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China
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Qing Story: Quick Version !

Qing Dynasty was created in 1644 by Manchus (Central Asians north of China) who invaded
and ended the Ming Dynasty!
The Qing continued many Chinese traditions such as having a Confucian (technically NeoConfucian) government, civil service exams, and the foreign relations system of seeing foreign
countries as lower than China. Foreign nations had to show respect and reverence to the
emperor by sending diplomats and kowtowing. Thus, when Europeans showed up wanting to
trade, China 1) just considered them another lower foreign nations 2) expected them to show
respect at the Qing Court 3) continued its normal foreign trade policy of highly regulating and
restricting trade!
Foreign trade under the Qing:!
- Qing continued Chinas historical tradition of highly regulating and limiting foreign trade to
a few certain ports and taxing the trade!
- To get trade privileges, trading nations had to kowtow and ask emperor for his
benevolence!
- Europeans are expected to continue this policy. When Portugal first showed up looking to
trade, Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries all kowtowed!
Qing discrimination of native Chinese: Native Chinese could NOT !
- learn Manchu, go to Manchuria without permission or marry Manchu!
- Chinese males had to wear their hair in a ponytail queue !
European Background:!
- Europeans had wanted Asian luxury goods since Han Silk Road times.. In 1498,
Portuguese Vasco de Gama was first to sail intentionally into the Indian Ocean by
rounding the South African Cape of Good Hope. After that, other nations followed and they
all wanted to trade with China!
- Europeans were under a policy called mercantilism (this is very important) which implied
that the richest nations 1) collected gold and silver as much as possible 2) maintained a
positive trade balance (more exports than imports/ selling more than buying)!
- Also, European nations were highly competitive in manufacturing and constantly needed
new markets to sell their goods. All European trading nations wanted to trade more with
China since it offered a large market for European goods and had the Asian luxury goods
that wealthy classes demanded!
At first, Europeans were restricted to trading only at one designated port (Canton System) but
the Chinese only accepted silver payment AND the Chinese sold their goods but didnt care
about European goods. This caused a negative trade deficit and caused Europeans to lose
silver (which hurt mercantilist European nations). !
When Europeans asked China to buy more or open more ports, China refused. The emperor
Qianlong even wrote British King George III a letter in which he stated that China didnt need
European goods and even referred to Europeans and the king as barbarians!
Britain responded by selling opium which it grew in its India colony for Chinese tea. Lots of
people living in Chinese port cities became addicted. Qing govt tried to stop the trade even
destroying open shipments. This led to Opium War!
China lost both Opium Wars because China could not deal with advanced industrialized British
weaponry and because some regional Chinese did not cooperate with the imperial govt. After
the opium war, China was forced to sign the unequal and humiliating Nanjing (Nanking) Treaty.
Other European countries put their own unequal treaties on China!
Because of the military loss, humiliation and attack on Chinese economic and political
sovereignty, some Chinese wanted to reform government, society, economy, industry, etc. This
led to Self Strengthening Movement after the Second Opium War. However the movement
made little real changes mainly because of interference from conservatives. Remember that

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Chinese govt is Confucian which means that they look to past knowledge as best knowledge
whereas Westerners and reformers looked to present and future knowledge. This caused a
cultural and political conflict between Chinese conservatives and progressives (people who
want change)!
More bad news for China. Qing Dynasty also suffered the Taiping Revolt which highly
destabilized Chinese society, economy and govt. !
Westerners increasingly began to carve Chinese ports into spheres of influence and Japan
started to plan its invasion of China. !
Boxers, Chinese nationalists who anti-foreign and anti-Christian, attacked and seized foreign
offices and killed foreign nationals in Beijing. An 8 nation alliance invaded China to stop the
Boxer Revolt and forced another unequal treaty on China, the Boxer Protocol.!
In 1911, Sun Yat Sen and Chinese anti-Qing nationalists ended the Qing Dynasty and the
following year, Sun created the Republic of China. But that revolution and republic failed badly.
Oh well...!
Qing: Terms, ID and Vocabulary!

Qianlong Edicts!
In the late 1700s, the British East India Company wanted to expand trade with China, but the
British realized that China was selling and taking British silver while not buying British goods
and limiting trade to only Macau and Canton.!
British could only trade through licensed merchants called hongs, had to pay many taxes
and fees, and could not directly contact or complain to the govt. !
British sent a diplomatic mission led by Lord George Macartney who visited the Qianlong
emperor as representative of King George III of England. !
Lord Macartney asked Qianlong for an offshore island as a permanent trading post, more
ports opened to trade, and diplomatic representation in Beijing. !
Qianlong sent a letter containing his edicts to King George which basically said:!
- No we are not willing to change our system for you!
- You are all foreign barbarians who should recognize Chinas supremacy!
- Weve been really benevolent and accommodating so far!
- China doesnt need your crap!
- Your Christian God is just whatever and your priests cant communicate with Chinese
people!
Basically, his edicts/letter showed how Qianlong was 1) conservative and unwilling to break
with tradition 2) not realizing how awesome Britain was becoming 3) not scared of Britain!
This led Britain to see China differently (negatively) and start selling opium to make a more
balanced trade!
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Canton Trade System!
Started by Qianlong in 1754, it was designed to regulate and prevent the influence and
pressures of foreign traders in China!
Under the system, foreign trade was highly restricted, regulated and limited to certain ports.!
Foreign traders could only conduct trade through licensed Chinese merchants and
businesses (who were given permission by Qing Govt, called hongs). !
Foreigners were not allowed to make complaints or grievances directly to the capital. They
had to tell hongs who then told local officials who then usually ignored them.!
Govt wasn't really supportive of foreign trade so Qing allowed this as a form of imperial
benevolence!
However, the restrictive nature of the system frustrated European merchants and traders!

Pearl River Estuary (Hong Kong, Macao, Canton)!

This is the general area to which foreign trade was restricted!

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Hong Merchants!
Part of the Canton System!
Foreign traders could only conduct trade through licensed Chinese merchants and
businesses (who were given permission by Qing Govt, called hongs). !
Hongs were responsible for:!
- Checking foreign ship inventories!
- Collecting taxes, duties and tariffs and sending them to government officials!
- Watching and making sure foreign traders did not attempt to trade at other places in
China!
In some cases, hongs would make up random fees and charge the foreigners which made
relations frustrating!

Tea, Silver, Opium, balance of trade!

European markets had high demand for Chinese tea and other Asian luxury goods. Thus,
Europeans bought a lot of stuff from China but China bought little in return which caused a
negative trade balance for Europeans and caused Europeans to lose silver!
During that time, Europeans followed an economic policy called mercantilism which said that
Europeans had to maintain a positive trade balance and amass silver otherwise their
economy would fall ill!
All the British really had to offer was opium which they started to sell after Chinese govt
resisted giving more trade favors to British!

Opium War!
British started selling opium which caused many people in ports to become addicted!
The addiction led to crime, idleness, lack of productivity, social problems: all of these are
against Confucianism!
Qing govt tried to ban the opium sale and sent Lin Zexu to regulate it. !
China lost both Opium Wars in 1840s and 1860s!

Lin Zexu (Lin Tse-Hsu)!

Govt representative who tried to stop opium trade in Chinese ports!
He preached that opium was morally bad and used the moral argument in a letter he wrote to
Queen Victoria of England (Oh and also called her a barbarian)!
Destroyed opium shipments which pissed off British !
After British won opium war, Lin got blamed as a scapegoat and had to go into exile for a few
years!

How did England Win the Opium Wars?!

Better weapons and industrialized technology (steam ships, accurate guns, ship-based
cannon and artillery)!
Control of Yangzi River and occupation of Shanghai!
Complacency of Qing armies and govt which thought theyd win easily!

Treaty of Nanking/Nanjing!
Unequal treaty forced on China after First Opium War which stipulated that:!
- 1 port 5 ports!
- Hong Kong port goes to England!
- British have extraterritorial rights: British who commit crime in China are arrested and
tried by British police and courts and NOt by Chinese!
- British can preach Christianity in ports!
- Reduction in tariffs and duties!
- Most favored nation status for British: any trade agreements or treaties China makes
with other countries are also automatically enjoyed by British!
After this, other westerners and also eventually Japan put their own similar unequal treaties
on China!

Taiping Rebellion/Rise and Fall!

Massive rebellion and the largest civil war in history, it led to 20-30 million casualties,
wrecked Chinese agriculture and economy, and made China really unstable which led to
more imperialism and eventual fall of Qing!
Taiping Rebellion was part religious movement and part progressive/reform movement:!
Religious aspect:!
- Leader Hong Xiuquan preached an apocalyptic Christianity in which he said he was
some Asian Jesus/brother of Jesus and expected his followers to live ascetic, nonsexual lives and devote themselves to the movement!
Progressive/liberal aspect: Despite the religious aspect, Taiping rebels revolted because
they wanted:!
- liberal constitution and universal suffrage, end to Confucian bureaucracy, civil service
exam!
- end to foot binding and extreme patriarchal traditions!
- public education and schooling, and land distribution for peasantry!
- end of foreign rule and restoration of native Chinese rule (remember Qing were foreign
Manchus) and end to native discrimination laws!
- stronger and westernized industry and military since they felt that west was threatening
China and that Qing had humiliated China through unequal treaties!
Ultimately Qing put down the revolt but at great cost. Whole crap load of people died and it
heavily destabilized China by creating more factionalism in government, more confusion
over the path of reform (progressive/change vs conservative/tradition), letting Westerners
take advantage of the chaos, making more people oppose Qing government, nearly
bankrupting Qing treasury etc!

Hong Xiuquan!
Leader Hong Xiuquan preached an apocalyptic Christianity in which he said he was some
Asian Jesus/brother of Jesus and expected his followers to live ascetic, non-sexual lives and
devote themselves to the movement!
Even though he expected his followers to live ascetic lives he himself had many wives and
lot of wealth !

Self Strengthening Movement!

After Second Opium War, government started to get REALLY concerned and wanted to
make reforms that would make China strong enough to resist imperialism!
Self Strengthening Movement was in 1860s and 1870s. Its goals were to 1) make stronger
military 2) stronger economy thats it. no change to government!
Led by Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang!
Positive Changes:!
- Some improvements to steel and iron production, weapons production, organization of
Qing army, etc!
Unfortunately, the Self Strengthening Movement made little real changes BECAUSE:!
- Leaders were conflicted and undecided about how much reform to do vs. how much
tradition they wanted to give up!
- Some tried to blend both Confucianism and modern techniques which were not
compatible. Their motto was Eastern learning at the base, western learning in practice
but these different views did not combine well!
- It was short sighted in that China was too big to make such a large change!
- Regional leaders often did not want to cooperate!
- Biggest reason: not everyone in top government supported it. Empress Dowager Cixi
was conservative and even though she hated foreigners, she was not willing to give up
old, Confucian traditional stuff.. So she halted a lot of the programs. !
One
thing
you should know is that the Movement was NOT anti-government but was started

by the government to make Qing stronger!

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Zeng Guofan!
Reformer who began the Self-Strengthening Movement along with Li Hongzhang!
Also was the major general who crushed the Taiping Rebellion!

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Emperor Tongzhi!
Qing emperor (guy before Guangxu) who wanted to modernise China through the Tongzhi
Restoration and reforms which were to continue the Self-Strengthening Movement!
Failed because of conservative backlash and Cixi!

Emperor Guangxu!
Unlike Cixi, Guangxu (Cixis nephew) wanted progressive reforms!
Started the Hundred Days Movement in which he wanted to expand the previous SelfStrengthening programs even further.!
He was worried that if China didnt modernize, not only Westerners but also Japan would
invade!
Oh by the way, his aunt was that crazy conservative Cixi.. Ultimately, he was arrested by
Cixi and thrown into jail.!

Yan Fu!
Chinese scholar who thought that Chinese and Western learning could not be used in
combination unlike some Self Strengthening people who wanted mixed!
He thought they had to be separate or that China had to completely end traditional if it
wanted to modernize but not use both!
Despite Yan Fus interest in western science and philosophy, he was a conservative who
wanted Yuan Shikai to become emperor and restore monarchy!

Liang Qichao!
Reformer who wanted to end Chinas traditions, corruption, inefficiency etc!
He supported a constitutional monarchy as in Britain and also supported much more
westernized and modernized reform and also supported Guangxu Emperors Hundred Days
Reform thus he became an enemy of Cixi and had to run away from China!
He traveled a lot in the United States and Britain and wrote the document (which some of
you got) in which he criticizes Chinas backwardness!
He met up with Sun Yat Sen and became a supporter of Xinhai and Republic!

Kang Youwei!
Kang Youwei was the teacher of Liang Qichao and thus, they both believe in similar ideas
and are hated by Cixi!
Kang thought that Confucius was a reformer and thus thought China should always be
reforming!
In his document, he writes that Chinas reliance on the past is killing China since its
antiquated and impractical!

Feng Guifen!
One of the architects of the Self Strengthening Movement!
Feng argued for self-strengthening and industrialization by borrowing western technology
and military systems BUT he also wanted to keep Neo-Confucian standards. So he wanted
mixed reforms which adhered to that Western learning in practice, Chinese learning at the
base motto!

Chu Chengbo!
Reformer during late Qing who was very concerned about Japans rising strengths and its
attempts to invade and control China during the 1st Sino-Japanese War!
He questioned the quality of reforms and advised that reforms could only work if the proper
people (educated, progressive and moral) were put in charge!

Boxer Rebellion/Beliefs and goals of the Boxers!

Boxers were the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious fists, a martial arts and
nationalist group!
Boxers were called Boxers because their martial arts style resembled western boxing !
They hated foreigners and Christianity because to them, Christianity was a barbarian
religion was symbolic of western imperialism of China. Remember how Nanjing Treaty
allowed Christian missionary activity - by late 19th century, Christians were like
everywhere...!

Siege of Peking Legations!

The Peking Legations was a location within Peking (Beijing - who does your teacher use
1970s words?) where they had all foreign embassies, offices, missions and residents!
Boxers went in and took siege of the legations, murdered many Christians as well as
innocent women and children, burned stuff, just went crazy!
Boxers used a combination of modern + magic: gunpowder weapons as well as martial arts
which they thought would make them impervious to western bullets!

Result of the Boxer Rebellion!

Eight Nation Alliance composed of US, UK, Austria-Hungary, Japan, Italy, Russia, Germany
and France did a combined invasion to defeat Boxers!
Also, the 8 Nation Alliance looted Chinese stores, stole from Chinese residences, murdered,
raped hundreds of Chinese women which caused thousands more to commit suicide out of
fear of rape, defouled Chinese historical treasures!
Also, China was forced to sign another unequal treaty the Boxer Protocol, which stipulated
that:!
- China had to pay debt and indemnity split up among the alliance nations!
- China had to destroy forts!
- China could not import or produce arms or ammunition!
- China had to allow nations complete control over the Legations area!
- Boxers or government officials found guilty of helping the rebellion were imprisoned or
executed!
- China had to ban Chinese membership in anti-foreign societies!
The rebellion basically was the end of any real Chinese sovereignty and it expedited
revolution which would happen like 10 years later!

Xinhai Revolution!
Revolution in 1911 which ended the Qing Empire!
Next year in 1912 one of the revolutionary leaders Sun Yat Sen (Sun Yixian) would proclaim
a Chinese Republic!
Emperor Puyi was forced the abdicate!
Like everything in Chinese history of 19th-early 20th, Xinhai was a big disaster Read on
why..!

Sun Yat Sen!

Dr. Sun Yat Sen was a Chinese nationalist, progressive, liberal and anti-Qing revolutionary
who founded the Republic of China after the 1911 Xinhai!
Sun had Three Principles for China which were basically: universal suffrage, end to
imperialism, economic reform, and unification of all groups living in China!
Sun wanted to create a liberal and modern system of government and society. Also got help
from BOTH democratic countries and from Communist Russia in starting his new
government which he called the Guomindang (Kuomintang)!
Problems:!
- Only controlled a few cities and NOt the majority of the country!
- The GMD was divided between those who want democracy and capitalism vs those
who want communism!

- He was only President for the first year; after that the President was Yuan shikai who

was untrustworthy and eventually ended the revolution and tried to become a new
emperor!
- Warlords in regional China refused to give up power!
SYS eventually was sent into exile!

Yuan Shikai!
General and military leader during Qing; During the Revolution he was the Second President
of the Provisional Government after Sun; overall untrustworthy and backstabbing asshole!
Increasingly tried to gain more power in government!
Eventually dissolved the new republic's government !
Gave military power to warlords in China's provinces thus decentralizing China!
Brought back old Confucian customs and traditions in order to prepare China for his
declaring himself a new emperor.!
After his declaration of being emperor, liberals, Westerners and basically his own supporters
all turned their back on him !
Yuan Shikai's selfishness was one of the major reasons for the failure of the Xinhai
Revolution and sent China into decades of chaos which made it easier for Japan to invade in
1930s!

Japan
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Tokugawa Shogunate!

Between 1467 and 1603, Japan was involved in a Warring States Period (known as Sengoku
during which Japan was under a powerless figurehead ruler controlled by a military dictator
called the shogun. However, the shogun did not control all of Japan, and several powerful
families fought each other making Japan decentralized for 2 centuries!
Ultimately, the Warring States ended when the Tokugawa family and its leader Ieyasu defeated
his rivals at the Battle of Sekigahara and unified much (not all) of Japan!
Tokugawa Politics:!
- The emperor was a figurehead who was controlled by a military dictator called the shogun!
- The Tokugawa family made all major decisions from its capital at Edo while the emperor
stayed in the palace at Kyoto!
- The major problem that the shogun faced was that he still did not control all parts of Japan
where daimyo nobles had strong control over regional feudal areas. !
- Throughout 16th - 19th centuries, the shogun increasingly controlled more of the daimyo
by:!

forcing the daimyo to live at Edo while his family stayed at the home region and then
forcing the daimyos family to live at Edo while the daimyo stayed in his home area
(alternate residence policy)!

taxing the daimyo and setting rice prices in a way that could economically hurt
daimyo!

declaring war on daimyo, destroying daimyo castles, and creating a large samurai
army!

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 Tokugawa Society:!
- Daimyo:!

Noble who were heads of large and powerful families!

Daimyo lived in large fortress-like castles and controlled most of the peasant labor in
an area, thus dominating the local economy!

Daimyo had their own armies and controlled most regional production!
- The rest of Japanese society was based on a Confucian-inspired hierarchy:!

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Tokugawa Commerce and Economics:!

- Tokugawa Japan was engaged in trade with China and Korea and sometimes Southeast
Asia throughout most of its history, but as in China, the trade was regulated and limited!
- In the 16th century, Portuguese arrived and were followed by other Europeans!
- The Asian countries and Europeans were interested in trade with Japan since it offered
similar goods to China and more importantly, since Japan was the #2 source of silver (after
Spanish New World)!
- Within Tokugawa Japan, domestic trade continued to rise as did population (in thanks to
new crops from Americas)!
- Trade with foreigners was limited to Nagasaki Bay, and later, to Dejima Island within the
harbour!
Tokugawa Foreign Relations:!
- In the 1630s, Tokugawa decided to first expel Portuguese priests and then foreigners
altogether through its Exclusion Edicts!
- The foreigners were excluded since Christianity was having too great an influence in
Japan, and daimyo, especially those who converted, were having greater access to
European weapons and other goods. But the weapons worried the shogun!
- Furthermore, the monotheism of Christianity was a threat to divinity of the emperor under
Shinto tradition!
- Nonetheless, trade was still allowed for Chinese, Koreans and Dutch although it was still
very limited. !
- Trade with Dutch was allowed since (1) Dutch didnt care so much about spreading
Christianity as did the Portuguese (2) Japanese were interested in Dutch technology!

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Meiji Restoration!

In 1850s, Tokugawa was forced to reopen to the world when Americans arrived led by
Commodore Matthew Perry who carried letters from American Presidents. Perry demanded
trade with Japan and then said he would return for a response!
When Perry returned in his black ships, Tokugawa officials did not concede to all American
demands so Perry turned to military intimidation.!
Shogunate officials then relented and signed true Treaty of Kanagawa which was an unequal
treaty similar to the Nanjing Treaty.!
1868 Radicals response!
- Many in Japan were shocked by the Treaty and felt that the shogun had humiliated and
dishonoured Japan. Furthermore, they were afraid that same thing that happened to China
would happen to Japan!
- Reformers pursued policies of expelling the barbarians and revering the emperor!
- In 1868, they forced the shogun to abdicate and dissolved the shogunate while creating a
new government termed Meiji (bright). They then decided rather than expel the
foreigners, they would welcome and imitate them. !
- They also placed the emperor at the head of the new government!
- rich country, strong military became the most famous slogan of the early Meiji period.!
Meiji Reforms:!
- Political!

Japan became a constitutional monarchy in which the emperor shared power with a
legislative body called the Diet!

Japan created a new constitution based on Western liberal ideas but placed strong
emphasis on military!

The shogunate was dissolved!

Daimyo were invited to join the Diet or be destroyed!

Traditional daimyo lands were replaced by government prefectures whose

boundaries cut through former daimyo lands!

Unlike China, support for the reform was top down from emperor to lower
government!
- Economic!

Meiji put strong emphasis on western education, industrialization, modern

infrastructure and trade!

Westerners were invited to demonstrate ideas and Japanese exchange students

were sent to Britain, Prussia/Germany and the United States!

High taxes were placed on peasants to pay for the new infrastructure and
industrialization!

By 1880, Japan had strong manufacturing, steel, textile factories, transportation and
communication networks!

Unlike China, Japan was willing to listen completely to western ideas without trying
to mix them with traditional ideas!
- Cultural!

The social hierarchy system (shown above) was abolished!

Japan did away with as much of its traditional culture as possible with the exception
of keeping elements of Confucian to make sure peasants stayed loyal to the new
government and Shinto to emphasize the status of the emperor!

All government and businessmen were required to wear Western clothing!

However, little improvement was made for women although they could work in
factories!
- Military!

Meiji created a new modern military based on meritocracy !

All boys were required to join the army which led to a new patriotism and nationalism!

Samurai soldiers were outlawed as were their weapons and clothing!

Some samurai and daimyo revolted but were put down at the Satsuma battle by
European trained Meiji armies!

Since Japan had little natural resources, Japans army also prepared for imperialism!
Also, Japan still did not trust the west and prepared its military for future encounters!
- Diplomatic!

Japan opened diplomatic relations with all nations, permanently ending the closed
country policy!

Japan began to see itself as an Asian nation equal to Western nations!

Japan also began a hostile policy of imperialism against other East Asian nations
and forced unequal treaties on Korea and China!
Relationship with Germany: !
- Meiji copied Germany in many ways such as its constitution, its government style, its
military and its industrialization!
- Reason for this was that Prussia (early Germany) went through a very quick process of
industrialization, unification and raising a powerful army between 1850 and 1871. !
- Japan also needed to modernise and become dominant in a very short period of time so
Germany seemed a good model to follow!
- Also, Germany had a similar government of king sharing power with a legislative body
while placing strong emphasis on military!
Japanese imperialism and foreign conflicts:!
- Medieval attempts to invade China and Korea:!

Japan had been attempting to invade China and Korea since the late 1500s!
- Response to Kapsin Coup (1884):!

With the help of a German geopolitical adviser, Japanese planners declared Korea
politically unstable and wracked by conflict that pitted pro-Chinese against proJapanese factions and was a dagger pointing at the heart of Japan.!

When, in 1884, China sent troops to Korea to quell a pro-Japanese domestic

uprising, fear that Japan was not yet militarily prepared for war persuaded the Meiji
leaders to work out a negotiated solution with China: Japan and China both agree to
withdraw troops from Korea and become the co-protector of Korea in 1885!
- Response to Korean Tonghak Uprising (1894):!

Ten years later, when renewed turmoil in Korea again raised the prospect of Chinese
intervention, the Japanese were stronger and not amenable to another negotiated
solution.

Japan used the uprising as a pretext to meddle in Korean government and attempt
to push China out of interference in Korea!
- Sino-Japanese War (1895):!

War with China came when the Japanese poured thousands of troops into Korea!

The war demonstrated the superiority of Japanese tactics and training as a result of
the adoption of a Western-style military. !

The Imperial Japanese Army and navy were able to inflict a string of defeats on the
Chinese through foresight, endurance, strategy and power of organization. The
victory raised Japanese prestige worldwide and established Japan as the dominant
power in Asia!

The war also showed that Qing reforms had basically all failed!

Impacts of the war included: 1) Korea declared itself independent of China 2) China
was out of Korea for good 3) Japan sponsored Gabo/Kabo Reforms 4) Japan and
Russia both lay claim to Korea and had increased tensions that led to Russo
Japanese War!
- Russo-Japanese War:!

Grew out of Japanese and Russian rivalries and claims over Korea and Manchuria!

Russia had been seeking a warm water port and expansion into Manchuria since the
1600s.!

From the end of the first Sino Japanese War, negotiations between Russia and
Japan had proved impractical. Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in
Manchuria in exchange for recognition of Korea as a Japanese sphere of influence.
Russia refused this, and demanded that Korea north of the 39th parallel be a neutral
buffer zone between Russia and Japan. !

The Japanese government perceived a Russian threat to its strategic interests and
chose to go to war. After the negotiations had broken down in 1904, the Japanese
Navy opened hostilities by attacking the Russian eastern fleet at Port Arthur, a naval
base in the Liaotung province leased to Russia by China.!

Treaty of Portsmouth: Negotiated by the United States, Russia recognized Korea as

part of the Japanese sphere of influence, agreed to evacuate Manchuria and gave
Japan its 25-year leasehold rights to Port Arthur, including the naval base and the
peninsula around it, and ceded the southern half of the Sakhalin Islands to Japan!
- Taft Katsura Treaty and Korean annexation (1905-1910): Secret treaty in which US
recognized Japans sphere of influence in Korea and Japan recognized US sphere of
influence over Philippines. Led to protectorate status in 1905 and later annexation of
Korea in 1910!

Korea
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Korea Until 1800s!

Until the 1800s, Korea had primarily been for the most part autonomous although it was within
Chinas tributary system and heavily influenced by China culturally, politically, socially and
economically.!
Influences of China on Korea:!
- Chinese writing used in government and by nobles!
- Chinese style court system used by royalty!
- Chinese Confucianism becomes a major part of Korean society and government!
- Chinese Buddhism became a major influence on some Korean governments and on
society!
- Confucian social hierarchy!
Koryo/Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392)!
- Officially Buddhist government!
- Power suffered under pressure from Mongols and Yuan Dynasty China (Mongol China)!
Chosun/Joseon Dynasty (1392-1897)!
- Last Korean dynasty and officially Confucian!
- During its reign, Joseon consolidated its effective rule over the territory of current Korea,
encouraged the entrenchment of Korean Confucian ideals and doctrines in Korean society,
imported and adapted Chinese culture, and saw the height of classical Korean culture,
trade, science, literature, and technology.!
- King Sejong created vernacular alphabet in 1443!
- The top of non-royal society was dominated by yangban: the traditional ruling class of
nobles composed of civil servants and military officers and were similar in nature to the
Chinese scholar gentry. Yangban titles were not conferred hereditarily but came by
passing the gwageo Confucian exam and the family had to keep passing the test within
three generations.!
Earliest Encounters!
- 1593-1595 Father Gregorio de Cespedes : first priest landed on Korea, wrote about what
Korea was like (first contact)

- 1628 and 1653 Shipwrecked Dutch sailors : Hendrik Hamel writes about his experience
that introduced Korea to westerners!
Influx of Catholicism and Western Learning!
- 1608 Writings by Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci were brought back from Beijing by Korean
envoys. !
- By 1620, such Western Learning often found popularity among yangban who had fallen
out of favor with the royal court

- The Catholic movement in Korea was launched in 1784 with the organization of the first

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Catholic church in Seoul by Yi Sung-hun and his fellow converts. The conversion of
Koreans to Catholicism first took place among the declass yangban, but it soon became
popular with the commoners and the low- born.

- The first French missionary to Korea selected three Korean youths and sent them to
Macao in 1836 for theological training at a seminary

- In 1785 the Korean government proscribed Catholicism as heterodoxy through a special
royal edict and continued to persecute its followers. But despite such persecution, the
Catholic community in Korea continued to expand and by 1865 had 23,000 converts.
Taewon'gun ("Prince of the Great Court") who hated foreigners then purged them from
1866 to 1867. Some 8,000 Korean converts and nine French missionaries are said to have
been killed as a result of this persecution.!
Korea in the 19th Century!

Isolation!
- Korea maintained an isolationist policy and kept its land borders and seacoasts sealed
until 1876.!
- In 1860, Russia acquired land that bordered Korea which further reinforced Korea's
exclusionist tendencies.!
- The Taewon'gun's mistrust and dislike of foreigners were clearly evident in his 1866 order
to burn down an American merchant schooner, the General Sherman, which had dared to
sail into the Taedong River without the consent of Korean authorities. !
- Kanghwa Island incidents:!

A French naval squadron invaded Kanghwa Island at the estuary of the Han River in
1866, intending to chastise the Korean government for its persecution of the French
missionaries. !

In 1871, the Taewon'gun similarly stopped an American naval expedition to

Kanghwa Island. !
Endings of Isolation!
- Korea's stance toward the outside world changed after-December 1873 when the
Taewon'gun relinquished control to his son, King Kojong, an enlightened but weak-willed
monarch who relied heavily on the advice of Queen Min (Empress Myeongsong). !
- In February 1876, under the threat of Japanese gunboat diplomacy, Kojong's government
reluctantly signed the Treaty of Kanghwa with Japan. This was the first modern unequal
treaty that Korea entered into with an imperialist power.!
Attempts at Self-Strengthening Reforms!
- After 1880, King Kojong tried to implement reforms for the "self-strengthening" and
"enlightenment" of the country. !
- Korean-American Amity Treaty of 1882: Kojong developed a keen interest in establishing
diplomatic ties with the United States, an ideal potential ally which could help fend off the
growing Russian threat to the Korean Peninsula. These negotiations resulted in the
Korean-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce, which was consummated at Incheon
May 1882. This was Korea's first treaty with a Western power, and it was followed by
subsequent treaties with Great Britain and Germany in 1883, Italy and Russia in 1884,
France in 1886, Austria-Hungary in 1892 and Denmark in 1902. Korea, as the last East
Asian country to be opened to the West, thus entered into the realm of modern diplomacy.!
- A group of some thirty Koreans visited Tokyo in 1876 to learn about Japan's
Westernization efforts. !
- In 1881, the Korean government dispatched another group consisting of some sixty
representatives to study Japan's political structure.!
- Although the string of unequal treaties Korea signed with Japan and the Western powers
did NOT bring tangible diplomatic or economic benefits to the Joseon dynasty, the influx of
Western ideas and goods after the country's opening had a revolutionary impact on
Korean life such as opening Christian schools like Paejae [Boys'] School and the Ewha
[Girls'] School. As a result, South Korea is today the leading Protestant nation in East Asia.!

 Conservative Reaction Against Foreign Influence: !

- Soldiers' Riot of 1882:!

a violent military uprising of conservative soldiers who felt threatened by the influx of
foreign practices and political norms. !

Qing China used the incident as an excuse to intervene in Korean affairs militantly
for the first time since 1636. !

China dispatched a large-scale expedition to restore order to Seoul, suppressed the

riot, and then kidnapped the Taewon'gun, their suspected ringleader, to China. !

China then unilaterally forced an unequal trade agreement on Korea

- Kapsin Political Turbulence (Gapsin Coup) of 1884!

the unprecedented Chinese intervention in Korean affairs prompted members of the

Enlightenment Party, a nascent political party of pro-Japanese and pro-American
inclination, to stage a coup d'tat against the Chinese-dominated regime. !

The coup leaders had obtained a verbal promise of support from the Japanese
minister in Seoul - but Japan didnt show up. !

When, in 1884, China sent troops to Korea to quell a pro-Japanese domestic

uprising, fear that Japan was not yet militarily prepared for war persuaded the Meiji
leaders to work out a negotiated solution with China: Japan and China both agree to
withdraw troops from Korea and become the co-protector of Korea in 1885!
Tonghak Peasant Uprising 1894: !
- Some Confucian scholar dude named Choe Jeu formulated the Donghak ("Eastern
Learning") ideology in the 1860s to help ease the lot of the farmers suffering from abject
poverty and exploitation, as well as to restore political and social stability. His ideas rapidly
gained broad acceptance among the peasantry. His teachings were systematised and
compiled as a message of salvation to farmers in distress (and later became a kind of
religious movement).!
- The Tonghak Peasant Uprising provided an opportunity for the Japanese to involve
themselves once again in the affairs of Korea. Under the pretext of preserving order in
Korea, the Japanese government sent a military expedition to Korea. This action provoked
the Chinese to defend their interests in Korea and led to the Sino Japanese War!
Gabo/Kabo Reforms (1894):!
- A pro-Japanese modernization movement, known as the Kabo Reforms, was initiated
during the war by Korean officials receptive to modern ideas. !
- With Japanese backing, the Korean reformers attempted to make major institutional
changes that were regarded as crucial for Korea's survival in the modern world of great
power imperialism. !
- Changes:!

The traditional Chinese-style bureaucratic system was discarded, and the structure
of government was reorganized along the Western and Japanese models. !

The yangban superiority over the commoners was abolished, together with the
institution of slavery. !

Modern military and police systems were instituted to bolster the authority of the
newly organized central government. !

Monetary and taxation systems were modeled after their Western equivalents, and a
modern judicial system was introduced. !

The traditional Confucian academies whose primary purpose had been to prepare
students for the Chinese-style government examinations were replaced with modern
educational institutions.!
Empire of Korea:!
- A result of the Sino Japanese War was that Korea declared itself independent of China
and that China was out of Korea for good!
- Korean king and queen tried to turn to Russia for help but Japanese officials murdered
Queen Min and forced Kojong to run away to Russian delegation!
- King Kojong decided to declare Korea an empire in 1897, but the title was in name only
for the monarch had lost what little direction he had had, surrounded as he was by a
coterie of inflexible and conservative officials with no clear vision for Korea.!

 Independence Club!
- In frustration of Kojong being an idiot, a group of reform-minded officials and intellectuals
in Seoul had organized an incipient political party, called the Independence club, in April
1896. Its leader was S0 Chae-p'il (Philip Jaisohn), a former member of the unsuccessful
Kapsin coup and a medical doctor who had been educated in the United States.!
- The Independence Club and its members became the voice of reform in Korean society
and demanded that Emperor Kojong implement changes in government similar to those
outlined in the Kabo Reforms. !
- The club also clamored for the establishment of a national assembly that would launch
Korea's transformation into a constitutional monarchy. Although initially tolerant, Kojong
and his entourage began to feel increasingly threatened by the activities of the group, and
in December 1898, the emperor disbanded the club, mobilizing soldiers and mobsters and
strong-arming the demonstrators. This proved to be self-defeating because in destroying
the club, the emperor had unwittingly killed the only political body capable of rejuvenating
the declining Choson Dynasty. !
Made protectorate of Japan in 1905 and annexed as colony by 10. Ugh