING OXALOACETIC ACID TO FORM CITRIC ACID WHICH IS OXIDIZED
TO #/ YIELDING !40 .!$( AND &!$( /XALOACETIC ACID IS
REGENERATED FOR ANOTHER CYCLE /CCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA
OF EUKARYOTES AND THE CYTOPLASM OF AEROBIC PROKARYOTES
! -ENDE
BRID C
" )N EAC
#%,,5,!2 2%30)2!4)/.
)N THE ABSENCE OF OXYGEN RESPIRATION RELIES ON GLYCOLYSIS TO
PRODUCE !40 IN AN ANEROBIC PROCESS CALLED FERMENTATION 4HIS
PROCESS USES AN ORGANIC MOLECULE TO ACCEPT THE ELECTRON FROM
.!$( AND REFORM .!$ FOR GLYCOLYSIS TO RUN AGAIN -UCH ENER
GY REMAINS IN BONDS OF END
PRODUCTS SUCH AS ETHANOL OR LACTIC
ACID 4HERE ARE THREE TYPES OF FERMENTATION
! (OMOLACTIC "ACTERIA CONVERTS PYRUVATE INTO LACTIC ACID
" !LCOHOLIC 9EAST AND BACTERIA CONVERT PYRUVATE INTO ETHANOL
AND #/
# (ETEROLACTIC /RGANISMS PRODUCE LACTIC ACID AS WELL AS
OTHER ACIDS AND ALCOHOLS
-%.
-%.$
HETERO
#%,,3 CONTINUED
G UPON HIGH
YIELD ENERGY SOURCES
FE PROCESSES BEFORE RELEASING THAT
LD END PRODUCTS SUCH AS HEAT
#%,, 2%02/$5#4)/.
$.! IS THE CELLS GENETIC MATERIAL CHROMOSOMES ARE
THE CARRIERS OF THIS GENETIC INFORMATION )N PROKARYOTES
THE CHROMOSOME IS A SINGLE CIRCLE OF $.! )N EUKARYOTES
EACH CHROMOSOME IS A COMPLEX OF $.! AND HISTONE
PROTEINS FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
").!29 &)33)/.
0ROKARYOTIC CELLS REPRODUCE VIA BINARY l SSION )N THIS PROCESS
$.! IS REPLICATED AND THE CELL SPLITS IN TWO ROUGHLY EQUAL PARTS
EACH WITH A COPY OF THE CELLS $.!
-EIOSIS PRODUCES FOUR HAPLOID NUCLEI CALLED GAMETES FROM A SINGLE
DIPLOID CELL (APLOID . IS HALF OF THE DIPLOID NUMBER )N INTERPHASE
CHROMOSOMES ARE REPLICATED AND ALIGN IN HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS %ACH
PAIR CONTAINS A MATERNAL AND PATERNAL HOMOLOGUE INHERITED FROM
THE PREVIOUS GENERATION !N IMPORTANT CONSEQUENCE OF MEIOSIS IS
THAT THE GENOMES ARE MIXED AND RECOMBINED
! -EIOSIS )
0ROPHASE ) #ROSSING
OVER OCCURS AN OVERLAP BETWEEN
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES AT X
SHAPED JUNCTURES CALLED
CHIASMATA AND A RESULTANT EXCHANGE OF MATERIAL
-ETAPHASE ) 3PINDLE FORMS JOINED HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS
LINE UP AT THE CENTER OF THE CELL
!NAPHASE ) 3PINDLE SHORTENS CHIASMATA BREAK APART MATER
NALPATERNAL CHROMOSOMES DRAGGED TO OPPOSITE POLES
%5+!29/4)# #%,, #9#,%
%UKARYOTIC CELLS REPRODUCE VIA THE CREATION OF TWO IDENTICAL DIP
LOID CELLS FROM ONE DIPLOID CELL $IPLOID . REFERS TO THE TOTAL
NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES IN AUTOSOMAL NONSEXUAL CELLS
! )NTERPHASE 4HE PERIOD BETWEEN MITOTIC DIVISIONS DURING WHICH
CHROMOSOMES ARE NOT VISIBLE COMPRISED OF THREE PHASES
4ELOPHASE ) #HROMOSOMES ARE SET UP AT EACH POLE NEW
HAPLOID NUCLEI FORM
RATIO A
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HOTOSYNTHESIS #ONTAIN CHLORO
ND HAVE A DOUBLE MEMBRANE
TORE WATER PROTEINS AND WASTES
AYER AROUND THE CELL MEMBRANE
AS A
SIS O
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4HE
T UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS AND EARLI
AJOR DIFFERENCES FROM EUKARYOTES
/KA
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" -EIOSIS )) 0ROCEEDS AS A MITOTIC DIVISION WITH EACH DAUGHTER
CELL FROM MEIOSIS ) SPLITTING INTO TWO HAPLOID GAMETES
' PHASE -AJOR PERIOD OF CELL GROWTH
3 PHASE #HROMOSOME REPLICATION TAKES PLACE PRODUCING
PAIRS OF SISTER CHROMATIDS IDENTICAL CHROMOSOMES THAT
ARE EACH CONNECTED BY A CENTROMERE
' PHASE 3YNTHESIS OF CELL MACHINERY IN PREPARATION FOR
CELL DIVISION
" -ITOSIS - PHASE 4HE DIVISION OF GENETIC MATERIAL AND CEL
LULAR CONTENTS
/24
-3 2%15)2% ./ %.%2'9
REELY ACROSS A MEMBRANE TO BAL
ENT FROM REGIONS OF HIGH TO LOW
WATER IS CALLED OSMOSIS
CULES CROSS AN IMPERMEABLE OR
DOWN THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADI
IAL CHANNELS
-3 2%15)2% %.%2'9
T OF MOLECULES FROM LOW TO HIGH
MBRANE USING AN ENERGY DEPEN
AN EXTERIOR SUBSTANCE WITHIN A
MISSION TO THE CELL INTERIOR
F DISSOLVED LIQUID MOLECULES
IS OF UNDISSOLVED SOLID MATTER
ATERIAL FROM A CELL BY DISCHARGE
FACE
# #HEMIOSMOTIC OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION )N MITOCHON
DRIA ELECTRONS FROM .!$( AND &!$( m OW THROUGH AN ELEC
TRON TRANSPORT CHAIN FROM HIGH TO LOW ENERGY STATES THROUGH
ENERGY RELEASING STEPS ESTABLISHING AN ELECTROCHEMICAL
PROTON GRADIENT ACROSS THE INNER MEMBRANE OF MITOCHON
DRIA / ACCEPTS THE ELECTRONS TO FORM WATER !40 IS SYN
THESIZED WHEN ( IONS DIFFUSE BACK ACROSS THE MEMBRANE
THROUGH EMBEDDED PROTEINS
#%,, #9#,% 2%'5,!4)/.
#ELLS DIVIDE IN ORDER TO MAINTAIN A SURFACE
TO
VOLUME RATIO SO
THAT THE CELL HAS ENOUGH SURFACE AREA TO ABSORB NUTRIENTS AND
EXPEL WASTES RELATIVE TO ITS VOLUME
! 4HE CELL CYCLE IS REGULATED INTERNALLY BY CHECKPOINTS AT THE
' ' AND - PHASES 4HE CHECKPOINTS HALT CELL DIVISION UNTIL
OVERRIDDEN EG WHEN THE - CHECKPOINT HALTS ANAPHASE
UNTIL THE SISTER CHROMATIDS ARE PROPERLY ALIGNED
#YCLIN
DEPENDENT KINASES ENZYMATIC COMPLEXES THAT
ACTIVATE ENZYMES RESPONSIBLE FOR CELL DIVISION REGULATE THE
CHECKPOINTS ACTIVATING ENZYMES BY PHOSPHORYLATING THEM
CHANGING THEIR SHAPE AND OPENING THEIR ACTIVE SITES
4HE KINASES ARE IN TURN REGULATED BY CYCLIN A PROTEIN PRES
ENT IN THE CELLS AT VARIABLE CYCLING CONCENTRATIONS
" %XTERNAL SIGNALS CAN ALSO REGULATE CELL DIVISION
'ROWTH FACTORS ARE PROTEINS THAT ORIGINATE IN ONE CELL
TYPE AND PROMOTE DIVISION IN ANOTHER CELL TYPE
$ENSITY
DEPENDENT INHIBITION STOPS CELLS FROM DIVIDING ONCE
THEY REACH A CERTAIN DENSITY OVER A GIVEN SURFACE AREA
!NCHORAGE DEPENDENCE PREVENTS CELLS FROM DIVIDING
UNLESS THEY ATTACH TO SPECIl C SURFACES
# #ANCER CELLS ARE CELLS THAT IGNORE CELL CYCLE REGULATIONS AND
DIVIDE UNCHECKED
-%.$%,)!. '%.%4)#3
'ENETICS IS THE STUDY OF THE HEREDITY OF ORGANISMS !
GENE IS THE BASIC UNIT OF HEREDITY AN ALLELE IS ONE OF
TWO OR MORE ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF A SPECIl C GENE
).42/$5#4)/.
! 5NTIL THE TH CENTURY SCIENTISTS BELIEVED THAT TRAITS FROM
THE PARENTS WOULD BLEND IN THE OFFSPRING EG A TALL FATHER
AND SHORT MOTHER RESULTS IN A CHILD OF MEDIUM HEIGHT
%VENTUALLY ALL MEMBERS OF A SPECIES WOULD LOOK THE SAME
" 'REGOR -ENDEL BY CROSSING DIFFERENT STRAINS OF GARDEN PEAS
AND ANALYZING THE RESULTS CREATED THE GENETIC THEORY STILL
USED TODAY
4HIS DOWNLOADABLE 0$& COPYRIGHT BY 3PARK.OTES ,,#
-%.$%,3 &)234 ,!7 ,!7 /& 3%'2%'!4)/.
! 3INGLE
TRAIT CROSSES -ENDEL TOOK TWO DIFFERENT STRAINS OF TRUE
BREEDING PEA PLANTS ONE WITH GREEN
PEAS AND ONE WITH YELLOW PEAS AND
CROSSED THEM )N MODERN TERMS THIS
MONOHYBRID CROSS USED HOMOZY
GOUS PLANTS HAVING THE SAME ALLELE
INHERITED FROM EACH PARENT
4HE l RST
GENERATION PLANTS &
WERE HETEROZYGOUS HAVING INHER
ITED TWO DIFFERENT ALLELES OF A GENE
BUT SHOWED ONLY ONE TRAIT 4HIS
OCCURRED BECAUSE THE DOMINANT ALLELE DETERMINES THE PHE
NOTYPE IN HETEROZYGOTES BY MASKING THE RECESSIVE ALLELE
4HEN -ENDEL CROSSED TWO & PLANTS OF THE PLANTS
IN & THE SECOND GENERATION OF PEA PLANTS SHOWED THE
DOMINANT TRAIT SHOWED THE RECESSIVE
" &ROM THESE RESULTS -ENDEL CAME UP WITH THREE POSTULATES
!LTERNATIVE FORMS OF A TRAIT ARE CONTROLLED BY DIFFERENT
ALLELES OF THE GENE RESPONSIBLE FOR THAT TRAIT
7HEN GAMETES HAPLOID REPRODUCTIVE CELLS FORM IN DIP
LOID INDIVIDUALS THE TWO ALTERNATIVE ALLELES FOR A GENE SEG
REGATE FROM EACH OTHER
%VERY GAMETE HAS AN EQUAL CHANCE OF RECEIVING EITHER
MEMBER OF AN ALLELE PAIR
30!2+#(!243 "IOLOGY PAGE OF
! 2.! TR
4HE
ENC
GEN
THE
MER
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ES
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-%.$%,)!. '%.%4)#3 CONTINUED
-%.$%,3 3%#/.$ ,!7 ,!7 /& ).$%0%.$%.4 !33/24-%.4
! -ENDEL ALSO CONDUCTED SEVERAL MULTI
TRAIT DIHY
BRID CROSSES IN WHICH HE CROSSED PEAS THAT WERE
HETEROZYGOUS FOR TWO GENES
" )N EACH CASE HE OBSERVED A PHENOTYPE
CHROMOSOMES CONDENSE 3PINDLE
R .UCLEAR ENVELOPE BREAKS DOWN
ENTER NUCLEAR REGION EVENTUALLY
ES OF CHROMOSOMES
MES ALIGN ALONG CELL EQUATOR CALLED
UT DO NOT YET SEGREGATE TO OPPOSITE
DE FREEING SISTER CHROMATIDS
MATIDS SEPARATE TO OPPOSITE POLES
MES UNCOIL AT OPPOSITE ENDS AND
REFORMED NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
ISION OF THE CYTOPLASM INTO TWO
NUCLEI CALLED GAMETES FROM A SINGLE
OF THE DIPLOID NUMBER )N INTERPHASE
ND ALIGN IN HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS %ACH
PATERNAL HOMOLOGUE INHERITED FROM
MPORTANT CONSEQUENCE OF MEIOSIS IS
AND RECOMBINED
OVER OCCURS AN OVERLAP BETWEEN
MES AT X SHAPED JUNCTURES CALLED
ANT EXCHANGE OF MATERIAL
FORMS JOINED HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS
THE CELL
TENS CHIASMATA BREAK APART MATER
ES DRAGGED TO OPPOSITE POLES
MES ARE SET UP AT EACH POLE NEW
RATIO AND CONCLUDED THAT GENES LOCATED ON DIFFERENT
CHROMOSOMES ASSORT INDEPENDENTLY OF ONE ANOTHER
'%.%4)#3
! 'ENOTYPE 4HE GENES AN INDIVIDUAL HAS
" 0HENOTYPE 4HE PHYSICAL APPEARANCE OF AN INDI
VIDUAL
" )NCOMPLETE DOMINANCE SOMETIMES HETEROZYGOUS
GENOTYPES RESULT IN PHENOTYPES THAT DO NOT PRE
CISELY RESEMBLE ONE PARENT
.5#,%)# !#)$3
! $.! OCCURS MOST OFTEN AS A DOUBLE HELIX A SPIRAL STAIRCASEnSHAPED MOLECULE COMPOSED
OF TWO NUCLEOTIDE CHAINS HYDROGEN
BONDED TO EACH OTHER
/NE OF THESE CHAINS ALWAYS ENDS WITH A FREE /( GROUP WHILE THE OTHER ALWAYS ENDS
WITH A FREE PHOSPHATE GROUP
THE END OF ITS PARTNER
" )N DOUBLE STRANDED $.! ADENINE HYDROGEN BONDS TO THYMINE AND GUANINE HYDROGEN
BONDS TO CYTOSINE
4HEREFORE THE PROPORTION IN $.! OF ADENINE IS ALWAYS EQUAL TO THAT OF THYMINE AND THE
PROPORTION OF GUANINE IS ALWAYS EQUAL TO THAT OF CYTOSINE ! 4 ' #
4HERE IS ALWAYS AN EQUAL PROPORTION OF PURINES ! ' AND PYRIMIDINES # 4
$.! 2%0,)#!4)/.
! #OMPLEMENTARITY 4HE BASE SEQUENCE OF ONE CHAIN OF $.! COMPLETELY DETERMINES THE
ROUND OF REPLICATION THE ORIGINAL PAIR IS
NOT CONSERVED %ACH STRAND BECOMES
PART OF A NEW DUPLEX
7HEN A $.! MOLECULE REPLI
CATES IT SEPARATES AT ONE
END TO FORM A REPLICATION
FORK %ACH STRAND SERVES
AS A TEMPLATE FOR SYNTHE
SIS OF A NEW STRAND
$.! POLYMERASE IS THE
ENZYME THAT CATALYZES THE REPLICATION PROCESS )T MOVES ALONG EACH $.! STRAND FROM
THE TO DIRECTION SO NEW STRANDS ARE SYNTHESIZED END l RST END LAST
4HE LEADING $.! STRAND IS SYNTHESIZED CONTINUOUSLY
4HE LAGGING $.! STRAND IS SYNTHESIZED DISCONTINUOUSLY IN SEGMENTS OF NUCLEOTIDES CALLED
/KAZAKI FRAGMENTS WHICH LATER JOIN TOGETHER WITH THE HELP OF $.! LIGASE
'%.% %802%33)/. 02/4%). 39.4(%3)3
AIN A SURFACE TO VOLUME RATIO SO
FACE AREA TO ABSORB NUTRIENTS AND
OLUME
D INTERNALLY BY CHECKPOINTS AT THE
CHECKPOINTS HALT CELL DIVISION UNTIL
HE - CHECKPOINT HALTS ANAPHASE
S ARE PROPERLY ALIGNED
ASES ENZYMATIC COMPLEXES THAT
NSIBLE FOR CELL DIVISION REGULATE THE
ENZYMES BY PHOSPHORYLATING THEM
ND OPENING THEIR ACTIVE SITES
EGULATED BY CYCLIN A PROTEIN PRES
BLE CYCLING CONCENTRATIONS
EGULATE CELL DIVISION
OTEINS THAT ORIGINATE IN ONE CELL
ON IN ANOTHER CELL TYPE
BITION STOPS CELLS FROM DIVIDING ONCE
SITY OVER A GIVEN SURFACE AREA
CE PREVENTS CELLS FROM DIVIDING
PECIl C SURFACES
T IGNORE CELL CYCLE REGULATIONS AND
4(% #%.42!, $/'-!
4HE PROCESS OF GENE EXPRESSIONPROTEIN SYNTHESIS FOLLOWS A SPECIl C ORDER
! $.! IS TRANSCRIBED INTO M2.!
" M2.! IS THEN TRANSLATED INTO PROTEIN
4HE CHAINS BIND IN OPPOSING DIRECTIONS THE END OF ONE CHAIN IS HYDROGEN BONDED TO
SEQUENCE OF ITS PARTNER IN THE DOUBLE HELIX %ACH CHAIN IS A COMPLEMENTARY MIRROR IMAGE OF
THE OTHER EG THE CHAIN !'##4!4 MUST PAIR WITH THE CHAIN 4#''!4!
,!4)/.
THERE IS NO COUNTERPART ON THE 9 CHROMOSOME TO EXPRESS THE FUNCTIONAL ALLELE
-/,%#5,!2 '%.%4)#3
" 3EMICONSERVATIVE REPLICATION !FTER ONE
MITOTIC DIVISION WITH EACH DAUGHTER
G INTO TWO HAPLOID GAMETES
0HENOTYPE IS INTERMEDIATE BETWEEN THE TWO PARENTAL PHENOTYPES INCOMPLETE DOMI
NANCE
0HENOTYPE RESEMBLES HOMOZYGOUS DOMINANT BUT IS STILL DISTINGUISHABLE FROM IT PARTIAL
DOMINANCE
"OTH PARENTAL PHENOTYPES CAN BE IDENTIl ED IN THE OFFSPRING CODOMINANCE
# 0LEIOTROPY )NSTANCE WHEN A GENE PRODUCES MORE THAN ONE PHENOTYPIC EFFECT
$ 3EX CHROMOSOMES 3PECIl C CHROMOSOMES THAT DICTATE THE SEX OF CERTAIN ORGANISMS THE
REMAINING CHROMOSOMES ARE CALLED AUTOSOMES
)N HUMANS THERE ARE TWO SEX CHROMOSOMES 8 AND 9
A -ALES POSSESS ONE EACH OF 8 AND 9 CHROMOSOMES
B &EMALES POSSESS TWO 8 CHROMOSOMES
3EX
LINKED INHERITANCE )N HUMANS A MALE EXPRESSES ALL TRAITS UNIQUE TO THE 8 CHROMO
SOME HE INHERITS FROM HIS MOTHER -ALES ARE AFm ICTED WITH 8
LINKED DISORDERS BECAUSE
! 2.! TRANSCRIPTION
4HE REGION OF $.!
ENCODING THE DESIRED
GENE IS UNZIPPED AND
THE ENZYME 2.! POLY
MERASE COPIES THE
NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE TO
MAKE A STRAND OF MES
SENGER M 2.! 4HOUGH
THE TWO STRANDS OF $.!
ARE COMPLEMENTARY ONLY ONE STRAND THE TEMPLATE STRAND IS TRANSCRIBED INTO M2.!
.ONCODING SEQUENCES OF M2.! CALLED INTRONS ARE REMOVED AND THE REMAINING SEQUENC
ES CALLED EXONS ARE SPLICED TOGETHER
4HE M2.! LEAVES THE NUCLEUS
" 4RANSLATION
! RIBOSOME A COMPLEX OF RIBOSOMAL R 2.! AND PRO
TEIN BINDS TO AN M2.! TRANSCRIPT AND READS A TRIPLET
OF NUCLEOTIDES CALLED A CODON
4HE RIBOSOME BINDS THE MATCHING ANTICODON OF A
TRANSFER T 2.! MOLECULE WHICH IS ATTACHED TO A SPE
CIl C AMINO ACID INTO THE RIBOSOMES !
SITE
3EQUENTIAL M2.! CODONS CALL NEW T2.!nAMINO ACIDS
INTO THE !
SITE SHIFTING PREVIOUS T2.!nAMINO ACIDS TO
THE 0
SITE WHERE THEY LINK TO FORM A POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN
UNTIL A hSTOPv CODON IS REACHED
'%.% 2%'5,!4)/.
'ENE REGULATION IN PROKARYOTES 0ROKARYOTES HAVE GENES ORGANIZED IN AN OPERON CONTAIN
ING ALL THE GENES IN A METABOLIC PATHWAY A PROMOTER AND AN OPERATOR ON
OFF SWITCH 4HE
OPERATOR CONTROLS WHETHER 2.! POLYMERASE WILL BIND TO THE PROMOTER AND TRANSCRIBE 2.! 4HE
OPERATOR CAN BE CONTROLLED BY BOTH NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE GENE REGULATION
! .EGATIVE GENE REGULATION
2EPRESSIBLE OPERONS ARE REGULATED BY REPRESSOR PROTEINS ENCODED ELSEWHERE THAN
THE OPERON 4HESE PROTEINS BIND TO THE OPERATOR AND PREVENT GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION
#OREPRESSORS REGULATE THE REPRESSOR PROTEINS BY BINDING ONTO AN ALLOSTERIC SITE
A 2EPRESSIBLE OPERONS FUNCTION IN ANABOLIC PATHWAYS THAT SYNTHESIZE END PRODUCTS FROM
STARTER REACTANTS
B 4HE END PRODUCT ITSELF CAN ACT AS THE COREPRESSOR SO THAT ONCE ENOUGH PRODUCTS ARE
SYNTHESIZED THE MACHINERY SHUTS OFF
)NDUCIBLE OPERONS ARE ALSO CONTROLLED BY REPRESSOR PROTEINS BUT AN INDUCER BINDS TO AN
ALLOSTERIC SITE ON THE REPRESSOR PROTEIN AND INACTIVATES IT TRIGGERING TRANSCRIPTION
A )NDUCIBLE OPERONS FUNCTION IN CATABOLIC PATHWAYS THAT BREAK DOWN NUTRIENTS
B 4HE NUTRIENT ITSELF SOMETIMES ACTS AS THE INDUCER SUCH THAT ENZYMES ARE ONLY CREATED
WHEN THEY WILL BE USED
" 0OSITIVE GENE REGULATION
!N ACTIVATOR PROTEIN BINDS TO AN OPERATOR AND HELPS 2.! POLYMERASE ATTACH TO THE PRO
MOTER
-OLECULES CAN CONTROL THE ACTIVATOR BY BINDING TO AN ALLOSTERIC SITE AND OPENING ITS ACTIVE
SITE ALLOWING THE ACTIVATOR TO BIND ONTO THE OPERATOR
'ENE REGULATION IN EUKARYOTES %UKARYOTIC GENE REGULATION OCCURS AT SEVERAL LEVELS
! -ODIl CATIONS ON CHROMATIN #HROMATIN IS A TIGHTLY PACKED FORM OF $.! -ODIl CATIONS ON
CHROMATIN CAN PREVENT OR PROMOTE TRANSCRIPTION BY ALLOWING OR BARRING ACCESS TO INDIVIDUAL
GENES
$.! METHYLATION THE ATTACHMENT OF A #( METHYL GROUP TO $.! BASES INHIBITS GENETIC
EXPRESSION
(ISTONE ACETYLATION THE ADDITION OF A #/#( ACETYL GROUP TO THE $.!
BINDING HISTONE
PROTEINS LOOSENS THE GRIP OF HISTONES ON CHROMATIN AND ALLOWS TRANSCRIPTION
" #ONTROL ELEMENTS $ISTAL CONTROL ELEMENTS hENHANCERSv AND PROXIMAL CONTROL ELEMENTS
ARE BOTH PROTEINS THAT BIND TO $.! AT SPECIl C NON
CODING $.! BINDING DOMAINS #ONTROL
ELEMENTS ACTIVATE TRANSCRIPTION BY ATTACHING TO 2.! POLYMERASE AND FORMING A TRANSCRIP
TION INITIATION COMPLEX ALONG THE PROMOTER
# 3TEROID HORMONES 3TEROID HORMONES COORDINATE EXPRESSION OF MULTIPLE RELATED GENES BY
BINDING TO SPECIl C RECEPTORS THAT ACTIVATE TRANSCRIPTION IN THOSE GENES
$ 2EGULATORY PROTEINS 2EGULATORY PROTEINS CAN CONTROL THE RATE OF DEGRADATION OF M2.! AND
CAN BLOCK M2.! TRANSLATION BY PREVENTING RIBOSOMES FROM BINDING TO M2.! 0ROTEASTOMES
ARE PROTEIN COMPLEXES THAT CAN RECOGNIZE AND DEGRADE PROTEINS THEREBY CURTAILING THEIR
ACTIVITY
-54!4)/.
! 0OINT MUTATIONS -UTATIONS THAT AFFECT SINGLE GENES THROUGH A BASE
PAIR SUBSTITUTION DELE
TION OR INSERTION
$ELETIONS OR INSERTIONS THAT ARE NOT IN A MULTIPLE OF THREE CAUSE A FRAMESHIFT MUTATION
IN WHICH ALL DOWNSTREAM CODONS ARE ALTERED
0OINT MUTATIONS MAY HAVE NO EFFECT MAY IMPROVE OR DAMAGE THE PROTEIN MAY CREATE A
NOVEL PROTEIN OR MAY CREATE A NONFUNCTIONAL ONE
OMINANT ALLELE DETERMINES THE PHE
BY MASKING THE RECESSIVE ALLELE
TWO & PLANTS OF THE PLANTS
RATION OF PEA PLANTS SHOWED THE
WED THE RECESSIVE
EL CAME UP WITH THREE POSTULATES
TRAIT ARE CONTROLLED BY DIFFERENT
ONSIBLE FOR THAT TRAIT
D REPRODUCTIVE CELLS FORM IN DIP
ALTERNATIVE ALLELES FOR A GENE SEG
EQUAL CHANCE OF RECEIVING EITHER
R
" #HROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS -UTATIONS THAT AFFECT AN ENTIRE ORGANISM
.ONDISJUNCTION !N ERROR IN CHROMOSOMAL DISTRIBUTION DURING MEIOSIS WHICH RESULTS IN
ANEUPLOIDY OR GAMETES WITH AN ABNORMAL CHROMOSOME COUNT
0OLYPLOIDY ! MUTATION IN WHICH GAMETES CONTAIN MORE THAN TWO FULL SETS OF CHROMO
SOMES 0OLYPLOIDY IS GENERALLY LESS FATAL OR ALTERING THAN ANEUPLOIDY
-UTATIONS CAN ALSO OCCUR ON INDIVIDUAL CHROMOSOMES 4HESE INCLUDE
A $ELETION ! CHROMOSOMAL FRAGMENT GETS DETACHED DURING CELL DIVISION
B $UPLICATION 4HAT SAME FRAGMENT JOINS ITS HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME
C )NVERSION 4HAT FRAGMENT GETS REINSERTED BACKWARD OR
D 4RANSLOCATION 4HAT FRAGMENT GETS ATTACHED TO A NONHOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME
4HE EFFECTS OF CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION ARE OFTEN FATAL OR CAN RESULT IN GENETIC DISEASE BUT
IN RARE CASES MAY IMPROVE AN ORGANISMS l TNESS
#/.4).5%$ /. /4(%2 3)$%
4HIS DOWNLOADABLE 0$& COPYRIGHT BY 3PARK.OTES ,,#
30!2+#(!243 "IOLOGY PAGE OF
#,!
6)253%3
6IRUSES ARE INTRACELLULAR PARASITES MADE UP OF A
GENOME OF DOUBLE
OR SINGLE
STRANDED $.! OR 2.!
WITHIN A CAPSID OR PROTEIN COAT 3OME VIRUSES HAVE
VIRAL ENVELOPES LIPID MEMBRANES THAT ENCASE THE
CAPSID AND ASSIST IN INVADING A HOST
6)253 2%0,)#!4)/.
6IRUSES CANNOT REPLICATE WITHOUT A HOST 4HE HOST RANGE
REFERS TO THE SPECIl C CELL TYPE BACTERIAL PLANT OR ANIMAL
THAT EACH TYPE OF VIRUS MAY INFECT 6IRUSES GENERALLY REPLICATE
VIA ONE OF TWO MODES BOTH OF WHICH ARE BEST UNDERSTOOD IN
BACTERIAL VIRUSES OR PHAGES
! ,YTIC CYCLE
4HE PHAGE ENTERS THE HOSTS CELL RELEASES ITS $.! FROM
THE CAPSID AND THEN USES THE HOSTS CELLULAR EQUIPMENT
TO REPLICATE
4HE VIRUSS GENETIC MATERIAL IS TRANSCRIBED AND VIRAL PRO
TEINS SUCH AS THE CAPSID PROTEINS ARE TRANSLATED FROM A
VIRAL 2.! TEMPLATE
/NCE THE VIRUS REPLICATES AND REASSEMBLES ITSELF THE HOST
CELL LYSES RELEASING THE PHAGE COPIES 4HE CYCLE REPEATS
" ,YSOGENIC CYCLE
4HE PHAGE ENTERS THE HOST AND INCORPORATES ITS GENOME
4HE VIRAL GENOME LIES DORMANT AND IS REPLICATED EACH TIME
THAT THE HOST ITSELF REPLICATES WITH EVERY CELL DIVISION
%NVIRONMENTAL CUES CAUSE THE PHAGE GENOME TO EXTRICATE
ITSELF FROM THE HOSTS $.! AND BEGIN THE LYTIC CYCLE
s :YG
2%42/6)253%3
2ETROVIRUSES ARE ANIMAL VIRUSES THAT REPRODUCE IN A MANNER SIMI
LAR TO A PHAGE LYSOGENIC CYCLE ASIDE FROM THE FACT THAT THAT THE
VIRAL GENOME IS 2.!
BASED 2EVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE TRANSCRIBES
THE 2.! GENOME INTO A $.! TEMPLATE THAT IS INCORPORATED INTO
THE HOSTS GENOME AT SPECIl C SITES
INTO THE HOSTS GENOME AT CERTAIN CHROMOSOMAL LOCATIONS
$.! 4%#(./,/'9
0,!3-)$3
0LASMIDS ARE SELF
REPLICATING RINGS OF BACTERIAL $.! ! PLAS
MID CAN BE USED AS A CLONING VECTOR IN WHICH A GENE OF
INTEREST IS SPLICED INTO THAT PLASMID AND REINTRODUCED INTO THE
BACTERIA FOR MASS REPLICATION
! 2ESTRICTION ENZYMES ENZYMES THAT CUT $.! AT SPECIl C
SEQUENCES CUT OPEN THE PLASMID AND EXCISE THE GENE OF
INTEREST FROM ITS HOST $.!
" $.! LIGASE GLUES THE CUT FRAGMENTS IN SOLUTION WITH PHOS
PHODIESTER BONDS CREATING A PIECE OF RECOMBINANT $.!
CONTAINING BOTH THE GENE AND THE PLASMID
# 4RANSFORMATION OF THE PLASMID REINTRODUCES THE RECOM
BINANT $.! INTO BACTERIA BY ELECTROPORATION AN ELECTRIC
SHOCK THAT TEMPORARILY MAKES THE BACTERIAS PLASMA MEM
BRANE PERMEABLE
$ "ACTERIAL GROWTH IN CULTURE REPLICATES THE GENE WITHIN
THE PLASMID 4HE RECOMBINANT PLASMID $.! IS ISOLATED
FROM THE BACTERIA AND THE CLONED GENE IS RE
EXCISED USING
RESTRICTION ENZYMES
.%/
$!27).)!. 4(%/29
! 0RINCIPLE OF VARIATION 6ARIATIONS IN MORPHOLOGY PHYSIOLOGY
! 0#2 POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION CAN BE USED TO CLONE
$.! IN VITRO
! (EATING THE GENE OF INTEREST SEPARATES IT INTO SINGLE
STRANDS
" #OOLING THE SOLUTION ALLOWS THE GENE TO BIND WITH PRIMERS
THAT ARE COMPLIMENTARY TO THE ENDS OF THE TARGET GENE
# $.! POLYMERASE ADDS NEW NUCLEOTIDES TO THE PRIMERS
CREATING NEW COPIES OF THE TARGET GENE
$ 2EHEATING THE PRODUCTS CONTINUES IN CYCLES SUCH THAT NEW
$.! IS CREATED IN MASS
'%, %,%#42/0(/2%3)3
'EL ELECTROPHORESIS IS USED TO ISOLATE $.! FRAGMENTS BY SIZE
! $.! CUT WITH RESTRICTION ENZYMES IS PLACED IN WELLS AT THE
END OF A GEL AND THIS GEL IS BATHED IN AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION
" !N ELECTRICAL CHARGE IS PASSED THROUGH THE GEL PULLING THE
POLAR $.! MOLECULES THROUGH THE GEL
# 6ARIATIONS IN SIZE AMONG $.! FRAGMENTS MAKE THE FRAG
"OTTLENECK EFFECT /NLY A FEW INDIVIDUALS OF A SPECIES
SURVIVE A DISASTER
# 'ENE m OW -OVEMENT OF GENES FROM ONE POPULATION TO
ANOTHER THROUGH MIGRATION OF INDIVIDUALS BETWEEN POPULA
TIONS ANDOR MATING BETWEEN SEPARATE POPULATIONS
490%3 /& 3%,%#4)/.
AND BEHAVIOR OCCUR AMONG INDIVIDUALS IN ANY GIVEN POPULATION
! .ATURAL SELECTION )NDIVIDUALS PRODUCE MORE OFFSPRING
" 0RINCIPLE OF HEREDITY /FFSPRING RESEMBLE PARENTS MORE
THAN CAN SURVIVE "ECAUSE INDIVIDUALS COMPETE FOR LIMITED
RESOURCES THOSE WITH FAVORABLE VARIATIONS AND TRAITS ARE
MORE SUCCESSFUL AT PASSING ON THOSE TRAITS TO SUCCEEDING
GENERATIONS /VER TIME THOSE TRAITS BECOME PREVALENT WHILE
DISADVANTAGEOUS TRAITS OCCUR WITH DECREASED FREQUENCY
$IRECTIONAL SELECTION 3ELECTION FAVORS AN EXTREME PHE
NOTYPE THE FREQUENCY OF WHICH INCREASES OVER TIME
3TABILIZING SELECTION 3ELECTION ACTS TO ELIMINATE BOTH
EXTREME PHENOTYPES 4HE FREQUENCY OF THE INTERMEDI
ATE PHENOTYPE INCREASES OVER TIME
$ISRUPTIVE SELECTION 3ELECTION ACTS TO ELIMINATE THE
INTERMEDIATE PHENOTYPE FROM A POPULATION FAVORING THE
EXTREMES
" 3EXUAL SELECTION )NDIVIDUALS WITH TRAITS THAT APPEAL TO
THAN THEY RESEMBLE OTHER MEMBERS OF THE POPULATION
# 0RINCIPLE OF SELECTION )NDIVIDUALS WITH CERTAIN TRAITS MORE
SUCCESSFULLY SURVIVE AND REPRODUCE PASSING THOSE TRAITS
TO THE NEXT GENERATION
%6/,54)/.!29 &!#4/23
! -UTATION ! PERMANENT CHANGE IN A CELLS $.! CAUSING
DIVERSITY AMONG INDIVIDUALS
" 'ENETIC DRIFT ! RANDOM CHANGE IN THE FREQUENCY OF ALLELES
4WO INSTANCES OF GENETIC DRIFT CAUSE INDIVIDUALS GENES TO
BE UNNATURALLY OVEREXPRESSED
&OUNDER EFFECT /NLY A FEW INDIVIDUALS OF A SPECIES START
A NEW POPULATION
MENTS MIGRATE AT DIFFERENTIAL RATES SHORTER FRAGMENTS
TRAVEL FARTHER DOWN THE GEL THAN LONGER ONES DO
$ ! $.! LADDER IS RUN IN ONE OF THE WELLS CONTAINING FRAG
MENTS OF BENCHMARK SIZES USED TO IDENTIFY THE SIZES OF THE
OTHER FRAGMENTS
% 4HE GEL IS DYED WITH A SOLUTION THAT BINDS TO $.! AND MAKES
IT GLOW UNDER ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT 4HE $.! GLOWS PINK UNDER THE
LIGHT AND CAN BE PHYSICALLY CUT FROM THE GEL AND ISOLATED
",/44).'
3OUTHERN BLOTTING AN EXTENSION OF ELECTROPHORESIS PULLS
$.! FRAGMENTS FROM AN ELECTROPHORESIS GEL ONTO A PIECE
OF NITROCELLULOSE PAPER BY THE CAPILLARY ACTION OF AN ALKALINE
SOLUTION 4HE PAPER IS REMOVED AND A RADIOACTIVE PROBE OF
SINGLE
STRANDED $.! BINDS TO THE TARGET $.! 4HE RADIOACTIVE
$.! SHOWS UP ON A PIECE OF l LM PLACED ONTO THE PAPER
.ORTHERN BLOTTING IS SIMILAR TO 3OUTHERN BLOTTING EXCEPT FOR
THE FACT THAT IT ANALYZES WHOLE MOLECULES OF M2.! RATHER
THAN FRAGMENTS OF $.! CUT BY RESTRICTION ENZYME DIGEST
SEXUAL PARTNERS ARE MORE LIKELY TO PASS ON THOSE TRAITS TO
SUCCEEDING GENERATIONS 6ARIOUS TRAITS MAY BE PRESERVED
NOT BECAUSE THEY ENHANCE SURVIVORSHIP BUT BECAUSE THEY
INCREASE REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS
# !RTIl CIAL SELECTION (UMANS INTENTIONALLY BREED ANIMALS
TO ENHANCE SPECIl C TRAITS
0/05,!4)/.3
! 3IZE 3MALL POPULATIONS ARE MORE LIKELY TO GO EXTINCT BECAUSE
RANDOM EVENTS OR DISTURBANCES MAY AFFECT THE POPULA
TION DISPROPORTIONATELY !LSO INBREEDING MAY ELIMINATE THE
GENETIC DIVERSITY NECESSARY FOR THE POPULATION TO THRIVE
" $ISPERSION 7IDELY SPACED POPULATIONS MAY NOT THRIVE
BECAUSE INDIVIDUALS MAY NOT INTERACT OFTEN ENOUGH TO
REPRODUCE SUFl CIENTLY
GROUP OF ORGANISMS TO ANOTHER
! 0REDATOR PREY INTERACTIONS "OTH PLANTS AND ANIMALS
DEVELOP SPECIAL DEFENSES WHEN THEY INTERACT COMPETITIVELY
WITH OTHER ORGANISMS
" 3YMBIOSIS ! RELATIONSHIP IN WHICH TWO KINDS OF ORGANISMS
CONSISTENTLY LIVE TOGETHER
#OMMENSALISM ! RELATIONSHIP IN WHICH ONE INDIVIDUAL
IS CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH ANOTHER AND BENEl TS WITHOUT
DOING HARM TO THE HOST
-UTUALISM ! RELATIONSHIP THAT BENEl TS BOTH ORGANISMS
INVOLVED
0ARASITISM ! TYPE OF PREDATION IN WHICH ONE ORGANISM
LIVES IN OR ON A HOST AND BENEl TS WHILE HARMING THE HOST
0/05,!4)/. '2/74(
! "IOTIC POTENTIAL D.DT RI. THE RATE AT WHICH A POPULATION
INCREASES WHEN THERE ARE NO LIMITS ON ITS RATE OF GROWTH . IS
THE POPULATION SIZE D.DT IS THE RATE OF CHANGE IN POPULATION
SIZE OVER TIME AND RI IS THE POPULATIONS CAPACITY FOR GROWTH
" #ARRYING CAPACITY D.DT R.;+ n . += THE SIZE AT WHICH A
POPULATION STABILIZES IN A PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENT BASED ON
AVAILABLE RESOURCES PREDATION COMPETITION AND NICHE
(!2$9 7%)."%2' 02).#)0,%
RANDOM SELECTION ALLELE AND GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES REMAIN
CONSTANT IN A RANDOM MATING POPULATION $OMINANT ALLELES DO
NOT REPLACE RECESSIVE ONES BECAUSE THE FREQUENCIES DO NOT
CHANGE -ATHEMATICALLY
)F THE FREQUENCY OF ALLELE A IS P AND THE FREQUENCY OF ALLELE B IS Q
THEN THE GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES AFTER ONE GENERATION OF RANDOM
MATING ARE REPRESENTED BY
P A PQ AB Q B
OR
P Q P PQ Q
)N THE ABSENCE OF MUTATION MIGRATION GENETIC DRIFT AND NON
#,!33)&9).' /2'!.)3-3 4(% 4(2%% $/-!). 3934%$/-!). %5+ !29!
$/-!). !2#(!%!
0ERHAPS THE OLDEST %UKARYA LACK MITOCHONDRIA ARE m AGEL
LATED HAVE DUAL NUCLEI AND A SIMPLE CYTOSKELETON %XAMPLE
'IARDIA A PROTIST FOUND IN WATER
$/-!). "!#4%2)!
#ONSISTS OF ALL OTHER PROKARYOTES
4HIS DOWNLOADABLE 0$& COPYRIGHT BY 3PARK.OTES ,,#
SPO
BOD
TRUF
AND
!ROSE FROM PROKARYOTES THROUGH TWO EVOLUTIONARY STEPS
! !N INTERNAL MEMBRANOUS SYSTEM INCLUDING A NUCLEAR ENVE
LOPE DERIVED FROM INFOLDINGS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
" 3YMBIOSIS WITH PROKARYOTES THAT LATER BECAME MITOCHON
DRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS
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HAS GIVEN WAY TO A THREE
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REm ECTS CURRENT EVOLUTIONARY RESEARCH $OMAIN "ACTERIA
AND $OMAIN !RCHAEA ARE OFFSHOOTS OF WHAT WAS ONCE
+INGDOM -ONERA $OMAIN %UKARYA CONTAINS ALL FOUR
OTHER KINGDOMS BUT SUBDIVIDES WHAT WAS ONCE +INGDOM
0ROTISTA INTO l VE SEPARATE KINGDOMS !RCHAEZOA
%UGLENOZOA !LVEOLATA 3TRAMENOPILA AND 2HODOPHYTA
#ONSISTS OF THOSE PROKARYOTES THAT INHABIT THE HARSHEST ENVI
RONMENTS "ELIEVED TO BE THE ANCESTORS OF +INGDOM %UKARYA
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ORIGINATED FROM A SINGLE PROGENITOR
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0ARAZOA LACK TRUE TISSUES EACH CELL IS BASICALLY MODULAR
%UMETAZOA HAVE TRUE TISSUES IE SPECIALIZATION OF CELLS
BY FUNCTION
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A BACK END (AVE ONLY TWO GERM LAYERS EMBRYONIC CELL
LAYERS THAT GO ON TO CONSTITUTE ADULT TISSUES AN ECTO
DERM AND AN ENDODERM
"ILATERIA HAVE BILATERAL SYMMETRY IE HAVE DORSAL TOP
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SIDES !RE CHARACTERIZED BY CEPHALIZATION SENSORY ORGANS
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A MESODERM BETWEEN THE ECTODERM AND ENDODERM
# !COELOMATES VS PSEUDOCOELOMATES VS COELOMATES
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INTERNAL ORGANS IN m UID
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0ROTOSTOMES HAVE EMBRYONIC CELLS THAT DIVIDE IN PATTERN
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ORGANELLES THAT SHOOT OFF NEMATOCYSTS STINGING BARBS
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MENTS #OVERED WITH A PROTECTIVE CUTICLE 2EPRODUCE SEXU
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SO NUTRIENTS TRANSPORTED THROUGH m UID OF THE PSEUDOCOELOM
0HYLUM .EMERTEA PROBOSCIS OR RIBBON WORMS !COELOMATE
BUT HAVE A FULL DIGESTIVE TRACT AND CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
#APTURE PREY USING A m UID l LLED SAC THAT OPERATES A PROBOSCIS
s 0HYLA "RYOZOA 0HORONIDA "RACHIOPODA LOPHOPHORATES
3ESSILE AQUATIC SUSPENSION FEEDERS WITH LOPHOPHORES FOLD
OF CILIATED TENTACLES THAT DRAW WATER INTO THE MOUTH .O
TRUE HEAD "RYOZOANS LOOK LIKE MOSSES THEIR HARD EXOSKEL
ETONS CREATE REEFS 0HORONIDS ARE AQUATIC WORMS THAT BUILD
HARD CHITINOUS TUBES "RACHIOPODS ARE SESSILE MARINE CREA
TURES THAT LOOK LIKE CLAMS AND LIVE LIKE "RYOZOA
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CULAR FOOT FOR MOVING A VISCERAL MASS CONTAINING THE ORGANS
AND A MANTLE TISSUE COVERING THE VISCERAL MASS THAT MAY PRO
DUCE A SHELL -ANY FEED USING A RADULA A SCRAPING ORGAN THAT
DRAGS FOR NUTRIENTS %XAMPLES SNAILS GASTROPODA CLAMS
MUSSELS BIVALVIA SQUIDS OCTOPUS CEPHALOPODA
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HAVE A DIGESTIVE TRACT WITH SPECIALIZED REGIONS NERVES AND
A CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM %ACH SEGMENT HAS METANE
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EARTHWORMS OLIGOCHAETA LEECHES HIRUDINEA
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ETON SPECIALIZED APPENDAGES WITH JOINTS AND SEGMENTED
BODIES AND GROW BY MOLTING THEIR EXOSKELETONS TO FORM
INCREASINGLY LARGER ONES (AVE AN OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
WITH A HEART AND SENSORY ORGANS FOR TOUCH SMELL AND SIGHT
s 3UBPHYLUM #HELICERATA SCORPIONS AND SPIDERS &EED
WITH CLAWLIKE CHELICERAE -OST HAVE SIMPLE RATHER THAN
COMPOUND EYES 3PIDERS ARACHNIDS HAVE BOOK LUNGS
STACKS OF ORGANS THAT CARRY OUT GAS EXCHANGE
s 3UBPHYLUM 5NIRAMIA CENTIPEDES MILLIPEDES INSECTS
(AVE COMPOUND RATHER THAN SIMPLE EYES (AVE ANTENNAE
AND FEED WITH JAWLIKE MANDIBLES )NSECTS )NSECTA HAVE
A THREE PART BODY WITH A HEAD THORAX AND ABDOMEN
2EMOVE WASTE WITH -ALPIGHIAN TUBULES AND BREATHE USING
A TRACHEAL SYSTEM THAT LETS OXYGEN DIRECTLY INTO CELLS -ANY
INSECTS CAN m Y AND ALSO UNDERGO METAMORPHOSIS A CHANG
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s 3UBPHYLUM #RUSTACEA CRABS SHRIMP LOBSTERS BARNA
CLES (AVE JAWLIKE MANDIBLES AS OPPOSED TO CHELICERAE
AND TWO PAIRS OF ANTENNAE (AVE MANY PAIRS OF APPEND
AGES ON THE ABDOMEN UNLIKE INSECTS WHICH HAVE APPEND
AGES ON THE THORAX AND CAN REGENERATE APPENDAGES
s 0HYLUM %CHINODERMATA ECHINODERMS -ARINE ORGANISMS
RADIALLY SYMMETRICAL IN ADULT FORM BUT BILATERALLY SYMMETRICAL IN
LARVAL FORM %NDOSKELETONS DERIVE FROM THE MESODERM 7ATER
VASCULAR SYSTEM POWERS TUBE FEET USED IN MOVEMENT AND
FEEDING %XAMPLES SEA STARS !STEROIDEA SEA URCHINS
SAND DOLLARS %CHINOIDEA SEA CUCUMBERS (OLOTHUROIDEA
s 0HYLUM #HORDATA CHORDATES (AVE AN EMBRYONIC NOTOCHORD
FOR SKELETAL SUPPORT AND A HOLLOW DORSAL NERVE CORD ALL OTHER
ANIMALS HAVE SOLID VENTRAL NERVE CORDS THAT DEVELOPS INTO A
BRAIN AND SPINAL CHORD 0HARYNGEAL SLITS l LTER OUT WATER WITH
OUT ITS CONTINUING THROUGH THE ENTIRE DIGESTIVE TRACT IN AQUATIC
VERTEBRATES THESE HAVE EVOLVED TOWARD GAS EXCHANGE IN
HIGHER ANIMALS USED FOR JAW SUPPORT AND AUDITORY SENSATION
(AVE A POSTANAL TAIL ORIGINALLY USED FOR AQUATIC PROPULSION
OTHER ANIMALS DIGESTIVE TRACTS EXTEND THROUGHOUT THE BODY
6ERTEBRATE CLASSES
s 3UPERCLASS !GNATHA *AWLESS VERTEBRATES LACKING PAIRED
APPENDAGES 3KELETON MADE OF CARTILAGE NOTOCHORD EXISTS
THROUGHOUT LIFE %XAMPLES HAGl SHES LAMPREYS
s 3UPERCLASS 'NATHOSTOMATA !LL OTHER VERTEBRATES (AVE
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DIVIDED BETWEEN THE l SH AND THE TETRAPODS hFOUR FEETv
s #LASS #HONDRICHTHYES CARTILAGINOUS l SHES (AVE CAR
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SYSTEM IS A SENSORY SYSTEM THAT DETECTS CHANGES IN PRES
SURE OR VIBRATIONS IN THE WATER %XAMPLES SHARKS RAYS
s #LASS /STEICHTHYES BONY l SHES (AVE BONE SKELETONS
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s #LASS !MPHIBIA AMPHIBIANS /LDEST TETRAPODS MOST LIVE
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SHELL
LESS EGGS THAT MUST BE LAID IN WATER &ROGS UNDERGO
METAMORPHOSIS BETWEEN AN AQUATIC LARVAL STAGE AND A TER
RESTRIAL ADULT STAGE 4HE ADULT STAGE MARKS THE LOSS OF GILLS
AND OF THE LATERAL LINE SYSTEM %XAMPLES FROGS TOADS
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HAVE LEATHERY SHELLS AND ARE LAID ON LAND (AVE PROTEC
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ARE ECTOTHERMIC CONTROL TEMPERATURE VIA BEHAVIORAL
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SLIDE ALONGSIDE EACH OTHER THE MUSCLES CONTRACT #ARDIAC MUSCLE
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VIA THE AORTA !RTERIES CARRY BLOOD AWAY FROM THE HEART BREAKING
DOWN INTO A NETWORK OF ARTERIOLES 6EINS ARISE FROM A NETWORK OF
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30!2+#(!243 "IOLOGY PAGE OF
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30!2+#(!243
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30!2+#(!243 "IOLOGY PAGE OF
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