Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chapter 1
Introduction
be directly or indirectly affected by use. Today, aluminum is surpassed only by steel in its use as a structural
material.
Strength. Commercially pure aluminum has a tensile strengthof about90 MPa (13 ksi). Thus its usefulness as a structuralmaterial in this form is somewhat
limited By working the metal, as by cold rolling, its
strength can be approximately doubled. Much larger
increases in strengthcan be obtained by alloying aluminum with small percentages of one or more other
elements such as manganese, silicon, copper, magnesium, or zinc. Like pure aluminum, the alloys are also
made strongerby cold working. Some of the alloys are
further strengthened and hardened by heat treatments.
Figure 1 shows the range of strength levels of representativealuminumand aluminumalloys.
High Strength-to-Weight Ratio. The strengthto-weightratio of aluminum is much higher than that
of many common grades of constructional steelsoften double or more (Fig. 1). This property permits
design and construction of strong, lightweight structures that are particularly advantageous for anything that
moves-space vehiclesand aircraftas well as all types
ofland- and water-borne vehicles.
Corrosion Resistance. When aluminum surfaces
are exposed to the atmosphere, a thin invisible oxide
skin formsimmediately, whichprotectsthe metalfrom
further oxidation. This self-protecting characteristic
gives aluminum its high resistance to corrosion. Unless exposed to some substance or condition that destroys this protectiveoxide coating, the metal remains
fully protected against corrosion. Aluminumis highly
resistant to weathering, even in industrial atmospheres
that often corrode other metals. It is also corrosion
resistant to many acids. Alkalis are among the few
substances that attack the oxide skin and thereforeare
corrosive to aluminum Although the metal can safely
be used in the presenceof certain mild alkalis with the
aid of inhibitors, in general, direct contact with alkaline substances should be avoided.
The high thermal conductivity of aluminum
(about 50 to 60% that of copper) came prominently
intoplay in the very firstlarge-scalecommercialapplication of the metal in cooking utensils. This characteristic is important whenever the transfer of thermal
energy from one medium to anotheris involved, either
heating or cooling.Thus aluminumheat exchangers are
Aluminumhas an attractive appearancein its natural finish, which can be soft and lustrous or bright
and shiny. It can be virtuallyany color or texture.
Aluminumis recyclable. Aluminumhas substantial
scrap value and a well-established market for recycling, providing both economic and environmental
benefits.
Aluminum is easily fabricated. Aluminum can be
formed and fabricated by all common metalworking and joining methods.
Table 1 lists the important physical properties of
pure aluminum. Table 2 shows the characteristics of
aluminumand their importancefor differentend uses.
Low Density. Aluminumhas a density of only 2.7
glcm3, approximately 35% that of steel (7.83 glcm3)
and 30% of copper (8.93 g/cm') or brass (8.53 glcm3).
One cubic foot of steel weighsabout 222 kg (490 lb); a
cubic foot of aluminum weighs only about 77 kg (170
lb).
Va'"
Thermalneutroncross section
Latticeconstant(lengthof
unit cube)
Density(solid)
Density(liquid)
Coefficientof expansion
Thermalconductivity
Volume resistivity
Magneticsusceptibility
Surfacetension
Viscosity
Meltingpoint
Boilingpoint
Heatof fusion
Heatof vaporation
Heatcapacity
0.232 0.003bams
4.0496 x 1O-lO m at 298 K
2699kg/m3 (theoretical density
basedon latticespacing)
2697-2699 kg/m3
(polycrystalline material)
2357kg/m3 at 973K
2304kg/m3 at 1173K
23 x Io-<>IK at 293 K
2.37Wlcm Kat 298 K
2.655 x 10-8 Q. m
16 x 1O-3/m3 g/atomat 298 K
868dyne/cmat themelting
point
0.012poiseat themeltingpoint
933.5K
2767K
397Jig
1.08 x 10-4 Jig' K
0.90 Jig . K
Table2 Property combinations important for the use of aluminum in various application areas
Typeof semiCabrieated products
Characteristics
Goodbeat
and electrical
Field ofuse
Transport
Building
Packaging
Electrical
Household
Machines,
appliances
Chemicals andfood
Lightness
cooductivity
1
2
3
3
2
1
3
1
1
2
Deeoratiseaspeds
Resioltanee
(with orwithout
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
Castings
or
forgings
2
W"U'e
.Formed
Impart
Extruded
aDd
sheet
extmsions
sedions
cable
Foil
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Introduction I 3
commonly used in the food, chemical, petroleum, aircraft, and other industries.
High Electrical Conductivity. Aluminum is one
of the two common metals having an electrical conductivity high enough for use as an electric conductor.
The conductivity of electric conductor grade (1350) is
about 62% that of the International Annealed Copper
Standard (lACS). Because aluminum has less than
one-third the specific gravity of copper, however, a
pound of aluminum will go about twice as far as a
pound of copper when used for this purpose.
Reflectivity. Smooth aluminum is highly reflective
of the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves
through visible light and on into the infrared and thermal range. It bounces away about 80% of the visible
light and 90% of the radiant heat striking its surface.
The high reflectivity gives aluminum a decorative appearance; it also makes aluminum a very effective barrier against thermal radiation, suitable for such applications as automotive heat shields.
Nontoxic Characteristica. The fact that aluminum is nontoxic was discovered in the early days of
the industry. It is this characteristic that permits the
metal to be used in cooking utensils without any harmful effect on the body. Today a great deal of aluminum
equipment is used in the food processing industry.
Nontoxicity permits aluminum foil wrapping to be
used safely in direct contact with food products.
Finishability. For the majority ofapplications, aluminum needs no protective coating. Mechanical finishes
such as polishing, sand blasting, or wire brushing meet
the majority of needs. In many instances, the surface
2500 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
300M
300
2000
AISI4340
250
AISI8640
OJ
Q.
::;;
~
'iii
3A1-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr
1500
15>
c
200
10V-2Fe-3A1
.9!
'iii
cQl
f-
1000
150
AISI
1095
6AI-4V
500
ASTM
grade4
[~~
ASTM
grade1
0
Steels,
(8)
2014-T6
6061-T6
.9!
'iii
cQl
100
3OO3-H18
2014-0
1060-H18
1060-0
HK31A-H24
ZK40A-T5
AZ31B-0
Titanium
alloys,
Aluminum
alloys,
Magnesium
alloys,
-4.5 glcm3
-2.75 glcm3
-1.8 glcm3
-7.9 glcm3
~c
~
f-
3AI-2.5V
ASTM
A 715
ASTM
A 242
AISI
1015
50
50
~
c
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'iii
25
[:,~
AISI8640
sa.
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(/)
AISI1095
ASTMA 715
AISI
1015
Steels
(b)
Fig 1
r~~'~
::,~~ [ro~~
3AI-2.5V
ASTM
grade4
ASTM
grade1
Titanium
alloys
2014-T6
6061-T6
3003-H18
1060-H18
1060.0
Aluminum
alloys
~ HK31A-H24
ZK40A-T5
AZ31B-0
Magnesium
alloys
the basis of lal tensile strength and ~bl specific tensile strength ltensile strength, in ksl, divided by density, in g/cm 1
Introduction I 5
Cold
AHoy
Temper
1050
0
H12
H14
H16
H18
0
H12
HI4
H16
H18
0
H12
H14
H16
H18
0
H12
H14
H16
H18
0
H12
HI4
H16
H18
0
H12,Hlll
H14,H24
H16,H26
HI8
T3
T4,T451
T8
0
T3, T4, T451
T6, T651, T651O, T6511
0
T4, T3, T351, T351O,T3511
T361
T6
T861, T81, T851, T851O,
T8511
172
T4
T851
T61
172
0
T31, T351, T351O, T3511
T37
T81, T851, T8510, T8511
T87
T61
0
H12
H14
H16
H18
H25
1060
1100
1145
1199
1350
2011
2014
2024
2036
2124
2218
2219
2618
3003
workabilily(a)
Machinability(a)
Gas
An:
spolIIIId seam
Brazeability(b)
Solderability(c)
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
B
C
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
B
B
C
B
D
E
E
C
D
C
D
D
D
D
E
E
D
D
D
A
A
A
D
B
B
D
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
C
D
D
D
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
D
D
D
D
B
B
D
B
C
C
C
B
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
D
D
D
B
B
B
D
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
B
D
B
C
B
B
C
D
D
D
D
A
A
A
A
D
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
C
B
B
A
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
C
D
D
D
D
E
E
D
D
D
E
E
D
D
D
E
E
D
D
D
E
E
B
C
D
D
D
B
B
B
B
B
A
A
B
C
C
B
E
E
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
NA
NA
A
A
A
A
A
A
(continued)
(a)RatingsA throughDforcold workabilityandA throughE formachinability are relativeratingsin decreasingorderof merit.(b)RatingsA through
D for weldability and brazeabilityare relativeratingsdefinedas follows:A, generallyweldableby all conunercialproceduresand methods;B, weldable with specialtechniquesor for specificapplications and requiringpreliminarytrials or testing to developwelding procedureand weld performance;C, limitedweldabilitybecauseofcracksensitivityor lossin resistancetocorrosionandmechanicalproperties;D, nocommonlyusedwelding
methodshavebeendeveloped (c)RatingsA throughD andNA for solderabilityare relativeratingsdefinedasfollows:A, excellent;B, gond;C, fair;
D, poor;NA, not applicable
AHoy
Temper
3004
H32
H34
H36
H38
B
B
C
C
HI2
HI4
HI6
HI8
H25
T6
B
B
C
C
B
3105
4032
4043
5005
0
HI2
HI4
HI6
HI8
H32
H34
H36
H38
5050
0
H32
H34
H36
H38
5052
5056
5086
5154
5182
5252
5254
A
A
B
C
C
A
H32
H34
H36
H38
B
B
C
C
A
A
H321,H116
Hll1
B
B
C
0
0
B
C
C
H32,H1116
H34
H36
H38
H1l1
B
B
C
C
B
H32
H34
H36
H38
B
B
C
C
HI9
H24
H25
H28
0
B
B
0
H32
H34
H36
H38
5356
5454
B
C
C
B
C
C
Hll1
H12,H32
HI4,H34
H18,H38
HI92
H392
5083
NA
A
A
C
A
B
B
C
C
NA
A
IlesIstaoce
MathiDability(a)
Gas
Arc
0
0
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
0
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
NA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
NA
C
NA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
NA
A
C
C
C
E
E
0
0
0
D
B
C
E
E
0
0
0
E
0
0
0
E
0
0
C
C
0
0
C
C
C
0
0
0
C
C
B
B
D
0
0
0
0
C
C
C
0
0
0
C
C
C
0
B
0
C
C
0
0
C
C
C
B
(continued)
Brazeability(b)
Solderability(c)
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
0
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
C
NA
NA
NA
NA
A
A
A
A
NA
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
0
D
0
0
0
0
0
D
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
D
0
C
C
C
0
0
0
0
0
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
0
0
D
D
0
D
D
0
D
D
0
0
0
0
D
D
0
0
0
0
0
D
0
0
0
D
D
0
0
0
D
0
D
0
0
0
NA
NA
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
Introduction I 7
Table 3 (con'nuecl)
Weldability(b)
AHoy
Temper
5454 (continued)
H32
H34
Hlll
5456
0
Hll1
H321,H115
5457
0
5652
0
H32
H34
H36
H38
5657
H241
H25
H26
H28
6005
T5
T4
6009
6010
T4
0
6061
T4, T451, T451O, T4511
T6, T651, T652, T651O,
T6511
6063
TI
T4
T5, T52
T6
T83, T831, T832
0
6066
T4, T451O, T451I
T6, T651O, T6511
6070
T4, T4511
T6
T6, T63
6101
T61,T64
6151
T6, T652
6201
T81
T6, T651, T651O, T651I
6262
T9
T5,T6
6351
T1
6463
T5
T6
7005
T53
7049
T73, T7351, T7352
T76,T7651
T74, T7451, T7452
7050
T76, T761
7072
7075
0
T6, T651, T652, T651O,
T6511
T73, T7351
T74, T7452
7175
7178
0
T6, T651, T6510, T6511
7475
T6,T651
T73,T7351, T7352
T76, T765I
Cold
workability(a)
B
B
B
B
C
C
A
A
B
B
C
C
A
B
B
C
C
A
B
A
B
C
B
B
B
C
C
B
C
C
B
C
C
B
C
D
C
B
B
C
C
D
D
D
D
Machinability(a)
Gas
An:
Resistance
spot and seam
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
D
D
D
D
D
D
A
A
A
A
A
D
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
D
D
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
C
C
C
C
A
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
D
D
C
D
D
D
D
E
D
D
C
C
C
D
D
D
D
C
C
C
D
C
C
D
D
C
C
C
D
C
B
C
C
C
D
C
B
B
C
D
C
C
A
B
B
B
B
D
D
D
D
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
D
D
D
D
A
D
D
D
D
B
B
D
D
D
D
D
D
B
B
B
B
D
D
D
D
D
Brazeability(b)
B
C
C
C
C
C
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
Solderability(c)
NA
NA
B
D
D
D
D
D
NA
NA
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
NA
B
B
A
A
D
D
D
NA
NA
B
NA
NA
B
NA
B
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
(a)RatingsA throughD for cold workabilityand A throughE for machinabilityarerelativeratingsin decreasingorderof merit.(b) RatingsA through
D for weldabilityand brazeabilityare relativeratings definedasfollows:A, generallyweldableby all commercialproceduresand methods;B, weldable with special techniques or for specific applicationsand requiring preliminarytrials or testing to develop welding procedure and weld performance;C, limitedweldabilitybecauseofcracksensitivityor lossin resistanceto corrosionandmechanicalproperties;D, no commonlyusedwelding
methodshavebeendeveloped.(c)RatingsA throughD andNA forsolderabilityarerelativeratingsdefinedas follows:A, excellent; B, good;C, fair;
D, poor;NA, not applicable
Anode leads
Steel studs
Cathode cart>oo
Cathodeleads
Fig. 2
Imports
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
End use
Containers and
packaging, 21.7%
Building and
construction, 12.9%
UBC
processing facility
Total
aluminum
supply
New scrap
generated
Transportation, 29.2%
Electrical, 6.9%
Consumer
durables, 6.8%
Machinery and
equipment, 6.1%
Scrap recycling
industry
Secondary
aluminum
(molten or ingot)
Imports
Fig. 3
Other, 3.1%
Exports
Flow diagram for aluminum in the United States, showing the role of recycling in the industry. Scrap recycling (lower left) includes scrap collectors, processors,
dealers and brokers, sweat furnace operators, and dross reclaimers.
i
8
.......
'0
Aluminum Alloys