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MA1102R CALCULUS

Lesson 2
Wang Fei

matwf@nus.edu.sg

Department of Mathematics
Office: S14-02-09
Tel: 6516-2937

Chapter 0: Functions 2
Examples of Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Special Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Chapter 1: Limits 9
Straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Tangent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Direct Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1
Chapter 0: Functions 2 / 25

Examples of Function
• The trigonometric functions
◦ sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.
are the ratios of the sides of a right angle triangle.

1
tan x

sin x
x
O cos x 1

3 / 25

Examples of Function
• The trigonometric functions
◦ sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.
are the ratios of the sides of a right angle triangle.

y = tan x

y = sin x y = cos x

x
O

4 / 25

2
Special Classes of Functions
• A function f is said to be increasing on set I if

x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) for any x1 , x2 ∈ I.

A function f is said to be decreasing on set I if

x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) for any x1 , x2 ∈ I.


y

f (x) = x3 5 / 25

x
O

f (x) = −x3 + 2

Special Classes of Functions


• A function f is said to be an even function if

f (−x) = f (x) for all x.


y f (x) = x2 − 10

O x

g(x) = x2 cos x

◦ The graph is symmetric about the y -axis.

6 / 25

3
Special Classes of Functions
• A function f is said to be an odd function if

f (−x) = −f (x) for all x.


y

O x
3
f (x) = x8

g(x) = x2 sin x

◦ The graph is symmetric about the origin O .

7 / 25

Special Classes of Functions


• Let n be a positive integer. Then the power function

an odd function, if n is odd,
◦ xn is
an even function, if n is even.
y y
= xx19
yy = 11
13
15
17
1
3
5
7
9

O x

O x
= xx20
yy = 10
12
14
16
18
2
4
6
8

• P (x) = 3x6 + x5 − 2x4 + 7x3 + 2x2 − x − 1.


◦ g(x) = 3x6 − 2x4 + 2x2 − 1,
◦ h(x) = x5 + 7x3 − x.
◦ g(x) is even, h(x) is odd, and P (x) = g(x) + h(x).
• In general, any function defined on R can be decomposed into the sum of an even function and an
odd function. Moreover, such a decomposition is unique. (Exercise)

8 / 25

4
Chapter 1: Limits
Part I: A First Encounter with Limits 9 / 25

The Straight Line


• A straight line is uniquely determined by 2 distinct points.
◦ Let A(x0 , y0 ) and B(x1 , y1 ) be distinct points on R2 .
Consider the line ℓ passing through A and B :
y

ℓ b
B(x1 , y1 )
(x, y)
b

A(x0 , y0 )
x
O
b

y − y0 y1 − y0
Let (x, y) be a point on ℓ. Then = .
x − x0 x1 − x0
y1 − y0
• m= is called the slope (or gradient) of ℓ.
x1 − x0
10 / 25

The Tangent Line


• Consider the curve y = x2 :
y


2 −1 Q(x, x2 )
mP Q = xx−1


b P (1, 1)
x
O

◦ Fix P (1, 1). Let Q be another point on the curve.


◦ Connect P and Q, and let Q approach P .
The resulting line is the tangent line of y = x2 at P .
x2 − 1
• Slope m = lim mP Q = lim .
Q→P x→1 x − 1

11 / 25

5
Example
• A ball is dropped from a tower 450 m above the ground. Find its instantaneous velocity after 5
seconds.

s(5)

s(5 + h)
s(t) = 12 gt2 = 4.9t2

∆s 4.9(5 + h)2 − 4.9(5)2


◦ V [5,5+h] = = .
∆t (5 + h) − 5
◦ Instantaneous velocity at t = 5: v = lim V [5,5+h] .
h→0

12 / 25

Limit of a Function
x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 4
• Consider the function: f (x) = .
x−2
◦ As x approaches 2, f (x) is close to 4.
• We write lim f (x) = 4.
x→2

b
b
b
b
b
4 c
b
b
b
b
b
b

O 2 x

13 / 25

6
Intuitive Definition of Limit
• Definition. If f (x) is arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close (not equal) to a,
then we write
lim f (x) = L.
x→a

We say the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L.


◦ Sometimes we may simply write:

x→a ⇒ f (x) → L.

• Note. The limit lim f (x)


x→a

◦ depends only on the values of f (x) for “x near a”;


◦ it is independent to the value of f (x) “at a”.

14 / 25

Example
x2 − 1
• Find lim .
x→1 x − 1

x2 − 1
◦ Consider the graph of f (x) = :
x−1
y

b
b
b
2 −1
b
b
y = xx−1
2 c
b
b
b
b
b
b

O 1 x

x2 − 1
◦ lim = lim f (x) = 2.
x→1 x − 1 x→1

15 / 25

7
Limit Laws
• Let c be a real number. Then the constant function f (x) = c is not affected by the behavior of x.
◦ Let a ∈ R. x → a ⇒ c → c.
∴ lim c = c.
x→a
• Let a ∈ R. It is trivial that
◦ x → a ⇒ x → a.
∴ lim x = a.
x→a

• Suppose lim f (x) = L. Let c be a constant.


x→a

◦ x → a ⇒ f (x) → L ⇒ c f (x) → cL.


∴ lim (cf (x)) = cL = c lim f (x).
x→a x→a

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Limit Laws
• Suppose lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M .
x→a x→a

f (x) → L
◦ x→a⇒ ⇒ f (x) + g(x) → L + M
g(x) → M
∴ lim (f (x) + g(x)) = L + M= lim f (x) + lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a
Similarly, we have
◦ lim (f (x) − g(x)) = lim f (x) − lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

◦ lim (f (x)g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x)


x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)


◦ lim = x→a provided that lim g(x) 6= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

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8
Limit Laws
• The product law lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x) can be generalized into the product of n
x→a x→a x→a
functions:
lim [f1 (x)f2 (x) · · · fn (x)]
x→a
= lim f1 (x) lim f2 (x) · · · lim fn (x).
x→a x→a x→a

In particular, if f1 = f2 = · · · = fn := f , it becomes

lim f (x)f (x) · · · f (x) = lim f (x) lim f (x) · · · lim f (x)
x→a x→a x→a x→a

lim f (x)f (x) · · · f (x) = lim f (x) lim f (x) · · · lim f (x)
x→a | {z } x→a x→a x→a
n times
| {z }
n times
 n
That is, lim (f (x))n = lim f (x) .
x→a x→a
 n
◦ In particular, lim xn = lim x = an .
x→a x→a

18 / 25

Limit Laws
• Suppose lim f (x) = L (f (x) > 0).
x→a
p √
◦ lim f (x) = n L.
n
x→a
p
Let a = lim n f (x). Then  p n
x→a an = lim n f (x)
x→a
p n
n
= lim f (x)
x→a
= lim f (x)
x→a
= L.

n
q
Then a = L= n lim f (x).
x→a
p q
n
∴ lim f (x) = n lim f (x).
x→a x→a

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9
Examples
• Find lim (2x2 − 3x + 4) and lim (2x2 − 3x + 4).
x→1 x→5
lim (2x − 3x + 4) = lim 2x2 − lim 3x + lim 4
2
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
2
= 2 lim x − 3 lim x + 4
x→1 x→1
2
=2·1 −3·1+4
= 3.
lim (2x − 3x + 4) = lim 2x2 − lim 3x + lim 4
2
x→5 x→5 x→5 x→5
2
= 2 lim x − 3 lim x + 4
x→5 x→5
= 2 · 52 − 3 · 5 + 4
= 39.
• Let f (x) = 2x2 − 3x + 4. It seems that for any a ∈ R
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

20 / 25

Direct Substitution Property


• Theorem. Let f be a polynomial or a rational function.
If a is in the domain of f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
• Proof. Let f be a polynomial. The domain of f is R.

f (x) = cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0 .

lim f (x) = lim (cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0 )


x→a x→a
= cn lim xn + cn−1 lim xn−1 + · · ·
x→a x→a
+ c1 lim x + lim c0
x→a x→a
n n−1
= cn a + cn−1 a + · · · + c1 a + c0
= f (a).
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10
Direct Substitution Property
• Theorem. Let f be a polynomial or a rational function.
If a is in the domain of f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
P (x)
• Proof. Let f be a rational function. Say f (x) = , P, Q are polynomials and Q(x) is not
Q(x)
identically zero.
◦ Domain of f = {x ∈ R | Q(x) 6= 0}.
If a is in the domain of f , then Q(a) 6= 0.

P (x) limx→a P (x) P (a)


lim f (x) = lim = = = f (a).
x→a x→a Q(x) limx→a Q(x) Q(a)
• Remark. The direct substitution property is the same as the continuity, which will be
introduced in Chapter 2.

22 / 25

Example
x2 − 1
• Let f (x) = . Find lim f (x).
x−1 x→1
2
x −1 limx→1(x2 − 1) 0
◦ lim f (x) = lim = = .×
x→1 x→1 x − 1 limx→1 (x − 1) 0
◦ The direct substitution property doesn’t work since
• x = 1 is NOT in the domain of f (x).
◦ Recall that lim f (x) only depends on the value of f (x) when x is “near” 1, not “at” 1.
x→1

(x − 1)(x + 1)
• If x 6= 1, f (x) = = x + 1.
x−1
• f (x) and x + 1 are the same near 1.
Can we say that they have the same limits at x = 1?

lim f (x) = lim (x + 1) ?


x→1 x→1

23 / 25

11
Example
x2 − 1
• Let f (x) = . Find lim f (x).
x−1 x→1
Let g(x) = x + 1. Then f (x) = g(x) for all x 6= 1.
y y
b b
b b
b 2 −1 b
b
b
y = xx−1 b
b y =x+1
2 2 b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b

O 1 x O 1 x

◦ Therefore,
• lim f (x) = lim g(x) = lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2.
x→1 x→1 x→1

24 / 25

An Intuitive Conclusion
• Theorem. If f (x) = g(x) for all x near a except possibly at a, then

lim f (x) = lim g(x).


x→a x→a

x2 + 9 − 3
• Example. Let f (x) = . Find lim f (x).
x2 x→0
◦ First find a function which agrees with f when x 6= 0.
√ √  √ 
x2 + 9 − 3 x2 + 9 − 3 x2 + 9 + 3
= √ 
x2 x2 x2 + 9 + 3
(x2 + 9) − 9 1
= √ =√ .
x2 x2 + 9 + 3 x2 + 9 + 3
1 1 1
◦ lim f (x) = lim √ =√ = .
x→0 x→0 x2 + 9 + 3 02 + 9 + 3 6
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