Beruflich Dokumente
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Transactions
Association
126 (1996) 265-286
of theAmerican
Philological
University
ofCalifornia,Los Angeles
The historyof Romantragedyrestson a paradox.Not a singleplayperformed
publiclyat Rome survivesintact,whilethosethathave survived-thetenplays
of theSenecancorpus-lack all tracesof production
history.Thus,thoughwe
knowthatVarius' lost Thyesteswas performed
to publicacclaim in theearly
20s B.C.E. and wenton to winliterary
renown,thewhen,why,where,andhow
of Seneca's extantThyestes
arebeyondrecall.Yet thefactremainsthattragedy
at Rome survivedthe loss of professionalplaywrights
and the stultifying
of the Republicanstageto reemergeunderthe Principateas a
extravagances
favorite
and evena potentgenreforRomanaristocrats
witha literary
turn.How
thiscame about,how tragedydevelopedbetweenthedeathof Accius at some
pointin the 90s B.C.E. and the deathof Domitiannearlytwo centurieslater,
meritsattention
bothforthestory'sinherent
interest
and,in a largersense,for
whatit revealsof the forcesat workon literature
in thatseminalperiodfrom
Republicto empire.
I.
In the late summerof 55 B.C.E., Cicero swelteredthroughthe inaugural
ceremoniesforPompey'snewtheater
complexin theCampusMartius.The vast
structure
itselfwas in manywaysa marvel:Rome's firststonetheater,
designed
to hold perhaps40,000 spectators,incorporated
a templeof Venus Victrix
above the cavea, flankedby fourancillarysanctuariesto reveredabstractions
like Honos and Virtus,whilebehindthe stagebuildingstretched
an elaborate
porticoand formalgardenconnecting
thetheater
witha new senate-house
some
200 metersto theeast.Yet neither
theawningsnortheinnovative
water-courses
of thenew buildingcouldrelievetheheatof thatRomanAugustor thetedium
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266
SanderM. Goldberg
of thatinauguraldisplay.'Cicerodescribedtheprogramwithwrydistastein a
installedin a villaon
famousletterto his friendM. Marius,himselfcomfortably
theBay ofNaples (Fam. 7.1).
The entertainments
stagedin thenew theateron thatoccasion included
were in Greekas well as Latin and
mimes,plays,and farces.Performances
veteransof the
employedbothlocal and importedtalent.Some distinguished
forthe occasion,and some,says Cicero,
stagewere invitedout of retirement
old Aesopus,the famoustragicactorof the
unwiselyacceptedthe invitation:
of
to theembarrassment
lateRepublic,actuallylosthis voice in mid-sentence,
all. Related shows in the Circus includedraces and wild animal displays
over a five-dayperiod;memoryof an elephanthunttherelingered
performed
however,or
downto Pliny'sday.The mostnotoriousspectacleon theprogram,
Cicero,was thelavishstagingoftwo
at leastthespectaclethatmostexasperated
classic Romantragedies,Accius' Clytemnestraand theEquus Troianus of (we
think)Naevius.2
habentsescentimuliin 'Clytaemestra'
aut in
quid enimdelectationis
triamiliaaut armatura
variapeditatus
et
'Equo Troiano'creterrarum
admirationem
habueruent,
equitatusin aliqua pugna?quae popularem
tibinullamattulissent.
delectationem
mulesina Clytemnestra
Whatpleasuredo sixhundred
provideorthree
in a TrojanHorseor a variegated
thousandmixing-bowls
displayof
in some battleor other?It gave the
equipment
cavalryand infantry
itwouldnothavebrought
youanypleasure.(Fam.7.1.2)
publica thrill;
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267
kindsofpublicspectacle,inparticular
thetriumph
withitselaborateprocession,
deliberately
andrelatedsideshows.
breath-taking
ostentation,
Pompeyhimselfmaywell have encouragedtheassociation.Memoriesof
his threefold
triumphof 61 over the pirates,Mithridates,
and Tigraneswere
builtintohis new theaterby theallegoricalfiguresof fourteen
literally
nations
set on permanent
displayalong its perimeter
(Plin.Nat. 36.41; cf. Plu. Pomp.
45.2). Even therowsof planetreesthatconnectedthetheaterbuildingwiththe
new Curia beyondit mighthave suggesteda militaryformation:
the Romans
inclinedtowardsuch associationsbetweenplantingsand parades(cf. Verg.G.
2.274-83). As so oftenat Rome, politics and art were easily combined,
especiallywhenpoliticscouldassumethegarbofcommunity
achievement.
The technicalcapabilitiesof theRomanstagewereby thistimeentirely
equal to the task of managingsuch lavishdisplays.Casts had alreadygrown
quitelarge.Lucullus,forexample,was once askedto furnish100 cloaks fora
tragedy,clear evidence of an impressiveshow as well as his famously
impressivepurse(Hor. Ep. 1.6.40-41). Nor was artisticintegrity
an essential
ingredient
forsuccess.The Hellenistictendency
to sacrificeaestheticcoherence
to histrionic
displaythrough
thecutting,
expansion,and reworking
of classical
originalsno doubt encouragedthe Romans' own penchantfor improvised
politicaldemonstration.
Cicero,forexample,relishedthe memoryof how, at
theFloraliaof 57, thatsame Aesopus,thenpresumably
stillin fullvoice,had
turneda line of Accius' Brutusto Cicero's personaladvantage:Tullius,qui
libertatemcivibus stabiliverat(Sest. 123). The crowd loved it (miliens
revocatumest),thoughthegreatmomentsurelycame at some costto Accius'
intendedeffect.We maywell concludethattheRomaninterest
in tragedylay,
as Beare remarks,"not so much in the essentialdramaticqualities of the
performance
as in externals-impressive
staging,violentutterance
and action,
lines whichmightbe takenas topical,the arrivalof distinguished
spectators,
and of courseanymishapwhichmightbefalleithertheactorsor anymembers
of the audience."3The disruptiveeffectsof such occurrencesare all well
attestedfor the late Republic.The tragicgenre,havinglost its intellectual
was easilysubornedbyhucksters
bearings,
andpoliticos.
The verysize ofPompey'snewtheater
was a symptom,
and perhapseven
a cause,oftheproblem.Notthatitssize was uniqueor unprecedented:
eventhe
3Beare71. Forthepoliticization
oftheatrical
productions
inthelaterRepublic,see Nicolet
363-73andBeacham154-63.
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SanderM. Goldberg
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269
all tragedy,
whatever
its originalaesthetic.
This was an age thatcouldproduceEuripides'
Hippolytus
without
a chorus(PSorb.2252) and give a tragoedusa choruswithout
a play
(PLeid. 510). See Gentili19-21, Tarrant1978, and fora nice exampleof whatsuch
sensibilities
entailed,
Frank16-27.
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SanderM. Goldberg
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271
dumfugiunt
equitum
turmae
peditumque
catervae;
moxtrahitur
manibus
regumfortuna
retortis,
essedafestinant,
pilenta,
petorrita,
naves,
captivum
portatur
ebur,captivaCorinthus.
8The sources are Cic. Brut. 167 (Titius) and Q. ft. (Q. Cicero); Suet. Jul. 56.7 (Caesar) and
Aug.85 (Augustus);Hor.Ep. 2.3.366-90 (thePisones).Fantham5-6 provideshelpfuldiscussion.
9Hor. Carm. 2.1.9-12; Verg. Ecl. 8.9 withServ. ad loc.; Tac. Dial. 21.7. Pollio, however,
did notearninclusionin Quintilian'scanon of Roman tragediansat Inst. 10.1.97-98.
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SanderM. Goldberg
andall their
havestoppedlistening,
Nowadayseventheknights
pageants.
is takenup withinaneandephemeral
interest
ifnotlonger,
periods,
is up forfour-hour
Thecurtain
hurtle
past;
ofcavalryandhordesofinfantry
as squadrons
acrosswiththeirhandspinioned;
fallenkingsaredragged
along,
wagonsandshipsrumble
carriages,
chariots,
worksofbronzeandivorytakenfromCorinth.
carrying
(Ep. 2.1.187-93,tr.Rudd)
andotherpublicspectacleson therise,tragedy
Withmimes,pantomimes,
began losingits popularaudience.It maywell be true,as scholarslike Slater
thattheaterwas and remainedcentral
and Wiseman(1995) have been insisting,
butby Horace's day theaterswereno
to theprocessof Romanself-fashioning,
and
betweenpopularentertainment
longerthe poets' preserve.A distinction
to
second-century
have
been
as
incomprehensible
theaterthatwould
literary
Atheniansnow becomesan increasingly
significant
Romansas to fifth-century
was.Ourmainsourceis an
andhowpublicitsproduction
I0Wedo notknowhowelaborate
of the
thatsurvivesin two manuscripts
imprecision
isolateddidascalicnoteof maddening
magna
Lucius Variuscognomento
tragoediam
RufusThyesten
eighthand ninthcenturies:
augustoludiseius in scaena ediditpro qua fabula
cura absolutopost Actiacamvictoriam
1980andmorebroadly
See Jocelyn
emended.
deciensaccepit.Thetextis variously
sestertium
thegift
implya lavishperformance:
does notnecessarily
Cova 9-27. The millionsesterces
likeHorace'sSabine
rather
forlongservice,
mayhavebeennota quidproquo butthereward
46-47.
farm.See Coffey
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SanderM. Goldberg
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275
rhetorical
display.This maywell have been the secretof Ovid's successwith
his Medea, whichapparently
strucka happybalance betweeninspiration
and
discipline.Quintilianquotes one of its sententiaewithapproval(Inst. 8.5.6:
servarepotui: perdere an possim rogas? ) and clearlyadmiredthe whole.14
Ovid was an accomplisheddeclaimer,and the declamatorystylemay have
seemedless contrivedin his tragedythanit sometimesappearedto readersof
hisepicandelegy.Thatmustremaina guess,butthecompatibility
of declamation
and tragedyis certainin the case of Seneca. His plays are notjust generally
in stylebutspecifically
rhetorical
in conception,
and it is herethat
declamatory
theeffectofrhetoric
on tragedyis therefore
easiestto measure.
III.
The rhetorical
qualityof Senecantragedyis an old and yetneglectedscholarly
topos.Its modemhistorygoes backto Friedrich
Leo, who devoteda sectionof
his Observationescriticaeof 1878 to whathe called "tragoediarhetorica."
Therehe set out to showhow a rhetorical
influencedistinguished
theplaysof
Seneca frombothhis Greekand Romanpredecessors."These are not really
he concluded,"butdeclamations
tragedies,"
patterned
aftertragedyand divided
intoacts"(158). Because he thought
therhetorical
impulsehad a banefuleffect
on Latinliterature,
Leo and his disciplesgenerallyconfinedtheirinvestigation
of its influenceto mattersof styleand thenfaultedSeneca forfulfilling
their
expectations.15 The result could make ratherdry reading,and the more
sympathetic
line of Senecan criticismthathas since emergedunderstandably
looks in other directions.Attentionto Seneca's philosophicalroots, for
example,has shownnotjust how Stoic vocabularyunderlieshis diction,but
how Stoicism furnisheda powerfulintellectualfoundationfor his tragic
constructions
and insuredtheirlastingappeal (e.g., Braden,Lefevre 1985,
Rosenmeyer).Senecan drama,however,is not only philosophical:rhetorical
criticism
shouldalso have something
to say aboutthesubstanceof his tragedy.
Leo's basic perceptionof thetragoediarhetoricaremainstrue.The new point
to make is simplythatrhetoric'sinfluenceon tragedyextendsfarbeyondthe
14Inst.
10.1.98:OvidiMedeavidetur
mihiostendere
quantum
Wile
virpraestarepotuerit
si
ingeniosuo imperarequam indulgere
maluisset.
Cf. thecomments
of Leo 148-49,Currie
2702-4,andArcellaschi
261-64.The elderSenecafoundtheplaysomewhat
bookish,
fullof
Vergilian
echoesthatproclaimed
rather
thanconcealedthedebt(Suas. 3.7). ForOvidin the
declamation
hall,see Sen.Con.2.2.8-12.
150fthestudiesdirectly
fostered
byLeo's pioneering
work,Canterremains
mostvaluable
forits comprehensive
examination
of Seneca's debtto rhetorical
practice.Bonner160-67
provides
a usefuloverview.
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SanderM. Goldberg
(901-7)
Tarrant'sgloss is certainly
butitis notcomplete.The wordcolorescan
correct,
refernotonlyto facialcomplexion.
Those schooledin rhetoric,
whichof coursemeansbothSeneca and his
in
would
also
hear
color
its technicalsense,i.e., thekindof plea a
audience,
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277
16For
colorinthemetaphoric
senseofa (good)complexion
putonbehavior,
cf.Quint.Inst.
3.8.44: dandusillis deformibus
color.At 915-16 Atreususes the termmoreliterally
in
tohisvictims'bloodatthebanquet:veteris
referring
huncBacchicolorabsconde.
17SoPorphyrio
glossesthe Thyesteas
precesof Hor.Epod 5.86 as diras exsecrationes
qualibusin tragoediisThyestes
Atreumexsecratur.
At Ars 2.3.91, the cena Thyestaeis
equatedwithtragedy
itself(cf. 186); Cic. Tusc.4.77, quotingAccius,makesThyestes
the
personification
ofira.
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279
forthespectators'keenand enthusiastic
cynicism,
responseto theperformance
oftheadvocatesbeliesthepoet's chargeoftedium.Rhetoricaleducationforged
a commonbondbetweendeclaimersand audiences.Laughter,
shouts,applause,
sharp retorts,and sudden interruptions
were everydayoccurrencesin the
declamationhall. Declamationbeforeadultaudiences-school exerciseswere
somethingelse again-was a boisterousexercise,withcheersto greetevery
effectivegestureand cleverturnof phraseand hecklersreadyto deridethe
unwaryand the inept,a spectatorsportforhighlyengagedspectators.'9
To
watcha Cestiusor Latroperform
was notjust like watchinga mastertakethe
thepiece youyourself
stage,butlikewatchinghimperform
playedlastweekor
had struggled
to playin youryouth.
In recalling that bond, Atreus' allusion to his brother'scolores
encouragesa similartie betweenthe play and its audience.Reading Seneca
rhetorically
requiresus not just to recognizecertainmannerismsand their
sourcesbutto sethistextagainsta background
ofsharedexperiences
thatunites
speakerswho are reachingas faras theycan withspectatorsfullypreparedto
applaudtheirsuccessesand mocktheirfailures.20
The atmosphere
wouldthus
have been livelyand highlycharged.Rhetoricbecomesa sourceof energy,not
tedium.Let us then rejoin Atreusand his audience as theydiscoverwhat
coloresThyestesdoes in factemploy.
It is notthecolorof "unremitting
and passionatehatred."WhenThyestes
appears,he at firstpersistsin thinking
he has shareda banquetofreconciliation,
and he is therefore
perplexedand confusedby his own sense of foreboding
(965-69). This weakness extendsthroughout
the revelationof catastrophe.
Thoughneverat a loss forwords-he willhavethreeemotionalspeechesinthe
scene to come (1006-21, 1035-51, 1068-96)-his words consistently
lack
power. Appeals to heaven are unanswered,and his brotheris of course
unmoved.Atreushimselfspeakscomparatively
little(his one longishspeechat
1052-68 is an aside),buthiswordsareviciousintheirtaunting,
riddlingstyle.
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SanderM. Goldberg
280
THYESTES
reddeiamnatosmihi!
997
ATREUS
ettibiillosnulluseripiet
dies.
reddam,
Expediamplexus,
pater;
venere.natosecquidagnoscistuos?
1004
THYESTES
agnoscofratrem...
frater
hicfratrem
rogo:
sepelireliceat.reddequodcernasstatim
habiturus
rogo,
uri;nihiltegenitor
sedperditurus.
1027
ATREUS
quidquide natistuis
nonsuperest
habes.
superest
habes,quodcumque
THYESTES
utrumne
saevispabulumalitibusiacent,
anpascuntferas?
an beluisscinduntur,
ATREUS
epulatusipsees impianatosdape.
THYESTES
Givemebackmysons!
ATREUS
So I shall:no daywillevertakethemfrom
you.
Father.
Prepare
yourembrace,
yoursons?
Theyhavecome.Do yourecognize
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281
THYESTES
I recognize
mybrother...
... I ask mybrotherthisas a brother:
Allowtheirburial.Return
whatyouwillstraightaway
see
I askyouas a father
burned;
notforsomething
tohave
buttolose.
ATREUS
You havewhatremains
of
yoursons,andwhatdoesnotremain
youhave.
THYESTES
Do theylie exposedas foodforsavagebirds,
oraretheytornapartbybeasts,ornourish
wildthings?
ATREUS
You haveyourself
madean impiousbanquetofyoursons.
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SanderM. Goldberg
andhurled
Itys'bloodyhead
UpjumpedPhilomela
face...
intohisfather's
and
Tereusat once leaps fromthetable,clutchinghis middle.His recognition
andcomplete.
aresimultaneous
reversalof fortune
Seneca doubtlesshad this second example in mind: Atreus' riddle
versionofProcne's.
(quidquide natistuissuperesthabes...) is buta heightened
He separatesthe
verydifferent.
The pace of discoveryin Seneca is nevertheless
of thecrimefromthebanquettheysupplied,and his Thyestes,
pitifulremnants
to see unaidedtheconnection
and ineffective
unlikeTereus,is too slow-witted
he remainsonlya
betweenthem.Like thephantomopponentof a declamation,
foil. Atreusalone controlsthe pace of recognition.He is very much the
andhe is helpedimmeasurably
bythefactthathis victim,againlike
impresario,
the imaginaryadversariesof declamatorydebate,says only what suits his
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