Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ATGB2513
Learning Outcome
Upon completion of this course, students should
be able: To differentiate the properties and behaviour
of various types of soil
To interpret a soil report
To explain various methods of dewatering
To discuss the various methods of soil testing
Module 6
Testing, Measurement and Evaluation
Reference Text
Library ref:
624.151 36 LIU
Module 1
Soil Materials
Synonym
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
USCS Unified Soil Classification System
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BS British Standards
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
Soil Materials
Soil and Soil Engineering
To a Pedologist Soil is the substance existing on
earths surface, which grows and develop plant life
To a Geologist Soil is the material in the relative
thin surface zone within which roots occur and all
the rest of the crust is grouped under the term ROCK
irrespective of hardness
To an Engineer Soil is the un-aggregated deposits of
mineral and/or organic particles or fragment
covering large portion of the earths crust
9
Soil Materials
Soil and Soil Engineering
Soil Mechanics is one of the youngest disciplines of
Civil Engineering involving study of soil, its behavior
and application as engineering material
Geotechnical Engineering Is a broader term for Soil
Mechanics
10
SOIL
Geologic definition: Loose surface of the
earth as distinguished from solid bedrock;
support of plant life not required.
Traditional definition: Material which
nourishes and supports growing plants;
includes rocks, water, snow, air.
Component definition: Mixture of mineral
matter, organic matter, water, and air.
11
Engineering Soils
Soil Types
Description
Feel
Size (mm)
Characterization
Coarse-grained soils
Fine-grained soils
Silt
Clay
Slight Grittiness
Smooth
Particle size
< 0.002
13
Basic Geology
Knowledge of geology is important for practice of geotechnical
engineering;
The earths surface (lithosphere) is fractured into about 20 mobile plates.
Interaction of these plates causes volcanic activities and earthquakes;
The three groups of rocks are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed from magma (molten rock materials) emitted
from volcanoes that have cooled and solidified. Sedimentary rocks are
formed from sediments, animals and plant materials that are deposited in
water or on land on the earths surface and then subjected to pressures
and heat. Metamorphic rocks are formed deep within the earths crust
from the transformation of igneous and sedimentary rocks into denser
rocks;
Sedimentary rocks are of particular importance to geotechnical engineers
because they cover about 75% of the earths crust surface area; and
Rock masses are inhomogeneous and discontinuous.
14
Categories of rock
Igneous rock solidification of molten material; by
intrusion or extrusion to earth surface
Sedimentary rock deposition, under water,
disaggregation, preexisting
Metamorphic rock igneous or sedimentary rock,
change or metamorphose under heat and
pressure
15
16
Coarse soil
Aggregate/gravel
Sand
Retained the same composition of parent rock
18
Moisture
Dry, saturated (fully and partially)
10
Soil Materials
Types of soils
a) Organic b) Residual c) Alluvial d) Colluvial
a) Organic soil is a mixture of mineral and organic material.
Usually dark in colour and with an odour.
b) Residual soil is weathered remains of rock after going
through the transportation process.
c) Alluvial soil is material (sand and gravel) deposited by
streams and rivers.
d) Colluvial soil is material transported and deposited by gravity
like landslides.
21
11
23
24
12
Overburden pressure
Pressure/stress caused by weight of all material; more
dense for soil located deeper
Normal consolidation
Usually clay, subjected to pressure imposed by the
overburden since its formation; a soil which current state
corresponds to the maximum consolidation pressure
Over consolidation
Usually clay, subjected to access and extreme pressure
besides from the overburden since formation; a soil which
have present day overburden pressure less than the
highest historic consolidation pressure
26
13
27
14
State of soil
Density, relative density, water content
Fabric of soil
Homogeneity or layer sequences
29
Soil Color
Indicator of different soil types
Indicator of certain physical and chemical
characteristics
Due to humus content and chemical nature
of the iron compounds present in the soil
30
15
Chemical Formula
Color
Ferrous oxide
FeO
Gray
Ferric oxide
(Hematite)
Fe2O3
Red
2Fe2O3 3H2O
Yellow
31
16
Field Classification
Fine soil (British Classification)
33
Field Classification
Compactness (field strength)
Hand spade, wooden peg
Loose, dense and slightly cemented
34
17
Field Classification
Cohesion, plasticity and consistency
Remove particles > 2.0mm; squeeze handful; descript
feeling; soft, firm, hard and crumbly
35
Textural classification
Assign descriptive name; e.g. clayey sand
Assign particle size limits to soil fraction and %
compositions corresponding to the descriptive
names
36
18
37
19
39
Sieve Analysis
A sieve analysis is used to determine the grain size
distribution of coarse-grained soils
The particle size distribution plot is used to delineate
the different soil textures (percentage of gravel,
sand, silt, and clay) in a soil.
For fine-grained soils, a hydrometer analysis is used
to find the particle size distribution
40
20
Soil Description
42
21
Soil Description
Sand & gravel can further described as well graded, poorly graded, uniform or gapgraded
Well graded; if there is no excess of particles in any size range and if no
intermediate sizes are lacking; smooth concave distribution curve
Poorly graded; if high proportion of particles have sizes within narrow limits;
uniform graded
Poorly graded; if particles of both large and small sizes are present but
relatively low proportion of particles of intermediate particle; gap graded
In the case of gravels, particle shape (angular, sub angular, sub rounded, rounded,
flat, elongated) & texture (rough, smooth, polished) can be described
Particle composition can also be described; sandstone in gravel and quartz in sand;
Table 1.1
Firmless or strength of in-situ soil description and can also be assessed by means
of tests ; Table 1.2
Description of soil structure can also be established; Table 1.3
Example of soil description;
Dense, reddish-brown, sub angular, well graded, gravelly SAND
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22
46
23
48
24
F = FINES
M = SILT
C = CLAY
Organic soils
Pt = PEAT
Secondary Letters
W = well graded
P = poorly graded
Pu = uniform
Pg = gap graded
L = low plasticity (wL < 35)
I = intermediate plasticity(wL : 35-50)
H = high plasticity(wL :50-70)
V = very high plasticity(wL : 70-90)
E = extremely high plasticity(wL >90)
O = organic
50
25
51
Classification Systems vary from country to country, but most are based on
the US system (The Unified Soil Classification System, USCS), or the
British Standard Soil Classification System. The Australian Standard Soil
Classification System is similar to the British Standard, but the USCS is
widely used in Australia and the SE Asia region.
USCS with primary and secondary descriptive letter and meaning is shown
in Table 1.6.
USCS with primary and secondary descriptive letter and laboratory
classification criteria is shown in Table 1.7
The associated Plasticity Chart should be used as shown in Figure 1.8
In the USCS system, the divisions are slightly different, but given the wide
range of particle sizes, these differences are not important (for example, in
the BS system, fines includes silt and clay, and is defined as being < 60
m, but in the USCS, fines is < 75m). Australia and the SE Asia region.
52
26
Table 1.6 Group Symbols with Primary and Secondary Descriptive Letters
(Unified Soil Classification System)
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1 CC 3
GW
CC < 1 or CC > 3
GP
Well-graded gravel
Well-graded gravel with sand
Poorly-graged gravel
Poorly-graded gravel with sand
Silty gravel
Silty gravel with sand
Clayey gravel
Clayey grvel with sand
Silty, clayey gravel
Silty, clayey gravel with sand
Well-graded sand
Well-graded sand with gravel
Poorly-graded sand
Poorly- graded sand with gravel
Silty sand
Silty sand with gravel
Clayey sand
Clayey sand with gravel
Silty, clayey sand
Silty, clayey sand with gravel
CU < 4
CU 4
Gravel
% sand < % gravel
50% or more of
coarse fraction
retained on the
4.75 mm (#4)
sieve
CourseGrained
Soils
More than
50%
retained on
the 0.075
mm (#200)
sieve
ML or MH
GW-GM
GW-GC
ML or MH
GP-GM
GP-GC
ML or MH
GM
CL or CH
GC
CL-ML
GC-GM
1 CC 3
CC < 1 or CC > 3
CU < 4
CU 6
< 5% pass #200
1 CC 3
SW
CC < 1 or CC > 3
SP
CU < 6
CU 6
Sand
% sand % gravel
50% or more of
coarse fraction
passes the 4.75
mm (#4) sieve
ML or MH
SW-SM
SW-SC
ML or MH
SP-SM
SP-SC
ML or MH
SM
CL or CH
SC
CL-ML
SC-SM
1 CC 3
CC < 1 or CC > 3
CU < 6
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27
CL -ML
More than
50% passes
the 0.075 mm
(#200) sieve
ML
% sand % gravel
% sand < % gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% sand
15% sand
Lean clay
Lean clay with sand
Lean clay with gravel
Sandy lean clay
Sandy lean clay with gravel
Gravelly lean clay
Gravelly lean clay with sand
% sand % gravel
% sand < % gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% sand
15% sand
Silty clay
Silty clay with sand
Silty clay with gravel
Sandy silty clay
Sandy silty clay with gravel
Gravell silty clay
Gravelly silty clay with sand
% sand % gravel
% sand < % gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% sand
15% sand
Silt
Silt with sand
Silt with gravel
Sandy silt
Sandy silt with gravel
Gravelly silt
Gravelly silt with sand
% sand % gravel
% sand < % gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% sand
15% sand
Fat clay
Fat clay with sand
Fat clay with gravel
Sandy fat clay
Sandy fat clay with gravel
Gravelly fat clay
Gravelly fat clay with sand
% sand % gravel
% sand < % gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% sand
15% sand
Elastic silt
Elastic silt with sand
Elastic silt with gravel
Sandy elastic silt
Sandy elastic silt with gravel
Gravelly elastic silt
Gravelly elastic sitl with sand
55
Coduto, D.P., Yeung, R.M. and Kitch, W.A. 2011. Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices . 2nd edn. USA: Pearson(Adapted from ASTM D2487).
28
Mineral grain
Separate particles of mineral eg sand (quartz)
Size from 2mm to clay (1m)
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29
Coarse grain
Fine grain
30
BOULDERS
> 200 mm
COBBLES
60 - 200 mm
G
GRAVEL
Coarse
soils
S
SAND
Fine
soils
M
SILT
C CLAY
coarse
20 - 60 mm
medium
6 - 20 mm
fine
2 - 6 mm
coarse
0.6 - 2.0 mm
medium
0.2 - 0.6 mm
fine
0.06 - 0.2 mm
coarse
0.02 - 0.06 mm
medium
0.006 - 0.02 mm
fine
0.002 - 0.006 mm
< 0.002 mm
61
Gravel fraction(BSCS)
The fraction of a soil composed of particles between the sizes
of 60 mm and 2 mm. The gravel fraction is subdivided as
follows:
Coarse gravel 60 mm to 20 mm
Medium gravel 20 mm to 6 mm
Fine gravel 6 mm to 2 mm
Sand fraction(BSCS)
The fraction of a soil composed of particles between the sizes
of 2.0 mm and 0.06 mm. The sand fraction is subdivided as
follows:
Coarse sand 2.0 mm to 0.6 mm
Medium sand 0.6 mm to 0.2 mm
Fine sand 0.2 mm to 0.06 mm
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31
Silt fraction(BSCS)
The fraction of a soil composed of particles between the sizes
of 0.06 mm (63 m) and 0.002 mm. The silt fraction is
subdivided as follows:
Coarse silt 0.06 mm to 0.02 mm
Medium silt 0.02 mm to 0.006 mm
Fine silt 0.006 mm to 0.002 mm
Clay fraction(BSCS)
The fraction of a soil composed of particles smaller
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32
BOULDERS
> 200 mm
COBBLES
60 - 200 mm
G
GRAVEL
Coarse
soils
S
SAND
M
SILT
Fine
soils
coarse
20 - 60 mm
medium
6 - 20 mm
fine
2 - 6 mm
coarse
0.6 - 2.0 mm
medium
0.2 - 0.6 mm
fine
0.06 - 0.2 mm
coarse
0.02 - 0.06 mm
medium
0.006 - 0.02 mm
fine
0.002 - 0.006 mm
C CLAY
< 0.002 mm
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Particle Size
Retained on
(inch)
mm
12 in.
>12
>300
Boulder
12 in (300 mm)
3 in.
3 12
75 300
Cobble
Rock Fragment
in
0.75 3
19.0 75
Coarse gravel
#4
0.19 0.75
4.75 19.0
Fine gravel
#4 (4..75 mm)
#10
0.079 0.19
2.00 4.75
Coarse sand
#40
0.017 0.079
0.425 2.00
Medium sand
#200
0.003 0.017
0.075 0.425
Fine sand
< 0.003
< 0.075
Soil
66
33
67
68
34
69
70
35
71
72
36
Liquid limit
Two main types of test are specified.
The first is the cone penetrometer method, which is fundamentally
more satisfactory than the alternative because it is essentially a static
test depending on soil shear strength. It is also easier to perform and
gives more reproducible results.
The second is the much earlier Casagrande type of test which has
been used for many years as a basis for soil classification and
correlation of engineering properties. This test introduces dynamic
effects and is more susceptible to discrepancies between operators.
For both types of test an alternative rapid one-point procedure is
given, which may give less accurate results.
73
Liquid limit
Cone penetration (Penetrometer) Method;
This method covers the determination of the liquid limit of a
sample of soil in its natural state, or of a sample of soil from which
material retained on a 425 m test sieve has been removed.
Proceed from drier to wetter state; range approx. from 15mm to
25mm; water content against penetration graph (20mm defines
the liquid limit)
The amount of water added shall be such that a range of
penetration values of approximately 15 mm to 25 mm is covered
by the four or more test runs and is evenly distributed.
74
37
Liquid limit
Casagrande Method
This is an alternative method for the determination of the liquid limit
of a sample of natural soil, or of a sample of soil from which material
retained on a 425 m test sieve has been removed.
Flat metal cup; grove; dropping of cup
Turn the crank handle at the rate of 2 revolution/sec so that the cup
is lifted and dropped, counting the number of bumps. Continue until
the two parts of the soil come into contact at the bottom of the
groove along a distance of 13 mm, measured with the end of the
grooving tool or with a ruler. Record the number of bumps at which
this occurs.
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38
Log N
Plastic limit
This method covers the determination of the plastic limit of a soil
sample, i.e. the lowest moisture content at which the soil is plastic.
The sample shall be of soil in its natural state, or of soil from which
material retained on a 425 m test sieve has been removed.
flat, glass plate, smooth and free from scratches, on which threads are
rolled. A convenient size of plate is about 10 mm thick and 300 mm
square.
A length of rod, 3 mm in diameter and about 100 mm long.
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39
Plastic limit
Roll the thread between the fingers, from finger-tip to the second
joint, of one hand and the surface of the glass rolling plate. Use
enough pressure to reduce the diameter of the thread to about 3 mm
in five to 10 complete, forward and back, movements of the hand.
Some heavy clays will require 10 to 15 movements when the soil is
near the plastic limit because the soil hardens at this stage. It is
important to maintain a uniform rolling pressure; do not reduce the
pressure as the thread diameter approaches 3 mm.
Pick up the soil, mould it between the fingers to dry it further, form it
into a thread and roll it out again
Repeat until the thread shears both longitudinally and transversely
when it has been rolled to about 3 mm diameter, as gauged by the
rod. Do not gather the pieces of soil together after they have
crumbled, in order to reform a thread and to continue rolling; the first
crumbling point is the plastic limit.
Determine water content
79
Organic matter
Originates from plant and animal; decomposed
Topsoil < 0.5m from surface
Peat fibrous organic material
Undesirable properties (engineering)
High absorbance and compressibility (why), low bearing
capacity, settlement, shear failure
High cost for stabilization
80
40
Water
Ever present, fundamental,
Substantial influence on soil properties
Seepage and permeability (pros and cons)
81
41
83
Soil quality
Detrimental effects on embedded structures;
testing samples of ground water
Soluble sulphates
Reacts with certain constituents of Portland cement;
inhibits hardening and disruption to aggregate binding
process
42
Physical Properties
of Soil
Soil texture
Soil structure
Soil color
Bulk density
85
Coefficient of Permeability
k = CK ( d10 )2 m/sec ; CK is coefficient of permeability range
from 0.01 to 0.015
86
43
87
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are often
included in ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be
tabulated using geometric properties of the grading curve. These
properties are called grading characteristics
First of all, three points are located on the grading curve:
d10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample
d30 = the maximum size of the smallest 30% of the sample
d60 = the maximum size of the smallest 60% of the sample
From these the grading characteristics are calculated:
Effective size
d10 , d30 and d60
Uniformity coefficient
CU = d60 / d10
Coefficient of gradation
CC or CG or CZ = ( d30 )2 / ( d60 x d10 )
Grading characteristics
88
44
89
90
45
BOULDERS
> 200 mm
COBBLES
60 - 200 mm
G
GRAVEL
Coarse
soils
S
SAND
Fine
soils
M
SILT
C CLAY
coarse
20 - 60 mm
medium
6 - 20 mm
fine
2 - 6 mm
coarse
0.6 - 2.0 mm
medium
0.2 - 0.6 mm
fine
0.06 - 0.2 mm
coarse
0.02 - 0.06 mm
medium
0.006 - 0.02 mm
fine
0.002 - 0.006 mm
< 0.002 mm
91
92
46
93
94
47
95
48
97
Fine- grained soils can exist one of four states: solid, semisolid, plastic and
liquid.
Water is the agent that is responsible for changing the states of soils.
A soil gets weaker if its water content increases.
Three limits are defined based on the water content that causes a change
of state.
These are the liquid limit the water content that caused the soil to change
from liquid to a plastic state;
The plastic limit the water content that cause the soil to change from plastic
to semisolid; and
The shrinkage limit the water content that caused the soil to change from a
semisolid to a solid state.
All these limiting water contents are found from laboratory tests
The plasticity index defines the range the water content for which the soil
behaves like a plastic material.
The liquidity index gives a measure of strength.
The soil strength is the lowest at the liquid state and the highest at the
solid states.
98
49
99
Liquid Limits
Ranges from 35% to 55% moisture content
Normally consolidated soils, (consolidated or densified
under their own weight). If deposited through gentle
agitation from slow moving rivers, deltaic fans, ice melt
or quiet marine shore conditions, the LL value can be
much lower. The soil can be classed as sensitive.
50
Plastic Limits
Low values below 10% tell us that the soil is
normally consolidated, but sensitive.
Values between 10% and 25% tell us that the soil
is normally consolidated and medium to low
sensitivity.
Values above 30% moisture content tell us that
the soil is over consolidated and insensitive.
101
High Plasticity
102
51
Opening (mm)
Sieve No
Opening (mm)
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
4.75
4.00
3.35
2.80
2.36
2.00
1.70
1.40
1.88
1.00
0.850
0.710
0.600
35
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
140
170
200
270
0.6 mm
0.500
0.425
0.355
0.250
0.212
0.180
0.150
0.125
0.106
0.090
0.075
0.053
104
52
3 in. (75mm)
2 in. (50.0mm)
1.5 in. (38.1mm)
3/4 in. (19.0mm)
in. (12.5mm)
3/8 in. (9.5mm)
No. 4 (4.75mm)
No. 10 (2.0mm)
No. 20 (0.85mm)
No. 40 (425mm, )
No. 60 (0.25mm)
No. 100 (0.15mm)
No. 200 (75m, 0.075mm)
75 mm
63 mm
50 mm
37.5 mm
20.0 mm
14.0 mm
10.0 mm
6.3 mm
5.0 mm
2.0 mm
1.18 mm
0.6 mm
0.425 mm
0.3 mm
0.212 mm
0.15 mm
0.063 mm
105
APERTURE SIZE
BSS Mesh
No.
ASTM Mesh
No.
(410/1969)
(11-70)
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
22
25
30
36
44
52
60
72
85
100
120
150
170
200
240
300
350
400
500
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
100
120
140
170
200
230
270
325
400
ISS
Microns
(469/1972)
4.00mm
3.35mm
2.80mm
2.36mm
2.00mm
1.70mm
1.40mm
1.18mm
1.00mm
.850mm
.710mm
.600mm
.500mm
.425mm
.355mm
.300mm
.250mm
.212mm
.180mm
.150mm
.125mm
.106mm
.090mm
.075mm
.063mm
.053mm
.045mm
.037mm
.025mm
4000
3353
2812
2411
2057
1680
1405
1204
1003
850
710
600
500
420
355
300
250
210
180
150
120
105
90
75
63
53
45
37
35
106
53
107
(a) Soil element in natural state; (b) three phases of soil element
108
54
S : Solid
Soil particle
W: Liquid
A: Air
Water (electrolytes)
Air
110
55
Phase Diagram
111
112
56
113
114
57
115
Phase Diagram
116
58
Compaction
117
Compaction
Rolling and tampering
Reduction of air-void
volume
No change in solid volume
and water content;
increase in density
Effect permeability
Increase shear strength;
bearing capacity
Reduce settlement and
damage to structures
118
59
Compaction
Effectiveness
Nature and type of soil
Water content during compaction
Maximum possible state of compaction; attainable and
field conditions
Type of construction plant
Compaction
Degree of compaction
Depend on maximum dry/water content
Increase in water allows soil particles to be pack more
closely; increase in density; beyond certain water
limit/content density reduces
Maximum dry density; at optimum moisture content
Maximum possible state of compaction; attainable and
field conditions
Construction specification; 90% to 95% of the optimum
moisture content; locations and usage of fill ground
120
60
Degree of compaction
Proper compaction is very important. The degree
of compaction depends on the soil type,
compaction method, compactive effort and the
as-compacted moisture content.
121
Compaction
When clay is compacted than optimum moisture content, clay tends to
have a flocculated fabric consisting of platy particles oriented
randomly. When is compacted wetter than optimum moisture
content, clay tends to have a more oriented or dispersed fabric, in
which platy particles are aligned parallel to one another.
Difference in soil fabric leads to differences in various soil properties,
eg. Drier than optimum moisture content will give higher hydraulic
conductivity than clay with wetter than optimum moisture content
Eg. Drier than optimum moisture content will have a greater shear
strength than wetter than clay with wetter than optimum
moisture content
122
61
123
Compaction
Effect of increased
compaction effort
Maximum dry density
increases
Optimum moisture
content decreases
Air-void content remain
the same
124
62
125
126
63
End of Module 1
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