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Theory
AVL BOOST
VERSION 2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
Revision
A
Date
17-Jul-2009
Description
BOOST v2009 Theory
Document No.
01.0114.2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
Table of Contents
1. Introduction _____________________________________________________1-1
1.1. Scope _______________________________________________________________________1-1
1.2. User Qualifications ___________________________________________________________1-1
1.3. Symbols _____________________________________________________________________1-1
1.4. Documentation_______________________________________________________________1-2
AST.01.0114.2009 - 17-Jul-2009
BOOST v2009
Theory
ii
AST.01.0114.2009 - 17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
List of Figures
Figure 2-1: Considered Mass Fractions ................................................................................................................ 2-2
Figure 2-2: Energy Balance of Cylinder ............................................................................................................... 2-5
Figure 2-3: Inner Valve Seat Diameter ................................................................................................................ 2-8
Figure 2-4: User-Defined Scavenging Model...................................................................................................... 2-11
Figure 2-5: Standard Crank Train...................................................................................................................... 2-11
Figure 2-6: Approximation of a Measured Heat Release................................................................................... 2-18
Figure 2-7: Influence of Shape Parameter 'm'.................................................................................................... 2-19
Figure 2-8: Superposition of Two Vibe Functions ............................................................................................. 2-21
Figure 2-9: Flame Arrival at Cylinder Wall; Beginning of Wall-Combustion Mode ........................................ 2-28
Figure 2-10: Pipe Bend Parameters ................................................................................................................... 2-47
Figure 2-11: Pipe Bend Loss Coefficient ............................................................................................................ 2-48
Figure 2-12: Finite Volume Concept................................................................................................................... 2-50
Figure 2-13: Linear Reconstruction of the Flow Field ...................................................................................... 2-50
Figure 2-14: Pressure Waves from Discontinuities at Cell Borders ................................................................. 2-51
Figure 2-15: Main transport effects in a pipe consisting of different wall layers ............................................ 2-52
Figure 2-16: Forward / Backward Running Waves............................................................................................ 2-54
Figure 2-17: Perforated Pipes contained in Pipe ............................................................................................... 2-58
Figure 2-18: Two perforated Pipes contained in Plenum.................................................................................. 2-59
Figure 2-19: The Pressure Function ...............................................................................................................2-61
Figure 2-20: Full Check Valve Model ................................................................................................................. 2-66
Figure 2-21: Waste Gate...................................................................................................................................... 2-67
Figure 2-22: Flow Patterns in a Y-Junction....................................................................................................... 2-68
Figure 2-23: Flow Chart of the ECU .................................................................................................................. 2-74
AST.01.0114.2009 - 17-Jul-2009
iii
Theory
BOOST v2009
1. INTRODUCTION
BOOST simulates a wide variety of engines, 4-stroke or 2-stroke, spark or auto-ignited.
Applications range from small capacity engines for motorcycles or industrial purposes up
to large engines for marine propulsion. BOOST can also be used to simulate the
characteristics of pneumatic systems.
1.1. Scope
This document describes the basic concepts and methods for using the BOOST program to
perform engine cycle simulation.
1.3. Symbols
The following symbols are used throughout this manual. Safety warnings must be strictly
observed during operation and service of the system or its components.
Convention
Meaning
Italics
monospace
SCREEN-KEYS
17-Jul-2009
1-1
BOOST v2009
MenuOpt
Theory
1.4. Documentation
BOOST documentation is available in PDF format and consists of the following:
Release Notes
Users Guide
Theory
Primer
Examples
Aftertreatment
Aftertreatment Primer
Linear Acoustics
1D-3D Coupling
Interfaces
Validation
GUI Users Guide
Python Scripting
DoE and Optimization
Installation Guide
Licensing Users Guide
Thermal Network Generator (TNG) Users Guide
Thermal Network Generator (TNG) Primer
1-2
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
2. THEORETICAL BASIS
Theoretical background including the basic equations for all available elements is
summarized in this chapter to give a better understanding of the AVL BOOST program.
This chapter does not intend to be a thermodynamics textbook, nor does it claim to cover
all aspects of engine cycle simulation.
wFV
wCP
(2.1.1)
The air fuel ratio characteristic for the combustion products is calculated from
AFCP =
wCP wFB
wFB
(2.1.2)
Figure 2-1 shows the relations of the mass fractions to each other.
17-Jul-2009
2-1
BOOST v2009
Theory
c pk
R
= a mk T ( m 1)
(1)
m =1
H k = c pk dT
(2)
M
Hk
a mk T ( m1) a M +1,k
=
+
RT m=1
m
T
(3)
so that
2-2
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
Sk =
c pk
dT
(4)
so that
M
a T ( m 1)
Sk
= a 1k ln T + mk
+ a m + 2,k
m 1
R
m=2
(5)
c pk
R
Hk
RT
Sk
R
= a 1k + a 2 k T + a 3k T 2 + a 4 k T 3 + a 5 k T 4
= a 1k +
a
a
a
a 2k
a
T + 3k T 2 + 4 k T 3 + 5 k T 4 + 6 k
2
3
4
5
T
= a 1k ln T + a 2 k T +
a 3k 2 a 4 k 3 a 5 k 4
T +
T +
T + a 7k
2
3
4
(6)
(7)
(8)
17-Jul-2009
HCl
O2
HCNO
OH
GASOLINE
CO
HYDROGEN
CO2
METHANE
METHANOL
N2
ETHANOL
NO
DIESEL
NO2
BUTANE
NO3
PENTANE
N2O
PROPANE
2-3
BOOST v2009
Theory
NH3
CH4
C2H2
H2
C2H4
H2O
C2H6
SO
C3H4
SO2
C3H6
SO3
C3H8
For all cases where the above list is not sufficient (i.e. for HCCI auto-ignition) the User
Database enables the user to specify properties for and arbitrary number of additional
species (or to overrule the properties for the species in the internal database.
2-4
Injector: the injected mass is distributed to all species defined as fuel components
using the specified ratio (unless modified locally in the injector).
Results: For all results referring to a Fuel (traces, transients, summary) all
species defined as fuel components are summed up. This means that the specified
ratio is NOT considered.
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
2.2. Cylinder
2.2.1. Basic Conservation Equations
d (mc u )
dQ
dV dQ F
= pc
+
w
d
d d
d
dm
dm
dm
dm
hBB BB + i hi e h qev f ev
dt
d
d
d
(2.2.1)
The variation of the mass in the cylinder can be calculated from the sum of the in-flowing
and out-flowing masses:
dmc
dm
dm
dm BB dmev
= i e
+
d
d
d
d
dt
(2.2.2)
where:
d (mc u )
d
pc
17-Jul-2009
dV
d
2-5
BOOST v2009
Theory
dQF
d
dQw
d
hBB
dmBB
d
mc
pc
cylinder pressure
cylinder volume
QF
fuel energy
Qw
crank angle
hBB
enthalpy of blow-by
dm BB
d
dmi
dme
hi
he
qev
mev
evaporating fuel
The first law of thermodynamics for high pressure cycle states that the change of the
internal energy in the cylinder is equal to the sum of piston work, fuel heat input, wall
heat losses and the enthalpy flow due to blow-by.
Internal/External Mixture Preparation:
Equation 2.2.1 is valid for engines with internal and external mixture preparation.
However, the terms, which take into account the change of the gas composition due to
combustion, are treated differently for internal and external mixture preparation.
For internal mixture preparation it is assumed that
2-6
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
the combustion products mix instantaneously with the rest of the cylinder charge
and form a uniform mixture
as a consequence, the A/F ratio of the charge diminishes continuously from a high
value at the start of combustion to the final value at the end of combustion.
burned and unburned charge have the same pressure and temperature although
the composition is different.
pc =
1
mc Ro Tc
V
(2.2.3)
establishing the relation between pressure, temperature and density, equation 2.2.1 for the
in-cylinder temperature can be solved using a Runge-Kutta method. Once the cylinder
temperature is known, the cylinder pressure can be obtained from the gas equation.
dm
2
= Aeff po1
dt
Ro To1
dm
dt
Aeff
po1
To1
Ro
gas constant
(2.2.4)
p
p
2
2
,
=
1 po1 po1
17-Jul-2009
(2.2.5)
2-7
BOOST v2009
Theory
p2
= max
2 1
=
.
+1
+ 1
(2.2.6)
The actual effective flow area can be determined from measured flow coefficients :
Aeff =
d vi
4
2
d vi
(2.2.7)
The flow coefficient varies with valve lift and is determined on a steady-state flow test
rig. The flow coefficient, , represents the ratio between the actual measured mass flow
rate at a certain pressure difference and the theoretical isentropic mass flow rate for the
same boundary conditions. The flow coefficient is related to the cross section area. of the
attached pipe.
The inner valve seat diameter used for the definition of the normalized valve lift can be
seen in the following figure:
2-8
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
2.2.1.2. Scavenging
A perfect mixing model is usually used for four-stroke engines. This means that the
composition of the exhaust gases is the mean composition of the gases in the cylinder, and
also that the energy content of the exhaust gases is equivalent to the mean energy content
of the gases in the cylinder. In this case the change of the air purity over crank angle can
be calculated from the following formula:
dR
dm
1
=
(1 R ) i
d mc
d
(2.2.8)
air purity
In the case of a two-stroke engine, the perfect mixing model is not sufficient for accurate
simulations. For this reason BOOST also offers a perfect displacement scavenging model
and a user-defined scavenging model.
In the perfect displacement model no mixing between intake and residual gases takes place
and pure residual gases leave the cylinder (so long as they are available).
The User-defined scavenging model used in the BOOST code divides the cylinder into the
displacement zone and the mixing zone.
The mass balance is based on the following scavenging types:
SCAVENGING TYPE A
According to the (positive) Scavenging Quality
displacement and the mixing zone while pure mixing zone gas is leaving the cylinder
QSC =
m& ID
m& IZ
m& ID
>0
m& IZ
SCAVENGING TYPE B
According to the (negative) Scavenging Quality
mixing zone and partially short-circuited to the exhaust port, while shortcut and mixing
zone gas is leaving the cylinder.
QSC =
m& IS
shortcut massflow
m& IZ
17-Jul-2009
m& IS
<0
m& IZ
2-9
BOOST v2009
Theory
Taking these two scavenging types into account, the Scavenging Quality Function
QSC (SE ) is calculated from the user defined Scavenging Efficiency Function SE(SR).
= const
m (t ) VCY = const V AS (t )
SR (t ) = AS
=
mSREF
VZ
m AS
aspirated mass
VZ
mTAS
VZ
To consider the different zone temperatures (and densities) during the scavenging process,
the scavenging efficiency SE(t) (used for calculating the scavenging quality QSC (t)=
SE (t ) =
2-10
m& IZ ( ) m& EF ( )
( ) ( ) d
t0
IZ
EF
mZ (t )
Z (t )
m& IZ
m& EF
mZ
IZ
EF
t0
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
In order to specify the quality of the scavenging system of a two-stroke engine, scavenging
efficiency is required as a function of scavenge ratio SE(SR). This can be obtained from
scavenging tests.
17-Jul-2009
2-11
BOOST v2009
Theory
e
r
s = (r + l ) cos r cos( + ) l 1 sin ( + )
l
l
(2.2.9)
r +l
= arcsin
s
r
l
crank radius
crank angle between vertical crank position and piston TDC position
(2.2.10)
con-rod length
Ai
Tc
Twi
(2.2.11)
In the case of the liner wall temperature, the axial temperature variation between the
piston TDC and BDC position is taken into account:
TL = TL ,TDC
1 e cx
xc
c = ln L ,TDC
TL ,BDC
2-12
TL
liner temperature
TL ,TDC
TL ,BDC
(2.2.12)
(2.2.13)
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
For the calculation of the heat transfer coefficient, BOOST provides the following heat
transfer models:
Woschni 1978
Woschni 1990
Hohenberg
WOSCHNI Model
The Woschni model published in 1978 [C5] for the high pressure cycle is summarized as
follows:
38
w = 130 D
0.2
pc
0.8
Tc
0.53
V T
C1 cm + C 2 D c ,1 ( pc pc ,o )
pc ,1 Vc ,1
C1
= 2.28 + 0.308 cu / cm
C2
C2
cylinder bore
cm
cu
circumferential velocity
VD
pc ,o
Tc ,1
pc ,1
0.8
(2.2.14)
The modified Woschni heat transfer model published in 1990 [C6] aimed at a more
accurate prediction of the heat transfer at part load operation:
38
w = 130 D
0.2
pc
0.8
Tc
0.53
VTDC
0.2
c1 cm 1 + 2
IMEP
V
VTDC
IMEP
0.8
(2.2.15)
C2
17-Jul-2009
VD Tc ,1
V
( pc pc ,o ) 2 C1 cm TDC IMEP 0.2 ,
pc ,1 V
V
2-13
BOOST v2009
Theory
the heat transfer coefficient is calculated according to the formula published in 1978.
For the gas exchange process, both Woschni models use the same Equation for the heat
transfer coefficient:
(2.2.16)
C3 = 6.18 + 0.417 cu / cm
cylinder bore
cm
cu
circumferential velocity
HOHENBERG Model
In the Hohenberg heat transfer model [C7] the following equation is used for the
calculation of the heat transfer coefficient:
(2.2.17)
LORENZ Model
The Lorenz Heat Transfer Equation is valid for a cylinder with an attached combustion
chamber. In Equation 2.2.14 and 2.2.15 the characteristic speed is:
wC = C1 cm
wC
dVCP
dt + C C
wC =
1 m
D. .x
4
(2.2.18)
dVCP
volume flow from the connecting pipe to the cylinder
dt
x
2-14
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
d in 2
0.2 0.8 0.53
C4
= 14.0
bore [m]
pressure [Pa]
temperature [K]
d in
vin
0.8
(2.2.19)
The diameter of the intake port directly at the valve is of special significance for this
model, therefore these diameters of the intake ports should be accurately specified over the
whole port length.
Td = (Tu Tw ) e
The heat transfer coefficient,
Aw p
m& c p
+ Tw
(2.2.20)
hv
d vi
(2.2.21)
hv
d vi
(2.2.22)
17-Jul-2009
2-15
BOOST v2009
Theory
Td
downstream temperature
Tu
upstream temperature
Tw
Aw
m&
cp
hv
valve lift
dvi
The following table contains the constants used in the formulas above.
Exhaust Valve
Intake Valve
C4
1.2809
C7
1.5132
C5
7.0451 10 -4
C8
7.1625 10 -4
C6
4.8035 10 -7
C9
5.3719 10 -7
2.2.1.5. Blow-By
BOOST considers blow-by losses in the cylinder using the specified effective blow-by gap
and the mean crankcase pressure. The blow-by mass flow rates are calculated at any time
step from the orifice flow Equations (2.2.4 - 2.2.6).
The effective flow area is obtained from the cylinder bore and from the effective blow-by
gap:
Aeff = D
Aeff
cylinder bore
blow-by gap
(2.2.23)
If the cylinder pressure exceeds the mean crankcase pressure, the cylinder pressure and
temperature are used as upstream stagnation pressure and temperature. The mean
crankcase pressure represents the downstream static pressure. The gas properties are
taken from the cylinder.
The blow-by gas has the same energy content as the gases in the cylinder.
If the cylinder pressure is lower than the mean crankcase pressure, the pressure in the
crankcase is used as upstream stagnation pressure, and the cylinder pressure as the
downstream static pressure. The upstream stagnation temperature is set equal to the
piston wall temperature, and the gas composition is set equal to the composition of the gas
which left the cylinder just before the reverse flow into the cylinder started.
2-16
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
2.2.1.6. Evaporation
The model for direct gasoline injection in BOOST relies on the specification of the rate of
evaporation. It is assumed that the density of the liquid fuel is much higher compared to
the fuel vapor density. Hence the presence of liquid fuel can be neglected.
dQF
dTc
instead for
, the heat
d
d
dx =
y=
17-Jul-2009
crank angle
start of combustion
dQ
Q
o
c
(2.2.24)
(2.2.25)
(2.2.26)
2-17
BOOST v2009
Theory
combustion duration
shape parameter
The integral of the vibe function gives the fraction of the fuel mass which was burned
since the start of combustion:
x=
x
( m+1)
dx
d = 1 e a y
d
(2.2.27)
Figure 2-6 shows the approximation of an actual heat release diagram of a DI Diesel
engine by a vibe function. The start of combustion, combustion duration and shape
parameter were obtained by a least square fit of the measured heat release curve.
2-18
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
dmBB ,b
dmbub
dV dQF
dQ
dmb
= pc b +
Wb + hu
hBB ,b
d
d
d
d
d
d
(2.2.28)
dmBB ,u
dmu uu
dV
dQ
dmB
= pc u Wu hu
hBB ,u
d
d
d
d
d
(2.2.29)
index b
burned zone
index u
unburned zone
The term hu
dmB
covers the enthalpy flow from the unburned to the burned zone due
d
to the conversion of a fresh charge to combustion products. Heat flux between the two
zones is neglected.
In addition the sum of the volume changes must be equal to the cylinder volume
change and the sum of the zone volumes must be equal to the cylinder volume.
17-Jul-2009
dVb dVu dV
+
=
d
d
d
(2.2.30)
Vb + Vu = V
(2.2.31)
2-19
BOOST v2009
Theory
The amount of mixture burned at each time step is obtained from the Vibe function
specified by the user. For all other terms, like wall heat losses etc., models similar to
the single zone models with an appropriate distribution on the two zones are used.
4. Double Vibe Function
The superposition of two vibe functions (Double Vibe) is used to approximate the
measured heat release characteristics of a compression ignition (CI) engine more
accurately. In this case two vibe functions are specified, the first one is used to model
the premixed burning peak and the second one to model the diffusion controlled
combustion. If the fuel allotment to each of the vibe functions is known, the heat
releases obtained from the two vibe functions can be added, thus giving a double vibe
heat release, Figure 2-8.
2-20
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
17-Jul-2009
2-21
BOOST v2009
Theory
c = c ,ref
id ref
id
m = mref
0.6
AF
ref
AF
p
IVC
p
IVC ,ref
0.6
n
ref
TIVC ,ref
T
IVC
combustion duration
AF
engine speed
id
ignition delay
pIVC
TIVC
Index ref
0.5
(2.2.32)
nref
0.3
(2.2.33)
The ignition delay is calculated with the relations found by Andree and Pachernegg [C3]
which assume that the ignition of the injected fuel droplets takes place if the integral of gas
temperature versus time exceeds a threshold.
HIRES ET AL Model
For gasoline engines the change of the combustion duration and the ignition delay is
calculated from the in-cylinder conditions at ignition timing [C2].
1/ 3
c = c ,ref
id = id ref
n f ref
f
ref
n
ref
1/ 3
s
ref
s
f sref
s
ref
2/3
(2.2.34)
2/3
(2.2.35)
The laminar flame speed itself is a function of the in-cylinder conditions, the A/F ratio and
the mole fraction of the residual gases [C4].
2-22
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
Note: From BOOST v5.0 on the EBCM and PBCM combustion models
are replaced by the Fractal Combustion Model.
The composition of the cylinder charge (residuals, recirculated exhaust gas, air and fuel
vapor)
The thermodynamics of the two zone combustion model is outlined in section 2.2.2 - Vibe
Two Zone. The two zone model is used to calculate the gas conditions of the combustion
products (i.e. the burned zone) and the remaining fresh charge (i.e. the unburned zone).
It is well established that the flame front propagating within the turbulent flow field
occurring inside the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine is a very thin
and highly wrinkled surface. This flame area AT , due to the above wrinkling, is much
higher than the one occurring in a laminar burning process. The latter, i.e. the laminar
flame area AL , can be considered a smooth and spherical surface centered in the spark
plug location. The increase in the flame surface ( AT / AL ) , is then first responsible for the
increase in the turbulent burning rate with respect to the laminar one. The mass burning
rate can be then expressed as:
A
dmb
= u AT S L = u T AL S L
dt
AL
(2.2.36)
Equation 2.2.36 underlines that the flame propagation speed remains equal to the laminar
one also in a turbulent combustion process, nevertheless, the same burning rate can be
also expressed as a function of a turbulent burning speed:
A
dmb
= u AS S T = u T
dt
AL
ST
SL
17-Jul-2009
AT
=
AL
AL S L
2-23
BOOST v2009
Theory
A variation of the local temperature, exponentially affecting the kinetic reaction rate,
can determine different local burning rates inducing a flame deformation.
The expansion process of the burned gases and the flame curvature together produce a
deviation in the trajectory of fluid particles passing through it and an hydrodynamic
flame deformation can occur.
The turbulent vortices also produce a convective flame wrinkling on different length
scales. This wrinkling is then partly compensated by the local laminar burning process
yielding a "smoothing" effect of the local deformations.
The competition of the above phenomena moreover varies with engine operating
conditions. At very high engine speeds the deformation action can be so intense to produce
a multiple connected flame front, with "islands" of unburned mixture trapped within it.
However it is accepted that in a relevant portion of the combustion regimes occurring in an
ICE, the flame front behaves like a single connected "passive scalar" mainly wrinkled by
the convective action of the turbulent flow field.
Under these hypothesis it is possible to develop a quasi-dimensional combustion model,
based on the concept of the fractal geometry. In this approach, an initially smooth flame
surface of spherical shape - the laminar flame AL - is then wrinkled by the presence of
turbulent eddies of different length scales. The interactions between the turbulent flow
field and the flame determine the development of a turbulent flame surface AT , which
propagates at the laminar flame speed S L . If a self-similar wrinkling is assumed within the
length scales interval L min - L max , then the flame front presents the characteristics of a
fractal object and its flame surface can be then easily computed:
AT
AL
Lmax
=
Lmin
D3 2
(2.2.37)
The above expression, substituted in the Equation 2.2.36, allows to compute the burning
rate once the laminar flame surface AL and speed S L as well as the wrinkling scales
L
dmb
= u max
dt fractals
Lmin
2-24
D3 2
AL S L
(2.2.38)
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
Turbulence
Based on the physical hypothesis recalled above, the computation of the wrinkling scales
L min - L max as well as the fractal dimension D3 must depend on the characteristics of
the turbulent flow field inside the cylinder. Its evaluation within a zero-dimensional model
is really challenging. A number of proposals can be found in the current literature and,
among these, a two-equation modified K k approach [C13], is recalled here:
m&
&
dK 1
= m& in u in2 P + K ex + K u
dt
m
2
u
&
m&
dk
= P m + k ex + k u
u
dt
m
P = 0.3307ct
K
LI
k
m
(2.2.39)
u 3
1
3
2
2
=
K = mU f
k = mu
LI
2
2
,
,
In the above balance equations,
whose production and destruction is mainly related to the intake and exhaust flow rates
& in and m& ex ) - k is the kinetic energy of the turbulent flow field (assumed isotropic)
(m
cascade mechanism [C13]). An unique tuning constant, t , is present and a value of order
1 is usually specified [C13]. Differently from [C13], the Equations 2.2.39 are integrated all
over the engine cycle and a turbulent production term due to the in-cylinder unburned
density variation during the compression and expansion stroke is included in both
K and
k balance equations [C14]. The turbulence intensity is finally derived from the k
definition. The above model also gives the possibility to estimate the Kolmogorov length
scale which, under the hypothesis of isotropic turbulence, assumes the expression:
lk =
LI
Ret3 / 4
Ret =
with
u LI
and
LI = cl H
(2.2.40)
17-Jul-2009
2-25
BOOST v2009
Theory
2.35u + 2.05S L
u + S L
(2.2.41)
The above described fractal model is indeed really valid for a fully-developed and freely
expanding turbulent flame. During both early flame development and combustion
completion correction terms (weight factors w1 and w2 described below) are required.
Ignition
The complex phenomena occurring after spark occurrence, plasma formation and
subsequent flame kernel evolution are described in detail in [C16]. Kernel initiation
process ends about 200 ms (tunable with the ignition-formation time multiplier cign ) after
31
spark at a critical flame radius of about 2 mm. During this period burning speed is very
high, depending on energy released by the ignition system, then it reaches a minimum to
values similar to the laminar flame speed [C16] and subsequently it increases again, as a
consequence of the flame surface wrinkling previously described.
Being the above phenomena not included in the present model, it is assumed to start the
computation at the end of kernel initiation process with a stable and spherically-shaped
smooth flame of about 2 mm radius. Flame wrinkling process then starts at a rate which
increases with both the instantaneous flame radius and the turbulence intensity
(proportional to the engine speed). The following expression is proposed for the
computation of a non-dimensional flame wrinkling rate:
wr =
In the above equation,
rf
rf , ref
n
nref
(2.2.42)
nref is a reference engine speed fixed to 1000 rpm. Equation 2.2.41 is finally redefined to
handle an increase in the fractal dimension related to the gradual increase in flame
wrinkling during time.
D3 =
D3,max u + D3,min S L
u + S L
D3,min = 2.05
With this formulation, the first phase of the combustion process will be characterized by a
fractal dimension very close to its minimum level D3,min , which determines an initial
burning speed close to the laminar one. Note that the minimum value of the fractal
dimension is in any case greater than 2.
2-26
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
This should compensate the very high burning speed which occurs during the kernel
formation phase, due to the energy supplied with the spark plug. Of course a careful tuning
of the parameters cl and r f ,ref is required to match the experimental pressure cycles at
each engine operating condition.
Wall Combustion
When the flame front reaches the combustion chamber walls the described fractal
mechanism of flame propagation is no longer valid. The most important characteristics of
combustion completion relate to the effects of the wall on the burning process ("wallcombustion" phenomena). The wall limits gas expansion, constrains all flows, and forms a
relatively low-temperature solid boundary that cools the gas. All of these factors change
the fundamental behavior of the combustion compared with that of a flame propagating
freely across the chamber. A great portion (30-40%) of the unburned mixture really burns
in this particular combustion mode. Wall-combustion burning rate can be simply described
by an exponential decay, as follows [C17]:
m mb
dmb
=
dt wall combustion
(2.2.43)
The overall burning rate can be consequently defined as a weighted mean of the two
described combustion rates:
dmb
dm
dm
= (1 w2 ) b
+ w2 b
dt overall
dt fractals
dt wall combustion
(2.2.44)
The switch between the two combustion modes gradually starts when a transition time
t tr
is reached, identifying the first flame plume arrival to the cylinder wall, i.e.:
rf =
17-Jul-2009
(m mb ) tr
( u AT S L ) tr
(2.2.45)
2-27
BOOST v2009
Theory
rcyl
rf
LI /2
=
The above
(m mb ) tr
( u AT S L ) tr
(2.2.46)
value is then kept fixed during the subsequent wall combustion process. The
weight factor w2 indeed linearly increases with time, depending on the instantaneous
unburned mass (m mb ) , compared to the one occurring at the transition time
m mb
(m mb ) tr
t tr :
(2.2.47)
In this way a smooth transition between the two modes is easily realized.
(2.2.48)
2-28
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
In this regime the heat release is a function of the fuel quantity available (f1) and the
turbulent kinetic energy density (f2):
dQMCC
= C Comb f1 (m F , QMCC ) f 2 (k , V )
d
(2.2.49)
C
f1 (m F , Q ) = m F MCC (wOxygen,available ) EGR
LCV
(2.2.50)
with
f 2 (k ,V ) = C Rate 3
(2.2.51)
QMCC cumulative heat release for the mixture controlled combustion [kJ]
C Comb combustion constant [kJ/kg/deg CA]
C Rate
mF
wOxygen,available mass fraction of available Oxygen (aspirated and in EGR) at SOI [-]
C EGR
dE kin
1.5
= 0.5 C turb m& F v F2 C Diss E kin
dt
k=
E kin
m F , I (1 + Diff m stoich )
(2.2.52)
(2.2.53)
17-Jul-2009
2-29
BOOST v2009
Theory
dE kin
= 0.5 m& F v F2 C Diss E kin
dt
k=
(2.2.54)
C turb E kin
m F , I (1 + Diff m stoich )
Ekin
CTurb
C Diss
m& F , I
injection velocity =
m stoich
Diff
time [s]
(2.2.55)
m& F
[m/s]
F A
dI id TUB Tref
=
d
Qref
As soon as the ignition delay integral I id reaches a value of 1.0 (=at
delay
2-30
iD
is calculated from
(2.2.56)
id ) at the ignition
id = id SOI .
I id
Tref
TUB
Qref
id
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
SOI
id
dQPMC
QPMC
d
= a (m + 1) y m e a y (m +1)
c
y=
QPMC
id
c
(2.2.57)
(2.2.58)
total fuel heat input for the premixed combustion= m fuel ,id C PMC
m fuel ,id
C PMC
C PMC Dur
id C PMC Dur
c (Tc Td ) =
30.93 10 4
4150.0
Td
pc
(2.2.59)
e
(20.0 + 0.26 (Td 273.15) + 0.3 (Tc 273.15))
Using the equilibrium temperature the velocity of the evaporation results from:
ve = 0.70353
Td
pc e
17-Jul-2009
4159.0
(2.2.60)
2-31
BOOST v2009
Theory
The value of 0.70353 can be changed through user input (expert parameters). Finally the
change in droplet diameter (and the corresponding change in droplet mass) over time can
be calculated:
d d = d d2,0 v e t
Tc
Td
pc
ve
dd
d d ,0
(2.2.61)
dQF
in Equation 2.2.1 is formulated as:
d
dQF nSpcGas
= ui MWi i
d
i =1
(2.2.62)
dwi
= MWi i
d
(2.2.63)
where:
nSpcGas
MW
The reaction rate of each species is calculated based on a specified set of chemical
reactions that describe the auto-ignition process.
2-32
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
Cylinder Temperature.
17-Jul-2009
2-33
BOOST v2009
Theory
The following 6 reactions (based on the well known Zeldovich mechanism) are taken into
account:
Stoichiometry
Rate
k i = k 0 ,i T e
a
k0 [cm3,mol,s]
a [-]
TA [K]
TAi
R1
N2 + O = NO + N
r1 = k1 c N 2 cO
4.93E13
0.0472
38048.01
R2
O2 +N = NO + O
r2 = k 2 cO 2 cN
1.48E08
1.5
2859.01
R3
N +OH = NO + H
r3 = k3 cOH c N
4.22E13
0.0
0.0
R4
N2O + O = NO + NO
r4 = k 4 c N 2O cO
4.58E13
0.0
12130.6
R5
O2 + N2 = N2O + O
r5 = k 5 cO 2 c N 2
2.25E10
0.825
50569.7
R6
OH + N2 = N2O + H
r6 = k 2 cOH c N 2
9.14E07
1.148
36190.66
All reactions rates ri have units [mole/cm3s] the concentrations ci are molar concentrations
under equilibrium conditions with units [mole/cm3]. The concentration of N2O is calculated
according to:
c N 2O = 1.1802 10 T
0.6125
9471.6
c N 2 pO 2
)1 + r AK
1
r4
2 1 + AK 4
(2.2.64)
with:
c NO ,act
c NO ,equ C PostProcMult
AK 2 =
r1
r2 + r3
AK 4 =
r4
r5 + r6
2-34
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
Stoichiometry
R1
N2 + O = NO + N
R2
O2 +N = NO + O
Rate
r1 = 6.76 10 e
10
1102 .0
r2 = 2.51 10 e
12
cCO cOH
24055 .0
cCO cO 2
cCO ,act
cCO ,equ
(2.2.65)
A fraction of the charge enters the crevice volumes and is not burned since the
flame quenches at the entrance.
2.
Fuel vapor is absorbed into the oil layer and deposits on the cylinder wall during
intake and compression. The following desorption takes place when the cylinder
pressure decreases during the expansion stroke and complete combustion cannot
take place any more.
3.
Quench layers on the combustion chamber wall which are left as the flame
extinguishes prior to reaching the walls.
4.
5.
Direct flow of fuel vapour into the exhaust system during valve overlap in PFI
engines.
The first two mechanisms and in particular the crevice formation are considered to be the
most important and need to be accounted for in a thermodynamic model. Quench layer and
partial burn effect cannot be physically described in a quasi dimensional approach, but
may be included by adopting tunable semiempirical correlations.
17-Jul-2009
2-35
BOOST v2009
Theory
The effect of through flow is taken into account automatically as all chemical species are
transported through all elements.
(a) Crevice mechanism
Crevices are narrow volumes in which the flame cannot propagate due to the heat
transferred to the walls. The most important crevice volumes are the formed between the
piston ring pack and the cylinder liner, and mainly the top-land crevices.
These crevice volumes cause hydrocarbon formation due to the following process. During
compression unburned mixture is forced to enter their volumes, which have a large
surface/volume ratio, and cools exchanging heat transfer with the walls. During
combustion, the pressure continues to rise and forces other unburned mixture to flow into
the crevice volumes. When the flame arrives it quenches, so that the flow through the
crevice entrance inverts its motion when the cylinder pressure starts to decrease.
To describe this process, the model assumes that the pressure in the cylinder and in the
crevices is the same and that the temperature of the mass in the crevice volumes is equal
to the piston temperature. The mass in the crevices at any time is equal to:
mcrevice =
p Vcrevice M
R T piston
(2.2.66)
where:
mcrevice
Vcrevice
Tpiston
As we are interested in the evaluation of the HCs going into the exhaust BOOST begins to
accumulate the HCs that are released from the crevice volume at end of combustion.
(b) HC absorption/desorption mechanism
A second significant source of hydrocarbon is the presence of lubricating oil in the fuel or
on the walls of the combustion chamber. In fact, during compression, the fuel vapor
pressure increases so, by Henrys law, absorption occurs even if the oil was saturated
during the intake. During combustion the fuel vapor concentration in the burned gases
goes to zero so the absorbed fuel vapor will desorb from the liquid oil into the burned
gases. Fuel solubility is a positive function of the molecular weight, so the oil layer
contributed to HC emissions depending on the different solubility of individual
hydrocarbons in the lubricating oil. As a consequence, for usual gaseous fuels as methane
and propane, due to the low molecular weight, oil mechanism does not contribute
significantly.
The assumptions made in the development of the HC absorption/desorption are the
following:
2-36
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
diffusion of the fuel in the oil film is the limiting factor, since the diffusion
constant in the liquid phase is 104 times smaller than the corresponding value in
the gas phase.
Under these hypotheses the radial distribution of the fuel mass fraction in the oil film can
be determined by solving the diffusion equation:
wF
2 wF
D
=0
t
r 2
(2.2.67)
where:
wF
time, [s]
radial position in the oil film (distance from the wall), [m]
In order to solve Equation 2.2.67 the oil layer can be represented as a cylindrical crown
adhering to the walls. The resulting calculation domain is then obtained by subdividing the
cylindrical crown into a fixed number of elements in both axial and radial directions.
The diffusion coefficient can be computed applying the following relation:
(2.2.68)
where:
M
vf
At the liner surface (r=0) a zero flux boundary conditions is applied to Equation 2.2.67, at
r=Film the fuel concentration at the gas/oil interface is assigned as boundary condition.
Here the following four different conditions can occur:
1) the oil layer is in contact with the fresh mixture
2) the oil layer is in contact with the burned gas
3) the oil layer is in contact with the crankcase gas
4) the oil layer is in contact with the piston layer
17-Jul-2009
2-37
BOOST v2009
Theory
BOOST evaluates the position of the flame front at every time-step and accumulates only
HCs that are desorbed into the burned gases, since any HC released into the unburned
mixture would be burned by the propagating flame front.
(c) Partial burn effects
Quench layer and partial burn effects cannot be physically described in a quasidimensional approach. A possible semi-empirical correlation has been proposed by Lavoie
et al. [C23], in which the fraction of unburned charge remaining in the cylinder Fprob is
calculated applying the following equation which relates Fprob to the global burn rate
parameters:
C1 = 0.0032 + ( 1) 22
<1
C1 = 0.003 + (( 1) 1.1)
>1
(2.2.69)
C2 = 0.35
where:
F
90
EVO
dC HC
T
= FOx AOx exp Ox CO 2 C HC
dt
T
(2.2.70)
where:
C
FOx
TOx
AOx
2-38
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
(t )dt
iD
(2.2.71)
iD
ignition delay at the unburned zones condition is larger than one before the end
of combustion is reached.
The ignition delay for the knock model depends on the octane number of the fuel and the
gas condition according to
a
ON
n
p eT
100
iD = A
iD
ON
pressure [atm]
temperature [K]
A, a, n, B
model constants
(2.2.72)
A = 17.68 ms
a =3.402
n =1.7
B =3800 K
n sw (t + t ) =
nsw
in-cylinder swirl
mc
in-cylinder mass
dmi
in-flowing mass
nswi
17-Jul-2009
1
(mc (t ) n sw (t ) + dmi n swi )
mc (t + t )
(2.2.73)
2-39
BOOST v2009
Theory
ntb (t + t ) =
1
(mc (t ) ntb (t ) + dmi ntbi )
mc (t + t )
ntb
in-cylinder tumble
mc
in-cylinder mass
dmi
in-flowing mass
ntbi
(2.2.74)
dT d 2T
=
dt c dx 2
wall temperature
(2.2.75)
qin =
qin
dT
dx
2-40
(2.2.76)
(2.2.77)
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
qout
CM
TWO
TCM
For the piston, another term for the heat flux to the liner is taken into account.
dm
d (mc u )
dQ
dV dQF
dm
= pC
+
w hBB BB + hcp cp
d
d d
d
d
d
hcp
dmcp
d
(2.2.78)
The concentration changes due to the flows from the chamber are:
Ci +1/ CP
+1
+1
dmCP
mC
in the Cylinder
Similar extensions must be made in the energy Equation for the gas exchange.
CONNECTING PIPE MASS FLOW
With a modification of the isentropic flow equation the wall heat flow and the inertia of the
gas column in a pipe are taken into account. The downstream states are the same as the
pipe states, because no storage effects are taken into account.
h1 h2 + qw +
17-Jul-2009
w
1 2
2
dl = w2 w1
t
2
(2.2.79)
2-41
BOOST v2009
Theory
dm
1
=
A 2 W2
d 360n
h1 , h2
W1 , W2
dl
(2.2.80)
qw
T
1
w
dm
=
A 2 2cp T1 1 2 + 2qw + 2
l
d 360 n
t
T1
(2.2.81)
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
The combustion chamber is treated as a plenum. Heat release, wall heat losses, volume
work and mass flows out of or into the plenum are accounted for (refer to Section 2.3).
With the addition of a term for the heat released due to combustion, Equation 2.3.1
becomes:
d (mPl u )
dme he
dV
dQw dQB
dmi hi
= p PL
+
+
d
d
d
d
d
d
(2.2.82)
wPL
TPL
gas temperature
rPL
wPL =
2-42
torque
ri
inertia radius
T
2
mPL ri
0.53
rPL
0.2
(2.2.83)
(2.2.84)
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
T = (M ADD M FR )dt
(2.2.85)
friction Momentum
M ADD =
dmcp
dt
dmcp
dt
wcp rcp
(2.2.86)
wcp
rcp
M FR = C f
Pl
2
s
C f = 0,01 Pl
rPl
Pl rPl
3
0.1
Re Pl 0, 2
Pl rPl 2
Re Pl =
Cf
s Pl
Re Pl
Pl
(2.2.87)
(2.2.88)
(2.2.89)
d (m Pl u )
dQ
dm
dm
dQreac
dV
= p Pl
w + i hi e he +
d
d
d
d
d
d
mPl
pPl
plenum volume
Qw
17-Jul-2009
(2.3.1)
2-43
BOOST v2009
Theory
crank angle
dmi
dme
hi
he
Qreac
In a General Species Transport calculation chemical reactions can occur in the plenum. In
this case the term
dQreac
and the species mass fractions in the plenum are calculated as
d
In the case of a variable plenum, the change of the plenum volume over crank angle is
calculated from the input specified by the user (user-defined), or from the motion of the
piston (crankcase or scavenging pump).
Heat Transfer:
BOOST offers two options for the calculation of the gas/wall heat transfer:
(1) direct specification of the heat transfer coefficient
(2) model based specification of the heat transfer coefficient
= 0.018
Ro uch0.8 Lch
0.2
(2.3.2)
Lch = 3 V
u ch =
Lch
characteristic length
plenum volume
uch
characteristic velocity
u pipe
Apipe
1
u pipe 2
n n
Lch
2-44
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
Ro
gas constant
Please refer to section 2.2.7 for details on the plenum variable heat transfer model.
2.4. Pipe
2.4.1. Conservation Equations
The set of conservation equations to describe a one-dimensional pipe flow is given by the
well known Euler Equation:
U F(U)
+
= S(U)
t
x
(2.4.1)
U=
1
2
cV T + 2 u
wj
(2.4.2)
2
u + p
F=
u ( E + p )
u w
j
(2.4.3)
with
E = cV T +
1
u2
2
(2.4.4)
The source term on the right hand side comprises two different source terms:
(2.4.5)
These are sources caused by axial changes in the pipe cross section
S A (F(U)) =
17-Jul-2009
1 dA
F
A dx
(2.4.6)
2-45
BOOST v2009
Theory
and sources taking into account homogeneous chemical reactions, heat and mass transfer
terms between the gas and solid phase and friction sources. The entire source term is given
by
FR
qw
S R (U) =
Rhom
MW j i . j r&i
i
(2.4.7)
Please refer to the following sub-sections for details on the definition of the different
source terms and for details on the solution mechanism.
f:
f
FR
=
u u
V
2 d hyd
(2.4.8)
The factor is called Fanning friction factor and takes into account deviations from round
channel cross sections. It has values as summarized in Table 21.
41
Round
1.00
Square
0.89
Equilateral Triangle
0.83
0.69
Re =
d hyd u
(2.4.9)
2-46
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
Re Re lam
| f = f,lam
Re turb Re
| f = f, turb
Re lam Re Re turb
Re Re lam
| f = f,lam 1
Re turb Re lam
Re Re lam
f,turb
Re
Re
lam
turb
(2.4.10)
The bounds for the transition region from laminar to turbulent are set by Reynolds
numbers of Relam = 2300 and Returb = 5000. In the turbulent region, f ,turb is either
considered as a constant input value or can be calculated based on a specified value for the
surface roughness. In the laminar region f ,lam is given by
f,lam = a Re b a = 64
b = 1 ,
(2.4.11)
where a is an input value. For gas-exchange simulation b=-1 according to the HagenPoisseuille-Law for laminar tube flow and cannot be modified by the user.
p =
v 2
2
(2.4.12)
This loss coefficient is a function of the bend angle and the ratio between the bend radius
and the pipe diameter. For this reason the variation of bend radius over pipe length must
be specified. The bend radius is defined as the bend radius of the pipe centerline.
r
Figure 2-10: Pipe Bend Parameters
17-Jul-2009
2-47
BOOST v2009
Theory
Nu =
gw d hyd
g
(2.4.13)
Based on Lienhard and Lienhard [P5] BOOST offers the following approaches for the
definition of the Nusselt number:
Re-Analogy:
Nu =
d hyd 0.019
u cp
g
2
(2.4.14)
Colburn:
2-48
(2.4.15)
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
Pethukov:
f
Re Pr
8
Nu =
2
f
1.07 + 12.7 Pr 3 1
8
f =
(2.4.16)
1
(1.82 log10 Re 1.64 )2
Gnielinski:
f
(Re 1000) Pr
8
Nu =
2
f
1 + 12.7 Pr 3 1
(2.4.17)
Nu = Nu FP FB
(2.4.18)
FB = 1 +
2 L pipe
Re 0.14
d hyd d B ,
(2.4.19)
where d hyd is the pipe diameter, L pipe is the pipe length and d B represents the bending
radius.
17-Jul-2009
x
u+a
(2.4.20)
2-49
BOOST v2009
Theory
This means that a certain relation between the time step and the lengths of the cells must
be met. BOOST determines the time step to cell size relation at the beginning of the
calculation on the basis of the specified initial conditions in the pipes. However, the CFL
criterion is checked every time step during the calculation.
If the criterion is not met because of significantly changed flow conditions in the pipes, the
time step is reduced automatically.
An ENO scheme [P1, P2] is used for the solution of the set of non-linear differential
equations discussed above. The ENO scheme is based on a finite volume approach. This
means that the solution at the end of the time step is obtained from the value at the
beginning of the time step and from the fluxes over the cell borders:
41
2-50
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
From this information, the mass, momentum and energy fluxes at the cell borders of each
cell can be calculated. Normally the flux at the right cell border will not be equal to the
flux at the left cell border of the adjacent cell, which is a necessary condition to meet
continuity requirements. To overcome this problem, a Riemann-Solver is used to calculate
the correct mean value from the two different fluxes at the cell border, as shown in the
following figure.
17-Jul-2009
2-51
BOOST v2009
Theory
Figure 2-15: Main transport effects in a pipe consisting of different wall layers
The wall energy balance equation is given by
(Tw l ,w c p,l ,w )= + l ,w Tw + 1 r l ,w Tw ,
t
x
x r r
r
(2.4.21)
l ,w
are given within the time and space derivatives in order to consider their
dependency of the temperature. All three properties are marked with the index l to
distinguish between the properties of different wall layers as sketched in Figure 2-15.
The boundary conditions of the 2D heat conduction field are given by
Tw
=0
x
Tw
=0
x
Tw gw
=
(Tg Tw )
r l ,w
@ x=0,
(2.4.22)
@ x = L pipe ,
(2.4.23)
@ r = rgw ,
Tw wa
4
=
(Tw Tamb ) + O Tw4 Trad
l ,w
r l ,w
where
gw
and
wa
@ r = rwa ,
(2.4.24)
(2.4.25)
represent the heat transfer coefficients between gas and wall and
2-52
17-Jul-2009
Theory
BOOST v2009
The first is evaluated using a Nusselt correlation the latter is used as model input
parameter in a simplifying approach. Tamb is the ambient temperature and Trad is the
radiation sink temperature which is not necessarily equal to the ambient temperature.
represents the emissivity of the outer surface of the outermost wall layer and is the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant. According to Eq. (2.4.22) and Eq. (2.4.23) no heat losses in
axial direction are assumed. At the wall inner side (Eq. 2.4.24) a boundary heat flux is
given by convective heat transfer between the gas and wall. At the outer surface of the pipe
wall (Eq. 2.4.25) convective and radiative heat transfer to the ambient are taken into
account.
Air-Gaps
If i.e. air-gaps are part of the model it is additionally necessary to consider radiative heat
transfer between the opaque walls neighboring a transparent layer. This radiative heat
exchange, taken from [P3], is evaluated according to
o i Ao oi Tw4,o Tw4,i
,
Q& oi =
1 (1 o ) (1 i ) oi io
where
and
(2.4.26)
represent (see Figure 2-15) the emissivities at the outer surface Ao of the
inner layer and at the inner surface of the outer layer, respectively.
oi ( io ) is the viewing
factor from the outer (inner) side of the inner (outer) layer to the inner (outer) side of the
inner (outer) layer. Both viewing factors are evaluated according to [P3] assuming finite
length coaxial cylinders.
The conductive/radiative heat transfer within air-gaps is typically augmented by free
convection. Therefore an effective heat conductivity taken from Wilde [P4] is applied in the
model. It is given by
eff
(Gr Prair )
= 1 + 0.0119
air
14500 + Gr Prair
where the effective heat conductivity
eff
(2.4.27)
Gr =
where
g 3 air
(Tw,o Tw,i ) ,
2
vair
(2.4.28)
air
(temperature
dependent data were taken from Verein Deutscher Ingenieure [P3] represents the isobar
expansion coefficient of air and vair is its kinematic viscosity.
Wall-ambient heat transfer:
The external heat transfer model applies Nusselt approaches for cross-flow take from VDI
[P3]. The correlation considers free and forced convection. It is given by:
17-Jul-2009
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BOOST v2009
Theory
(2.4.29)
Please refer to VDI [P3] (section Fa and section Ge) for details on the definition of the
Nusselt numbers for free and forced convection.
u+
2
c = const
1
Similarly the path from the state behind the forward running wave and the calculated
state is along an - characteristic. The compatibility equation along an - characteristic is
2
c = const
1
The two equations are solved for the gas velocity and sound speed of the state behind the
forward running wave.
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BOOST v2009
The pressure is calculated from the isentropic equation from the calculated state.
The state behind the backward running wave is calculated analogously with the role of and - characteristics exchanged.
Speed of sound
(m/s)
ageo
(m2/m3)
Ag
(m2)
cv
(J/kg/K)
cp,l,w
(J/kg/K)
dhyd
Hydraulic diameter
(m)
(-)
FR
(N)
FP
(-)
FB
(-)
Gr
(-)
(-)
(-)
LPipoe
Pipe length
(m)
MW
Molecular weight
(kg/kmol)
Nu
Nusselt Number
(-)
Nuforced
(-)
Nufree
(-)
pg
Static Pressure
(Pa)
Pr
Prandtl number
(-)
qw
(W)
Q& oi
(W)
r&
Reaction rate
(kmole/m3s)
(m)
Rel
(-)
Ret
(-)
Re
Reynolds number
(-)
Sh
Sherwood number
(-)
Time
(s)
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BOOST v2009
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Tamb
Ambient Temperature
(K)
Tg
Gas temperature
(K)
Trad
(K)
Tw
Wall temperature
(K)
Tw,i
(K)
Tw,o
(K)
(m/s)
wj
(kg/kg)
(m)
(= A dx )
(m3)
Greek Letters
2-56
gw
(W/m2)
wa
(W/m2)
(m)
(-)
(-)
(-)
io
(-)
io
(-)
(-)
air
(W/m K)
eff
(W/m K)
(W/m K)
l,w
(W/m K)
(W/m2/K4)
(kg/m3)
l,w
(kg/m3)
Kinematic viscosity
(m2/s)
Stoichiometric coefficient
(-)
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Theory
BOOST v2009
+ div( U ) = 0
t
E
+ div( EU ) + div( pU ) = 0
t
Their integration over the volume and in the time will lead to the following discretized
forms:
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BOOST v2009
Theory
n +1 = n +
1 Nc
cU c t = 0
V c
Nc
Nc
where the subscript c indicates the connector and Nc is the total number of connectors
linked to the cell. The term Uc indicates the gas velocity at the connector, which is
oriented in a direction normal to the connector. The momentum equation is solved with
respect to the connector considering the balance between the pressure force and
momentum of the neighbouring cells, namely left and right cells. The momentum balance
is written as follows:
U cn +1 =
) (
& c is the mass flux through the connector and t is the characteristic length
where m
n
between the centroids of the two neighbouring cells. Once the connector momentum has
been calculated the cell momentum is determined according to the net momentum flux
entering the cell:
Nc
n +1
(m& U )CELL
= m& cn +1U cn +1
c =1
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2
2
+1
p
p
p
2
1 w
m& = d p0
1 p 0 p0
R T0
p
R
t
0
m&
pipe diameter
p0 ,T0
R,
w
t
(2.6.1)
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2
p p
m& = p0
R T0
1 p0 p0
m&
flow coefficient
p0 ,T0
R,
(2.7.1)
If the actual pressure ratio is lower than the critical pressure ratio
pk 2 1
=
,
p0 + 1
pk
(2.7.2)
critical pressure
but supersonic flow is not feasible, the mass flow is dependent on the actual pressure ratio:
1
2 2 1
.
m& = p0
R T0 + 1
+1
(2.7.3)
From the instantaneous mass flow rates at a system boundary, the orifice noise can be
determined.
By means of a Fourier analysis the amplitudes of the mass flow rates over frequency can be
obtained. They are considered sources of the noise generation and allow the instantaneous
sound pressure at a certain microphone position to be calculated using a directivity
function.
Ground reflections can also be considered by assuming an image source region [A1, A2, A3].
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2.8. Restriction
2.8.1. Flow Restriction and Rotary Valve
The simulation of the flow through a flow restriction (and a rotary valve) is based on the
energy equation, the continuity equation, and the formulae for the isentropic change of
state:
Ro To1
(2.8.1)
flow coefficient
Ageo
po1
To1
Ro
gas constant
The pressure function depends on the gas properties and on the pressure ratio:
2
+1
k
k
p
p
2
2
=
1 po1 po1
p2
(2.8.2)
Figure 2-20 shows the shape of the pressure function over pressure ratio.
41
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In the case of subcritical flow, the pressure ratio, which is defined as the downstream static
pressure divided by the upstream stagnation pressure, is higher than the critical pressure
ratio and less than or equal to 1.0. The pressure function follows the trend shown in the
figure for this range of pressure ratios.
If the pressure ratio drops to the critical pressure ratio
pcrit 2 1
=
,
po1 + 1
(2.8.3)
the flow in the orifice reaches a Mach number of 1.0. The pressure function reaches its
maximum at the critical pressure ratio. The actual value of max is dependent on the
pressure ratio:
1
= max
2 1
=
,
+1
+ 1
(2.8.4)
The values of the pressure function shown in Figure 2-20 for pressure ratios less than
the critical pressure ratio are valid only for supersonic flow in the orifice. However, it
should be pointed out that supersonic flow can never be achieved just by lowering the
backpressure, but always requires a special shape of the pipe upstream of the orifice
(Laval-Nozzle).
2.8.2. Throttle
The calculation of the flow through the throttle is very similar to the procedure discussed
in Section 2.8.1 for the flow restriction. For the throttle the flow coefficients in up- and
downstream directions are specified depending on the throttle angle, which is imposed by
the user. The flow coefficients are typically determined experimentally on a flow test
bench.
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BOOST v2009
In addition to the above options BOOST enables the user to specify the number, the type,
and the ratio (mass of each injected species / total injected mass) of the species on which
the injected mass flow will be added for each injector element separately.
This is convenient for example for the injection of urea into the exhaust system (SCR), for
the injection of Diesel into the exhaust system (DPF regeneration) and for injection of N2O
(NITRO) into the intake system.
For both approaches BOOST can take into account the heat needed for the evaporation
and for the heating of the injected mass from the reference temperature (298.15K) to the
instantaneous temperature.
the duration of the injection event (using the specified injector delivery rate),
the injected mass flow (using the specified injector delivery rate and the specified
duration).
The last option of course defines the injected mass flow directly; therefore the Mass Flow
Specification page is disabled.
(b2) Fuel puddle model
The evaporation characteristics of gasoline fuel are typically described by a distillation
curve as shown in Figure 2-21.
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Figure 2-21: Distillation curves for different fuel types (Source: www.chevron.com)
Components with higher volatility evaporate at lower temperatures (approx. 50 degC),
components with lower volatility evaporate at higher temperatures (approx. 170 degC). In
& F is split into Q
order to take this effect into account the actual amount of injected fuel m
different fuel-type packages where each package has different evaporation properties
depending on the userspecified distillation curve.
Q
m& F = m& q
(2.8.5)
q =1
m& F
m& q
For each package q the actual mass in the fuel puddle is calculated from a simple balance
equation:
dmP ,q
dt
m P ,q
(2.8.6)
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y q ,sat y q
MWq
m& evap ,q = C evap k q AP g
1 y
,
q
sat
Cevap
kq
AP
yq
y q ,sat
(2.8.7)
Shq =
k q d ref
Dq
(2.8.8)
with
d ref
Dq
Re
Sc
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BOOST v2009
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m a = A ( p1 p2 ) Fo c x d v
m
p1 , p 2
static pressure
Fo
spring pre-load
spring stiffness
valve lift
damping constant
valve velocity
(2.8.9)
Equation2.8.9 describes the motion of a pressure actuated valve under consideration of its
inertia, the spring pre-load, the spring stiffness, and the viscous damping.
The flow coefficient of the check valve is determined as a function of valve lift and is then
used to calculate the mass flow rate as a function of upstream and downstream pressure.
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2.9. Junction
The BOOST program features three models for junctions. The constant pressure model
and the constant static pressure model can be used for all junctions. In the former case the
junction is treated like a plenum without any volume. As for a plenum, the flow
coefficients for flow into the junction and flow out of the junction must be defined for each
pipe attachment. From the gas conditions in the pipe, the static pressure and the
temperature at the center of each junction is calculated.
The constant static pressure model enforces the same static pressure in all pipe cross
sections attached to the junction. The flow coefficients are set to 1.
For three pipe junctions a more refined junction model is available. In this case the
BOOST code distinguishes between six possible flow patterns in the junction, as shown in
the following figure.
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2.10. Charging
2.10.1. Turbine
For the simulation of a turbine, the performance characteristics along a line of constant
turbine speed or the complete turbine map for transient simulations are required.
The power provided by the turbine is determined by the turbine mass flow rate and the
enthalpy difference over the turbine.
PT = m& T m (h3 h4 )
2-68
PT
m& T
turbine power
h3
h4
(2.10.1)
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Theory
BOOST v2009
h3 h4 = s ,T
4
c p T3 1
p3
s,T
cp
mean specific heat at constant pressure between turbine inlet and outlet
T3
p 4 , p3
tot
(2.10.2)
m s ,T
The Simplified Model turbine is a pure power supplier for the mechanically connected
element while the Full model turbine is dynamically integrated in the mechanical network
and the current rotor speed is used for evaluation of the performance maps.
2.10.2. Compressor
The power consumption of the turbo compressor depends on the mass flow rates in the
compressor and the enthalpy difference over the compressor. The latter is influenced by
the pressure ratio, the inlet air temperature, and the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor.
Pc = m& c (h2 h1 )
Pc
m& c
h2
h1
h 2 h1 =
s ,c
p
2
1
c p T1
p 1
(2.10.3)
(2.10.4)
s ,c
cp
mean value of the specific heat at constant pressure between compressor inlet
and outlet
T1
p 2 , p1
The Simplified Model compressor is a pure power consumer for the mechanically
connected element while the Full model compressor is dynamically integrated in the
mechanical network and the current rotor speed is used for evaluation of the performance
maps.
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2.10.3. Turbocharger
For steady state engine operation the performance of the turbocharger is determined by
the energy balance or the first law of thermodynamics. The mean power consumption of
the compressor must be equal to the mean power provided by the turbine:
Pc = PT
(2.10.5)
TC = m,TC s ,T s ,c
TC
(2.10.6)
Simplified Model:
For steady state engine performance a simplified turbocharger model may be used for the
simulation. Within this model the dynamics of the turbocharger (i.e. the variation of the
turbocharger speed) are not considered. Furthermore, the turbocharger efficiency is kept
constant during the engine cycle. As many test calculations have proven, this model
provides good accuracy for steady state engine calculations. It is very convenient to work
with this model, as only the mean values for the compressor efficiency, the turbine
efficiency, and the mechanical efficiency of the turbocharger must be specified. This
reduces the required input dramatically in comparison to the full turbocharger model
where entire compressor and turbine maps must be defined. Since turbine performance
maps cannot be provided by turbocharger manufacturers very often, this simplified
solution is usually the only alternative.
In BOOST, three calculation modes for the simplified model are available:
1. In the turbine layout calculation, the desired pressure ratio at the turbo compressor is
specified as input to the calculation. The program adjusts the flow resistance of the
turbine automatically, until the energy balance over the turbocharger is satisfied.
2. For the boost pressure calculation, the actual turbine size is specified in the input.
By solving the energy balance over the turbocharger, the actual boost pressure is
calculated.
3. For the waste gate calculation, both the turbine size as well as the desired pressure
ratio at the turbo compressor are specified in the input. The program bypasses a
certain percentage of the exhaust gases in order to achieve the energy balance over the
turbocharger. If the desired compressor pressure ratio cannot be achieved with the
specified turbine size, the program switches over to the boost pressure calculation
mode.
Full Model:
For unsteady engine operation the rotor dynamics of the turbocharger must be considered
because the wheel speed of the charger changes. From the balance of momentum at the
turbocharger wheel the change of wheel speed is obtained:
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BOOST v2009
dTC
1 PT Pc
=
dt
I TC TC
TC
I TC
(2.10.7)
The turbocharger full model requires the input of the compressor and turbine map.
The speed of the turbocharger wheel is calculated using Equation 2.10.7.
With the instantaneous wheel speed and the mass flow rate through the compressor, the
compressor's isentropic efficiency and the pressure ratio are interpolated from the
compressor map. The efficiency and the swallowing capacity of the turbine are
interpolated from the turbine map using the wheel speed and the pressure ratio across the
turbine. If a variable geometry turbine (VGT) is used, the vane position or some
equivalent information is also required.
In this case the turbine data is obtained from interpolation in the two maps valid for vane
positions nearest to the instantaneous one and from linear interpolation afterwards.
T2 = T1 1 +
s
2 1
p1
T2
T1
p2
p1
(2.10.8)
The power consumption of the mechanically driven compressor can be calculated from the
following formula:
1
2
P = m& c p T1
1
tot p1
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(2.10.9)
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BOOST v2009
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P
m&
cp
tot
m s
2.10.6. Catalyst
The gas dynamic behavior of a catalyst is modeled using the same model equations as given
for the pipe flow (see Section 2.3). The model additionally takes into account that a
honeycomb-type catalytic converter consists of a huge number of small and individual
channels. These small channels are the reason for very small Reynolds numbers and
therefore for a flow in the laminar regime. In this case the friction coefficient is evaluated
applying the Hagen-Poisseuille law, whereas in the turbulent region (if reached at all) a
turbulent friction coefficient used. The possibility of different channel shapes is taken into
account by Fanning friction factors that are applied in both, the laminar and turbulent
region.
In the BOOST cycle simulation the catalyst can be simulated with or without chemical
reactions:
2-72
For calculations using the General Species Transport option chemical reactions in
the catalyst can be activated and all reaction models can be used. The number and
the type of the chemical species must be in line with the requirements for the
specified reaction model. More detailed information about the reaction models and
the related input can be found in the BOOST Aftertreatment Manual.
For calculations using the Classic Species Transport option chemical reactions
cannot be activated. In this case the catalyst is purely considered as flow element.
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Theory
BOOST v2009
2.11. Engine
2.11.1. Engine Control Unit
In most modern engine concepts some functions of the engine are controlled by an
electronic engine management system. It is necessary to model such a control device
especially for the simulation of transients.
Usually engine control units are state machines. This means that the same input to the
unit produces different output depending on the state of the unit. The engine control
model in BOOST features three states:
Steady state
Engine acceleration
Engine deceleration
The transition from steady state to the state of engine acceleration is triggered if the
gradient of the load signal versus time exceeds a threshold specified by the user. The
transition to engine deceleration is triggered the same way when the negative gradient of
the load signal exceeds the user specified threshold.
Maps up to two dimensions are used to link the output (Actuators) of the control unit to
the input (Sensors). Figure 2-25 shows the principle of the calculation of an output value:
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A baseline steady state value is taken from the baseline map. This value may be subjected
to corrections by adding values from correction maps or by multiplying it by factors from
correction maps. In the case of acceleration or deceleration, other corrections may be
applied to the steady state value. Then it is checked whether the output is within
predefined bounds which themselves may be defined as maps.
Either the load signal or a desired engine speed can be selected as the guiding input signal
of the control.
For the full range of input (Sensor-Channels) and output (Actuator-Channels) please refer
to the table in Chapter 6.2 of the BOOST Users Guide.
2-74
Toil
+ FMEPIP )
T =90C
oil
0.24
(2.11.1)
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Theory
BOOST v2009
The last term takes the effect of a changing oil viscosity (as a function of oil temperature)
into account (Shayler et al. [F2]). The specific contributions are described in the following
sections.
2.11.2.1.1. Crankshaft
The crankshaft mean effective pressure can be expressed as follows:
N Db3 Lb nb
Db
N 2 Db2 nb
+
+
FMEPCS = ccb
C
C
cs
td
2
2
B
S
n
B
S
n
n
c
c
c
where:
B
S
Db
Lb
nb
nc
N
Ccb
Ccs
Ctd
Bore
Stroke
bearing diameter
bearing length
no. of bearings
no. of cylinders
Engine rotational Speed
Coefficient of the hydrodynamic losses in main bearings
Coefficient of friction losses in main bearing seals
Coefficient of friction losses due to viscous dissipation
(2.11.2)
[m]
[m]
[m]
[m]
[-]
[-]
[rpm]
[Pa/rpm m]
[Pa m2]
[Pa s2/m2 rpm]
N Db3 Lb nb
103 1
Vp
FMEPP = c pb
C
C
+
+
ps
pr
2
1 + N B 2
B S nc
P
(1.33 2.3810 2 V P )
Co i 0.088 rc + 0.182 rc
Pa
(2.11.3)
where:
Ccb
Cps
Cpr
Co
Vp
[Pa/rpm m]
[Pa s]
[Pa m2]
[Pa]
[m/s]
FMEPVT = cvb 2
+ cvo + Cvh B S n
+ Cvm 1 + N S n + FMEPCF
B
S
n
c
c
c
(2.11.4)
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103 nv
FMEPCF = Cvf 1 +
N S n c
(2.11.5)
N n
FMEPCF = Cvr v
S nc
(2.11.6)
where:
Coefficient for camshaft bearing hydrodynamic
Oscillating hydrodynamic lubrication constant
Oscillating mixed lubrication constant
Boundary lubrication constant due to the camshaft bearing seals
Maximum valve lift
No. of valves
Flat cam follower constant
Roller cam follower constant
Cvb
Cvh
Cvm
Cvo
Lv
nv
Cvf
Cvr
[Pa m3/rpm]
[Pa m0.5/rpm0.5]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[m]
[-]
[Pa m]
[Pa m]
(2.11.7)
For the losses caused by the injector pump the following correlation by Bohac et al. [F4] is
used:
105 VD
0.0025
0.0785 + 4.02 10 5 N + 1.06 10 8 N 2 + 4.64 108 IMEP + 2.17 10 10 N IMEP
FMEPIP =
(2.11.8)
2.11.2.2.1. Crankshaft
The FMEP in the crankshaft group is calculated using the following equation:
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BOOST v2009
N 0.6 Db3 Lb nb
FMEPCS = ccb
2
B
S
n
c
ref
+ Ccs 2 Db
B S nc
(2.11.9)
where:
Ccb
Ccs
n
ref
[Pa/rpm m]
[Pa m2]
[-]
[Pa.s]
[Pa.s]
N 0.6 Db3 Lb nb
V p0.5
V p0.5
FMEPP = c pb
C
C
+
+
ps
pr
B 2 S nc
B
B ref
(2.11.10)
where:
Cpb
Cps
Cpr
n
N 0.6 nb
FMEPVT = cvb 2
B
S
n
c ref
1.5 0.5
+ Cvs + Cvh L N nv
BSn
ref
10 Lv N v
Cvm 2 +
+ FMEPCF
5 + N S n c
(2.11.11)
10 nv
FMEPCF = Cvf 2 +
5 + N S n c
(2.11.12)
N nv
FMEPCF = Cvr
S nc
(2.11.13)
where:
Cvb
Cvh
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[kPa mm3/rpm0.6]
[Pa m0.5/rpm0.5]
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BOOST v2009
Cvm
Cvs
Cvf
Cvr
n
Theory
[Pa]
Fmep aux
= + N + N 2
ref
(2.11.14)
Engine (Cylinder 1)
Turbocharger
Turbine
Turbo Compressor
PDC
Electrical Device
The Engine and the Vehicle are always running in full model mode while the other
components can be specified according to the following compatibility matrix (e.g.: a Turbo
Compressor Full Model requires a Mechanical Connection Full Model to be linked to the
Engine):
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2.12. Acoustic
2.12.1. End Corrections
One-dimensional (1D) analytical models for the accurate acoustic performance prediction
of silencers and resonators require the introduction of acoustic length corrections in order
to account for the multidimensional effects at junctions.
The following is a summary of the end corrections applied at restrictions, open ends and
Helholtz resonators.
2.12.1.1. Restriction
e = 8H ( )
r
3
H ( ) = 0.875(1 )(1.371 )
H ( ) = 1 1.238
0.5 1.0
0 < 0.5
(2.12.1)
Where,
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BOOST v2009
e
= 0.6
r
2.12.1.3. Helmholtz
e = 0.85r
Therefore the total end correction
e = 0.85.2r
17-Jul-2009
(2.12.2)
(2.12.3)
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2.12.2. Microphone
The values at an external microphone are based on the work of Blair and Coates [A2]. The
pressure amplitude is given by,
( p )
2 f 2 d 4 u
16 R 2
fd
sin
2 J1
fd sin
External
Microphone
Source
@
System
Boundary
Distance, R
Angle,
Pressure amplitude and corresponds to the Acoustic > Microphone > Pressure
result. [Pa]
Intake or exhaust orifice diameter given by the pipe diameter at the system
boundary end [m]
frequency [Hz]
J1
Bessel function
( p rms )2 = 1
( p rms )
2-82
2 f 2 d 4 u
32 R 2
fd
sin
2 J1
fd sin
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Theory
BOOST v2009
SPL[dB ] = 10 log10
( p rms )2
4 x10 10
This corresponds to the Acoustic > Microphone > Linear > SoundPressure result. The
sound pressure level is also corrected according to the A-weighting scale in the result
Acoustic > Microphone > A-Weighted > SoundPressure.
( p rms )
image
2 f 2 d 4 u
32(R sec )2
Source
@
System
Boundary
fd
sin
2 J1
fd sin
fd
sin
2 J1
fd sin
External
Microphone
Distance, R
Angle,
Ground
Image
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And the total mean square sound pressure is then the sum of the mean square sound
pressures for both source and image
2
2
( p rms )total
= ( p rms )2source + ( p rms )image
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BOOST v2009
2.14. Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manual:
BDC
BMEP
BSFC
CRA
Crank angle
DPF
EVC
EVO
FIE
FMEP
IMEP
ISFC
IVC
IVO
PFP
PMEP
TDC
VGT
VNT
2.15. Literature
This section contains important information about the theoretical basis used for the
development of the code.
General Literature:
[G1]
Engine Terminology and Nomenclature General, NN, SAE - Standard J604, sl,
June 1995
Pipe Flow:
[P1]
[P2]
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BOOST v2009
Theory
[P3]
[P4]
[P5]
Lienhard John H. IV and Lienhard John H. V "A Heat Transfer Text Book
Phlogiston Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 3rd edition, 2003
[P6]
[P7]
Cylinder:
[C1]
Woschni, G. and Anisits, F., Eine Methode zur Vorausberechnung der nderung
des Brennverlaufs mittelschnellaufender Dieselmotoren bei genderten
Betriebsbedingungen, MTZ 34, 1973
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