MA1102R CALCULUS

Lesson 1
Wang Fei

matwf@nus.edu.sg

Department of Mathematics
Office: S14-02-09
Tel: 6516-2937

Introduction 2
Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Chapter 0: Functions 6
Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
What is a Function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Graph of Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Algebra of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Examples of Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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Introduction 2 / 24

What will we learn in MA1102R?

• Functions:
√
◦ f (x) = sin x, g(x) = x2 + 1, h(x) = xx .
• Limits: (Intuitive Definition & Precise Definition)
x2 − 1 sin x
◦ lim , lim , lim xx .
x→1 x − 1 x→0 x x→0+
• Derivatives:
d d x dp √
◦ sin x, e , x + x.
dx dx dx
• Application of Derivatives:
◦ Mean Value Theorem,
◦ Increasing/Decreasing & Concavity Test,
◦ Optimization Problem,
◦ ···············

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What will we learn in MA1102R?

• Integrals:
2 ∞
1
Z Z
2
◦ dx, xe−x dx.
1 1 + x + x2 0
• Application of Integrals:
◦ Techniques in integration,
◦ Logarithmic function ln x, exponential function ex ,
◦ The inverse functions,
◦ Computation of arc length, surface area & volume,
◦ ···············
• Ordinary Differential Equations:
◦ f ′ (x) = f (x) and f (0) = 1,
◦ y ′ + P (x)y + Q(x) = 0,
◦ Applications of ordinary differential equations.

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2
 Workload and Assessment
• Workload:
◦ Lecture: 1.5 × 2 hours per week (week 1 to 13);
8:00–9:35am (with a 5min break)
◦ Tutorial: 1 hour per week (week 3 to 13);
◦ Lab Session: 1 hour in week 3, 5, 7, 9, 11.
• Notes and Textbook:
◦ IVLE, Thomas’ Calculus
• Assessment:
◦ Homework: 3% × 5 = 15%
◦ Lab sessions: 2% × 5 = 10%
◦ Mid-Term Test: 20% (29 Sep., 6:00–7:30pm, MPSH2)
◦ Final Exam: 55% (23 Nov., Afternoon)

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Chapter 0: Functions 6 / 24

What is a Set?
• A set is a collection of objects.
• A set is usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, . . . , The objects a, b, c, . . . contained in A are
called the elements of the set A. We can write

A = {a, b, c, . . .}.

◦ For example, {1, −1}, {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, . . .}

• Sometimes we also write a set using description:

A = {x | properties of x}

◦ For example, {x | x2 = 1}, {x | x is a prime number}.

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3
What is a Set?
• If a is an element of A, we write a ∈ A.
If a is not an element of A, we write a ∈
/ A.
◦ Example: 1 ∈ {1, 2}, 0 ∈
/ {1, 2}.
• If every element of A is also an element of B , we say A is a subset of B , denoted by A ⊆ B .
We write A * B if A is not a subset of B .
◦ Example: {1, 2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}, {0, 1} * {1, 2, 3}.
• Two sets are equal if they have the same collection of elements, regardless of order.
In order words, A = B if “A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A”.
◦ Example:
• {1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1},
• {x | x2 = 1} = {1, −1}.

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Operations on Sets
• Let A and B be two sets. We can define the following operations.
◦ Union: A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B};
◦ Intersection: A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B};
◦ Difference: A\B = {x | x ∈ A but x ∈
/ B}.

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A B

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Operations on Sets
• Let A and B be two sets. We can define the following operations.
◦ Product: A × B = {(x, y) | x ∈ A and y ∈ B}.

B
b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b

A
◦ If A has m elements, and B has n elements, then A × B has m × n elements.

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Some Notations of Sets

• We use the following notations for some special sets:
◦ Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3 . . .}: the set of integers.
◦ Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .}: the set of positive integers.
N = Z+ , the set of natural numbers.
◦ Q = {m/n | m, n ∈ Z, n 6= 0}:
the set of rational numbers.
◦ R: the set of real numbers.
◦ ∅: the empty set, the set containing no element.
◦ Similarly we can use Z− , Q+ , Q− , R+ , R− , . . .
◦ Intervals:
• Closed interval: [a, b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}, (a ≤ b);
• Open intervals: (a, b) = {x | a < x < b}, (a < b);
• (a, b] = {x | a < x ≤ b}; [a, b) = {x | a ≤ x < b};
• (a, ∞) = {x | a < x}, (−∞, b] = {x | x ≤ b}.

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5
What is a Function?
• Let A and B be two sets.

f
a x
b y
A c z B
d w
.. ..
. .

◦ A function is a rule which assigns each element in A to a unique element in B .

◦ Such a function is denoted by f : A → B , or simply f .
◦ The unique element in B that a ∈ A is assigned by f is called the image of a, denoted by f (a).

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What is a Function?
• Two key points for a function f : A → B :
◦ Existence: for each a ∈ A, f (a) is an element of B .
◦ Uniqueness: each a ∈ A has only one image in B .
• Example. Let A be the set of students participating a competition. For each student a ∈ A,
consider the rule


 gold medal, if a scores ≥ 80,
silver medal, if a scores ≥ 70 but < 80,

f (a) =

 bronze medal, if a scores ≥ 60 but < 70,
certificate, if a scores < 60.


Each student will get exactly one from “gold medal”, “silver medal”, “bronze medal” or “certificate”
according to one’s score.
Therefore, the rule f defined above is a function.

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Domain and Range
• Let f : A → B be a function. Then we say
◦ A is the domain of f ,
◦ B is the codomain of f .
In this course, A and B are always taken to be subsets of the set of real numbers R.
• We make the following convention:
◦ If A is not stated, the domain of f is taken to be the largest possible set (⊆ R) on which f is
defined.
◦ If B is not stated, take B = R.
• the range is the set of all f (x) as x taken from the domain:
range of f = {f (x) | x ∈ A}.

By definition, the range is a subset of the codomain.

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Example
2x
• Find the domain and range of g(x) = .
3x − 1
◦ As a fraction, the function is defined at every real x except when 3x − 1 = 0, i.e., when x = 13 .
• Then domain = R\{ 31 }.
◦ y is in the range of the function g if and only if y = g(x) for some x in the domain.
2x
Solve y = and see if we can find such an x:
3x − 1
y
⇒ y(3x − 1) = 2x ⇒ x(3y − 2) = y ⇒ x = .
3y − 2
There is always an x in the domain with y = g(x) except when 3y − 2 = 0, i.e., when y = 23 .
• Then range = R\{ 23 }.

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Graph of Functions
• Let f : A → B be a function. The graph of f is the set

G(f ) := {(x, f (x)) | x ∈ A}.

◦ If A, B ⊆ R, then G(f ) ⊆ A × B ⊆ R × R.
Each element of G(f ) thus represents a point on the Cartesian plane R2 .
• Example. f (x) = sin x:
y

−2π −π O π 2π x

−1

◦ domain = R,
◦ range = [−1, 1].

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Algebra of Functions
• Let f, g be functions with domain A and B respectively.
We can define new functions:
◦ (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x)
• domain of f + g : A∩B
◦ (f − g)(x) := f (x) − g(x)
• domain of f − g : A ∩ B
◦ (f g)(x) := f (x)g(x)
• domain of f g : A ∩ B
◦ (f /g)(x) := f (x)/g(x)
• domain of f /g : {x ∈ A ∩ B | g(x) 6= 0}

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Algebra of Functions
• Let f, g be functions with domain A and B respectively.
We can define new functions:
◦ The composite of f and g is the function

(f ◦ g)(x) := f (g(x)).

domain of f ◦ g : {x ∈ B | g(x) ∈ A}

f ◦g

x g(x) f (g(x))
g f

◦ Note: In general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f .

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Example
√ √
• Let f (x) = x and g(x) = 2 − x. Find the the following composite and their domain.
◦ domain of f : {x | x ≥ 0}
domain of g : {x | x ≤ 2} √
◦ f ◦ g(x) = p
f (g(x)) = f ( 2 − x)
√ √
= 2−x= 42−x
√
• domain = {x ≤ 2 | 2 − x ≥ 0} = {x | x ≤ 2}
√ p √
◦ g ◦ f (x) = g( x) = 2 − x
√
• domain = {x ≥ 0 | x ≤ 2} = {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 4}
√ p √
◦ g ◦ g(x) = g( 2 − x) = 2 − 2 − x
√
• domain = {x ≤ 2 | 2 − x ≤ 2}
= {x | −2 ≤ x ≤ 2}
◦ f ◦ f (x) =? and what is the domain? (Exercise)

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Examples of Function
• The absolute value function f (x) = |x| is defined by

x, if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.
y

x
O

◦ domain = R
◦ range = {x ∈ R | x ≥ 0} = R+ ∪ {0} = [0, ∞)

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Examples of Function
• A polynomial (over R) is a function (ai ∈ R)

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .

◦ If an 6= 0, we say P (x) has degree n.

A polynomial of degree 1 is a linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2 is a quadratic function.
y
2x
P (x) = 1 − 3

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Q(x) = 2x2 + 2x

x
O

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Examples of Function
• A polynomial (over R) is a function (ai ∈ R)

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .

A polynomial of degree 3 is a cubic function.

A polynomial of degree 4 is a quartic function.
A polynomial of degree 5 is a quintic function.

y
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R(x) = x5 + 0.3x4 − 2.8x3 − 0.3x2 + 1.8x
P (x) = x3 − x + 1

O x

Q(x) = x4 − 3x2 + x

Examples of Function
• A rational function R(x) is a function of the form

P (x)
R(x) = ,
Q(x)

where P, Q are polynomials, Q(x) is not identically zero.

y

O x
2x x2
f (x) = g(x) =
x−1 x2 − 1

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Examples of Function
• An algebraic function is a function constructed from polynomials using algebraic operations:
◦ addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
taking roots, composite
√ x3 + 1 √
◦ f (x) = x2 + 1, g(x) = + (x − 2) 5 x3 − 1
x+2
y

O x

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