A Timeline on Atomic Structure

400 B.C. Democritus atomic theory posited that all matter is made up small indestructible units he called
atoms.
1704

Isaac Newton theorized a mechanical universe with small, solid masses in motion.

1803
John Dalton proposed that elements consisted of atoms that were identical and had the same
mass and that compounds were atoms from different elements combined together.
1832

Michael Faraday developed the two laws of electrochemistry.

1859

J. Plucker built one of the first cathode-ray tubes.

1869

Dmitri Mendeleev created the periodic table.

1873 James Clerk Maxwell proposed the theory of electromagnetism and made the connection
between light and electromagnetic waves.
1874 G.J. Stoney theorized that electricity was comprised of negative particles he called electrons.
1879
Sir William Crookes experiments with cathode-ray tubes led him to confirm the work of earlier
scientists by definitively demonstrating that cathode-rays have a negative charge.
1886

E. Goldstein discovered canal rays, which have a positive charge equal to an electron.

1895

Wilhelm Roentgen discovered x-rays.

1896

Henri Becquerel discovered radiation by studying the effects of x-rays on photographic film.

1897

J.J. Thomson determined the charge to mass ratio of electrons.

1898

Rutherford discovered alpha, beta, and gamma rays in radiation.

1898 Marie Sklodowska Curie discovered radium and polonium and coined the term radioactivity after
studying the decay process of uranium and thorium.
1900

Max Planck proposed the idea of quantization to explain how a hot, glowing object emitted light.

1900 Frederick Soddy came up with the term "isotope" to explain the unintentional breakdown of
radioactive elements.
1903 Hantaro Nagaoka proposed an atomic model called the Saturnian Model to describe the structure
of an atom.
1904

Richard Abegg found that inert gases have a stable electron configuration.

1906

Hans Geiger invented a device that could detect alpha particles.

1914 H.G.J. Moseley discovered that the number of protons in an element determines its atomic
number.

1919

Francis William Aston used a mass spectrograph to identify 212 isotopes.

1922
Niels Bohr proposed an atomic structure theory that stated the outer orbit of an atom could hold
more electrons than the inner orbit.
1923

Louis de Broglie proposed that electrons have a wave/particle duality.

1929 Cockcroft / Walton created the first nuclear reaction, producing alpha particles
1930

Paul Dirac proposed the existence of anti-particles.

1932

James Chadwick discovered neutrons, particles whose mass was close to that of a proton.

1938

Lise Meitner, Hahn, Strassman discovered nuclear fission.

1941-51 Glenn Seaborg discovered eight transuranium elements.

1942

Enrico Fermi created the first man-made nuclear reactor.

Early theories of the structure of matter were not based upon experiments. As scientists began to study
the relationship between several physical phenomenon such as electricity, and magnetism they began to
develop different models about atomic structure.
Year Scientist(s) Discovery
Greek
Democritus
era
1704 Isaac Newton
1803

John Dalton

1832

Michael
Faraday

1859

J. Plucker

1869

Dmitri
Mendeleev

1873
1879

James Clerk
Maxwell
Sir William
Crookes

"by convention bitter, by convention sweet, but in reality atoms and void"
Proposed a mechanical universe with small solid masses in motion.
Proposed an "atomic theory" with spherical solid atoms based upon measurable
properties of mass.
Studied the effect of electricity on solutions, coined term "electrolysis" as a splitting
of molecules with electricity, developed laws of electrolysis. Faraday himself was
not a proponent of atomism.
Built one of the first gas discharge tubes ("cathode ray tube").
Arranged elements into 7 groups with similar properties. He discovered that the
properties of elements "were periodic functions of the their atomic weights". This
became known as the Periodic Law.
Proposed electric and magnetic fields filled the void.
Discovered cathode rays had the following properties: travel in straight lines from
the cathode; cause glass to fluoresce; impart a negative charge to objects they strike;
are deflected by electric fields and magnets to suggest a negative charge; cause

1886
1894
1895
1896
1897
1897
1898
1898
1900
1900
1903

pinwheels in their path to spin indicating they have mass.

Used a CRT to study "canal rays" which had electrical and magnetic properties
E. Goldstein
opposite of an electron.
Proposed that electricity was made of discrete negative particles he called electrons".
G.J. Stoney
(Link to info on electrons)
Using a CRT he observed that nearby chemicals glowed. Further experiments found
Wilhelm
very penetrating rays coming from the CRT that were not deflected by a magnetic
Roentgen
field. He named them "X-rays".
While studying the effect of x-rays on photographic film, he discovered some
Henri Becquerel
chemicals spontaneously decompose and give off very pentrating rays.
Used a CRT to experimentally determine the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of an
J.J. Thomson
electron =1.759 x 10 8 coulombs/gram.
J.J. Thomson Studied "canal rays" and found they were associated with the proton H + .
Studied radiations emitted from uranium and thorium and named
Rutherford
them alpha and beta.
Marie
Studied uranium and thorium and called their spontaneous decay process
Sklodowska
"radioactivity". She and her husband Pierre also discovered the radioactive elements
Curie
polonium and radium.
Observed spontaneous disintegration of radioactive elements into variants he called
Soddy
"isotopes" or totally new elements, discovered "half-life", made initial calculations
on energy released during decay.
Max Planck
used the idea of quanta (discrete units of energy) to explain hot glowing matter.
Postulated a "Saturnian" model of the atom with flat rings of electrons revolving
Nagaoka
around a positively charged particle.
Discovered that inert gases had a stable electron configuration which lead to their
chemical inactivity.

1904

Abegg

1905
1906

Albert Einstein Published the famous equation E=mc 2

Hans Geiger
Developed an electrical device to "click" when hit with alpha particles.
Oil drop experiment determined the charge (e=1.602 x 10 -19 coulomb) and the
R.A. Millikan
mass (m = 9.11 x 10 -28 gram) of an electron.
Using alpha particles as atomic bullets, probed the atoms in a piece of thin (0.00006
Ernest
cm) gold foil . He established that the nucleus was: very dense,very small and
Rutherford
positively charged. He also assumed that the electrons were located outside the
nucleus.
Using x-ray tubes, determined the charges on the nuclei of most atoms. He
wrote"The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in the
H.G.J. Moseley
nucleus". This work was used to reorganize the periodic table based upon atomic
number instead of atomic mass.
Aston
Discovered the existence of isotopes through the use of a mass spectrograph.
Developed an explanation of atomic structure that underlies regularities of the
Niels Bohr
periodic table of elements. His atomic model had atoms built up of sucessive orbital
shells of electrons.

1909
1911

1914
1919
1922

Discovered that electrons had a dual nature-similar to both particles and waves.
Particle/wave duality. Supported Einstein.
Described atoms by means of formula connected to the frequencies of spectral
1927 Heisenberg
lines. Proposed Principle of Indeterminancy - you can not know both the position
and velocity of a particle.
Cockcroft /
Built an early linear accelerator and bombarded lithium with protons to
1929
Walton
producealpha particles
Viewed electrons as continuous clouds and introduced "wave mechanics" as a
1930 Schrodinger
mathematical model of the atom.
Proposed anti-particles . Anderson discovered the anti-electron (positron) in 1932
1930 Paul Dirac
and Segre/Chamberlain detected the anti-proton in 1955..
James
Using alpha particles discovered a neutral atomic particle with a mass close to a
1932
Chadwick
proton. Thus was discovered the neutron.
Lise Meitner, Conducted experiments verifying that heavy elements capture neutrons and form
1938 Hahn ,
unstable products which undergo fission. This process ejects more neutrons
Strassman
continuing the fission chain reaction.
1941 Synthesized 6 transuranium elements and suggested a change in the layout of the
Glenn Seaborg
51
periodic table.
Conducted the first controlled chain reaction releasing energy from the atoms
1942 Enrico Fermi
nucleus.
1923

de Broglie

Development of the Atomic Theory

http://cstl-csm.semo.edu/cwmcgowan/ch181/atomhist.htm
Democritus (460-370 BC) First proposed the existence of an ultimate
particle. Used the word "atomos" to describe this particle.

Democritus

Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a proponent of the continuum. He believed in

the four elements of air, earth, water and fire. Aristotle felt that
regardless of the number oftimes you cut a form of matter in half, you
would always have a smaller piece of that matter. This view held sway for
2000 years primarily because Aristotle was the tutor of Alexander the
Great.
Johann Becher (1635-1682) and Georg Stahl (1660-1734) developed the
Phlogiston theory which dominated chemistry between 1670 and 1790.
Basically, when something burned, it lost phlogiston to the air (after all,
you could see the phlogiston leaving) A problem with the theory was that
burning of metals resulted in an increase in the mass. This problem was
solved by assigning negative mass to phlogiston.

 Joseph Priestly (1733-1804) discovered oxygen (which he called

"dephlogisticated air") in 1774. Priestly was an ardent phlogistonist until
his dying day. Priestly was also an early anti-war activist who favored
both the American and French Revolutions. He was shipped to the U.S. in
1791 where he lived a quiet life in Pennsylvania. His house was used as a
starting point for the American Chemical Society in 1876. The Priestly
Medal is the highest award given by to an American chemist by the
Society.

Joseph Priestly

Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) was the first person to make good use of the
balance. He was an excellent experimenter. After a visit with Priestly in
1774, he began careful study of the burning process. He proposed the
Combustion Theory which was based on sound mass measurements. He
named oxygen. He also proposed the Law of Conversation of Mass which
represents the beginning of modern chemistry. To support his work,
Lavoisier was associated with a tax-collecting firm and was married to the
daughter of the one of the firm's executives. Some people believe that
Madame Lavoisier was every bit as good a scientist as her husband.
Unfortunately, this relationship with the tax firm led to Lavoisier's
beheading at the guillotine in 1794.

Marie and Antoine Lavoisier

Joseph Proust (1754-1826) proposed the the Law of Constant Composition

in 1799. This law was very radical at the time and was hotly contested by
Claude Berthollet (1748-1822).

Joseph Proust

John Dalton (1776-1844) proposed the Law of Multiple Proportions. This

law led directly to the proposal of the Atomic Theory in 1803. He also
developed the concept of the mole and proposed a system of symbols to
represent atoms of different elements. (The symbols currently used were
developed by J.J. Berzelius(1779-1848)). Dalton recognized the existence
of atoms of elements and that compounds formed from the union of these
atoms. He therefore assumed that simplest ratios would be used in nature
and came up with a formula for water of HO. He then assigned a relative

atomic weight of one to hydrogen and developed a relative atomic weight

scale from percent composition data and assumed atomic ratios. Today we
would refer to these as equivalent masses. John Dalton also discovered
color blindness, an affliction from which he suffered. He determined that
five percent of the male population and less than one-tenth percent of the
female population was color blind.
Joseph Gay-Lussac ( 1778-1850) announced the Law of Combining
Volumes in 1808. He showed that at the same temperature and pressure,
two volumes of hydrogen gas reacted with one volume of oxygen gas to
produce two volumes of water (as a gas).

Joseph Gay-Lussac

Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856) proposed what is now known as Avogadro's

Hypothesis in 1811. The hypothesis states that at the same temperature
and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the same number of
molecules or atoms. When this is combined with Gay-Lussac's Law of

Combining Volumes, the only possible formulas for hydrogen, oxygen and
water are H2, O2 and H2O, respectively. The solution to the atomic weight
problem was at hand in 1811. However, Avogadro's Hypothesis was a
radical statement at the time and was not widely accepted until fifty years
later.
Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826-1910), in 1860 at the Karlsruhe Conference,
proposed that Avogadro's Hypothesis be accepted and the implications
used for a period of five years. At the end of this five year period, a new
conference would be called to discuss any problems that might develop;
this second conference was never called.

Stanislao Cannizzaro

Dimitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) proposed the periodic law and developed

the first periodic table in 1869. Medeleev's table was arranged according
to increasing atomic weight and left holes for elements that were yet to be
discovered.

Dimitri Mendeleev

Development of Atomic Structure

J. J. Thomson (1856-1940) identified the
negatively charged electron in the cathode ray
tube in 1897. He deduced that the electron was a component of all matter
and calculated the charge to mass ratio for the electron.
e/m = -1.76 x 108 coulombs/g
Thomson and others also studied the positive rays in the cathode ray tube
and discovered that the charge to mass ratio depended on filling gas in the
tube. The largest charge to mass ratio (smallest mass) occurred when
hydrogen was the filling gas. This particle was later identified as the
proton.
e/m = +9.58 x 104 coulombs/g
Thomson proposed the "plum pudding" model of the atom. In this model,
the volume of the atom is composed primarily of the more massive (thus
larger) positive portion (the plum pudding). The smaller electrons
(actually, raisins in the plum pudding ) are dispersed throughout the
positive mass to maintain charge neutrality.

Joseph John Thomson

Robert Millikan (1868-1953) determined the unit

charge of the electron in 1909 with his oil drop
experiment at the University of Chicago. Thus
allowing for the calculation of the mass of the electron
and the positively charged atoms.
e = 1.60 x 10-19 coulombs

Robert

Millikan

Ernst
Rutherford (1871-1937) proposed the
nuclear atom
as the result of the gold-foil experiment in
1911.
Rutherford proposed that all of the
positive
charge and all of the mass of the atom
occupied a
small volume at the center of the atom
and that
most of the volume of the atom was empty
space occupied by the electrons. This was a very radical proposal that flew
in the face of Newtonian Physics. Although positive particles had been
discussed for some time, it was Rutherford in 1920 that first referred to the
hydrogen nucleus as a proton. Also in 1920, Rutherford proposed the
existence of the third atomic particle, the neutron.

 Henry Moseley (1887-1915) discovered that the energy of x-rays emitted by

the elements increased in a linear fashion with each successive element in
the periodic table. In 1913, he proposed that the relationship was a
function of the positive charge on the nucleus. This rearranged the
periodic table by using the atomic number instead of atomic mass to
represent the progression of the elements. This new table left additional
holes for elements that would soon be discovered. Unfortunately, Moseley
was killed at Gallipoli during WWI.
Francis Aston (1877-1945) invented the mass spectrograph in 1920. He
was the first person to observe isotopes. For example he observed that
there were three different kinds of hydrogen atoms. While most of the
atoms had a mass number of 1 he also observed hydrogen atoms with mass
numbers of 2 and 3. Modern atomic masses are based on mass spectral
analysis. His work led Rutherford to predict the existence of the neutron.

Francis Aston

James Chadwick (1891-1974) discovered the neutron in 1932. Chadwick

was a collaborator of Rutherford's. Interestingly, the discovery of the
neutron led directly to the discovery of fission and ultimately to the atomic
bomb.

James Chadwick