A COMBUSTION OSCILLATOR FOR MHD ENERGY CONVERSION

V. J. IBBERSON, J. M. BE~R, J. SWITHENBANK,

D. S. TAYLOR, AND M. W. THRING

Department of Fuel Technology and Chemical Engineering,

University of She~ield, She~eld, England
The output of an MHD generator depends nonlinearly on the temperature and velocity
of the gas and magnetic field strength in the duct. An experimental combustion oscillator
has been constructed in which the flow of products of high-intensity combustion were modulated by a longitudinal traveling pressure wave. The heat input in the 2-in.-diam, 20-in. long
combustor was 1 MW (2.5 lb/min propane, 0.8 lb/min alcoholic KOH, and 10 lb/min oxygen).
The injector was of the water-cooled impinging type.
Simultaneous measurements of pressure by Photocon pressure transducers and of electrical
conductivity by a R.F. probe were made at two locations in the 40-in.-long combustor, at
12 and at 36 in. from the injector, in order that nonequilibrium (flame) and equilibrium
types of ionization could be compared.
Results showed that lean fuel/oxygen ratios and relatively low chamber pressure were
favorable for promoting acoustic oscillations. A typical oscillogram of the pressure variations
showed a longitudinal traveling wave having an amplitude of 18 psi at the 12-in. position
and 10.5 psi at the 36-in. position. The frequency of about 1250 Hz was approximating the
first harmonic of the acoustic frequency. The oscillations of the conductivity were in phase
with those of pressure. DC values of conductivity of flames in the flame region varied between 0.5 to 2.0 mho/m, depending on equivalence ratio. In the combustion products, the
conductivity values ranged from 5 to 18 mho/m, using 1% potassium seed.
On the basis of these results an experimental MHD rig was constructed with a 4-in.-diam.
10-in.-long combustor equipped with impinging jet-type injector. The fuel mixture w ~
kerosene -t- alcoholic KOH seed -t- gaseous oxygen, which gives a flame temperature of
up to 3500~ The designed thermal input was 2.75 MW, and the magnetic field strength
18 kG. Results of preliminary experiments have not been conclusive. Electrical conductivity
obtained in the magnetic field was found to be only 7 mho/m, compared with the 18 mho/m
obtained with the 2-in. combustor without the magnetic field, and as a consequence the
conversion of thermal to electrical power was low.
drop); thus P is limited. Thring1 suggested the
use of pulsating combustion (constant-volume
combustion) to overcome this limitation, at the
same time enabling AC power to be generated.
By superimposing a suitable pressure wave on
the plasma flow, both a and u ~ can theoretically
be increased to maximize the power density.
T h a t is, the temperature variation produced by
the pressure oscillation can cause a large increase
in conductivity (due to its exponential temperature dependency), and the u ~ term is increased
due to the oscillatory particle velocity.
By considering a modified Saha equation applied to an adiabatic pressure modulation, the
electrical conductivity "amplitude" through a
cycle of the pressure wave was given by

Combustion oscillations are undesirable in

m a n y systems, but may be useful in other cases,
due to the advantages of constant-volume combustion, generation of pressure waves, and increased heat-transfer rates.
I n the case of M H D energy conversion, a basic
parameter is the power density obtainable in the
magnetohydrodynamic channel represented by
the equation

P = au2B2k (1 -- k),
where a is the electrical conductivity, u the
particle velocity, B the magnetic field strength,
k the loading factor ( = V / u B d ) , V the voltage,
and d the channel width. In the open-cycle system,
the velocity of the combustion plasma is obtained
by expansion through a nozzle with a consequent
reduction in conductivity (due to temperature

Ao'~/~r~o = { (1 -'b ~ sin ~b(~-~)/~)-i

565

-- exp (qvj2hTo)[-1 -- (1 q- e sin

~(~,--1)1"),)--1"]}--1,

566

OSCILLATORY COMBUSTION
7

T=2000~
y=1"4
6

4
O

"~
b
<3

:o-25

1t/2

31I/2

Fio. 1. Conductivity variation for different pressure

amplitudes.
where e is an amplitude parameter, ~b = t + 0
(where 0 is the angle in cylindrical coordinates),
q is the charge on electron, vi the ionization potential, and h the Boltzmann constant, and subscript 0 is in absence of wave. Figure 1 shows the
benefit obtained in conductivity by pressure
modulation for different pressure amplitudes3
This modulation of the flow should be obtained
by a combustion pressure wave of suitable mode
(i.e., longitudinal or transverse, traveling or
standing) and frequency, the design requirements
being:
1. A linear geometry with large length/diameter r~tio for M H D interaction; therefore, a
longitudinal mode is appropriate with highintensity combustion at one end, to satisfy the
Raylcigh criterion. Furthermore, this type of
wave produces transverse striations of high con
ductivity, suitable for the Faraday M H D con.
figuration, and Hall currents will tend to be
minimized.
2. A traveling wave is preferred over the
stationary mode in that the pressure and velocity
are in phase (to maximize o-u2) and the effect
occurs over the total chamber length, whereas
for a standing wave the beneficial effect occurs
preferentially at anti-nodes.
3. The optimum frequency of oscillation will
be when the wave traverses the gas a maximum
number of times during its residence time, i.e.,

the highest frequency compatible with a reasonable amplitude. Thus, for a gas velocity of 600
m/see in a 1-m-long tube, a wave of 1 kHz frequency will traverse the gas about four times.
4. The wave amplitude should be the largest
compatible with minimum dissipation, due to
shock formation. Preliminary tests indicated the
interdependence of frequency and amplitude-i.e., an increase of frequency usually accompanied
a decrease of amplitude, because the pressurewave-feedback mechanism regulated the combustion energy accumulated for driving the
oscillation.
The combustion oscillator requirements, therefore, were for high-intensity combustion (i.e.,
high gas electrical conductivity) with modulation
of the flow by a longitudinal traveling pressure
wave of relatively high amplitude and frequency.
Schmidt-type (Helmholtz mode) pulsating combustion is normally of low frequency (up to 200
Hz) and valve design is complicated, whereas
higher-frequency rocket-type instabilities fitted
the requirement and use could be made of available technology. It was decided to use a rocket
configuration under conditions such that oscillations (either triggered or inherent) could be
promoted.
To obtain sufficient ionization, a fuel + oxygen
(or preheated a i r ) + seed material system was
required, the most convenient being gaseous fuel
(propane, methane, h y d r o g e n ) + o x y g e n + alcoholic KOH (45% KOH in ethyl alcohol). For
propane, the reaction is
C 3 H s + C 2 H ~ O H + 8 0.~---~5 C O ~ + 7 H ~ O ;
therefore, for a 1-MW input [including 3 % (wt)
of potassium in the combustion products], the
required flow rates are 2.5 ib/min propane, 0.8
lb/min alcoholic KOH, and 10 lb/min oxygen.

The Combustion Oscillator and

Instrumentation

A typical configuration of the first simple

combustor is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of an
uncooled MS cylinder of variable length (minimum 20 in.). The injector is of the water-cooled
impinging jet (like-on-unlike) type which was
found most favorable to high-intensity combustion near the injector face. The combustor could
be run with an open end or with a nozzle as shown.
Instrmnentation included Photocon pressure
transducers and R F electrodeless probes for
simultaneous pressure and electrical conductivity
measurements. For operation and observation of

COMBUSTION OSCILLATOR FOR MHD ENERGY CONVERSION

tests and recording to results, a control room
housed four units:
1. An operation console with sequential time
unit for automatic or manual control of the run
sequence, with safety cutouts.
2. A control panel for setting of flow rates
before or during runs.
3. A U.V. recorder unit for DC pressures and
conductivities with turbine-type meters for fuel
and oxygen flows.
4. An oscilloscope recording unit with camera
for AC (and D C ) pressures and conductMties.
A M tape recordings could also be made, and the
waveforms analyzed. The R F conductivity probes
referred to above were designed for this system 3
based on a method due to L a r y and Olsen. 4 Seed
injection was measured by fall in level of a pressurized vessel containing 45% KOH in ethyl
alcohol and was operated manually when required.

Experimental Results
Tests were conducted to determine the conditions and configurations most suitable for
spontaneous oscillations.
FUEL

SPARK PLUG

PRESSURE
TRANSDUCERS

J
18"

RF. PROBES

6"

NOZZLE

FIG. 2. Diagram of combustion oscillator L.1.

567

40"

'I
No. 4

C3He/O2 No 4

JgcT~'1
KOH/EtOH
1-6

AP12

I
AP36

INSTABILITY REGION
-

1.2

0-8

0.4

I
20

40

60
80
Pc PSI A

100

FIG. 3. Instability regions in oscillator L.1.

Instability region: waveform, sinusoidal; frequency,
90 Hz; amplitude, up to 30% Pc.
I t was confirmed that the impinging jet (likeon-unlike) type of injector was most efficient for
producing oscillations, i.e., compared to the
parallel-jet and the shower-head types. Similarly
short, small-diameter nozzles sustained the wave
best. The effect of length was also measured,
although it was governed to some extent by the
magnet pole length available (i.e., 16 in). Tests
made with different fuels--hydrogen, methane,
and propane--showed propane to be more effective, in accordance with its higher heat release.
Runs of up to 10 sec (usually 5 sec) were used
throughout the series to determine the conditions
favorable for natural oscillations in terms of
equivalence ratio and chamber pressure. Thus, the
instability regions (mixture and throughput) for
a given configuration could be plotted. The waveforms obtained were recorded as oscillograms.
A t the favorable operating conditions, the
electrical conductivity and pressure waveforms
were determined simultaneously at the "combustion" end of the chamber and at the " M H D "
end. Thus, nonequilibrium (flame) and equilibrium types of ionization could be compared. The
pressure/conductivity correlation could be seen
from oscillograms and the A M tape recorder.
Alcoholic KOH was injected manually for short
periods during runs to determine its effect on the
waveform and electrical conductivity in the
flame and nonflame regions.
A typical instability region for the configuration
of Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 3. The 40-in.-long combustor has two measuring locations at 12 and
36 in. from the injector. The injector has eight
sets of fuel/oxygen impinging jets and a central
atomizing seed jet. The uncooled nozzle was
0.3 in. diam and 0.6 in. long.

568

OSCILLATORY COMBUSTION

PROPANE / OXYGEN

1200 Hz, from the equation

1Ms

---- cn/2L,

3.6 p.s.i.

-V-

AP12

4,2 p.s.i.

-V-

AP36

Fie. 4. Typical oscillogram of longitudinal

pressure wave.
The shaded area in Fig. 3 indicates the conditions which promote definite acoustic oscillations, varying in strength up to shock amplitudes,
and the favorable conditions appeared to be lean
fuel/oxygen ratios and relatively low chamber
pressures. The former condition is appropriate
to the M H D case, because there is excess oxygen
for combustion of the alcohol and the oscillation
will increase the efficiency of mixing of the seed.
Thus, approximately over-all stoichiometric conditions were achieved up to the design thermal
input of 1 MW.
The oscillogram reproduced in Fig. 4 shows a
typical longitudinal traveling wave obtained,
having an amplitude of about 18 psi at the 12-in.
position and 10.5 psi at the 36-in. position where
the waves are double-peaked due to reflection of
the incident wave from the nozzle. The frequency
is about 1250 Hz, approximating to the first
harmonic of the acoustic frequency, which is

PROPANE I OXYGEN.

__CHAMBER PRESSURE 35ps,ig.

--

where c is the sound velocity, L the length, and n

an integer). In general, for propane/oxygen, the
first, second, and third harmonics were excited,
but never the fundamental, indicating the possibility of a reaction kinetics-controlled combustion.
Figure 5 is an oscillogram showing the correlation between electrical conductivity and pressure.
They oscillate in phase although the conductivity
variation is more irregular (possibly due to
uneven distribution of seed and flow pattern
around the Boron nitride sheath of the R F probe,
which was large compared to the combustor
diameter).
Typical D C values of conductivity obtained
for the propane/oxygen flame region (i.e., nonequilibrium) were from 0.5 to 2.0 m h o / m , depending on the equivalence ratio. Seed had little
effect except to depress the flame conductivity
at high concentrations, possibly due to the cooling
effect. In the combustion products, the conductivity values ranged from 5 to 18 mho/m,
using up to 3 % potassium seed. Thus, by injecting
an alcohol/KOH seed, an oscillating combustion
plasma stream could be produced t h a t was suitable for M H D energy conversion. The required
longitudinal traveling wave was obtained of
suitable amplitude and frequency, giving rise to
an in-phase conductivity variation of the same
frequency.
The M H D Combustion Oscillator

Based on the results from the simple combustor,

a full M H D rig was designed which would work
on spontaneous oscillations and was also capable
of being triggered unstable by a shock-wave
generator fitted to the injector end.

~ 0.Smho/m

OSClLLOGRAM.

Fro. 5. Correlation of electrical conductivity

with pressure.

Design Requirements
The M H D channel had to be as large as
possible to minimize viscous dynamic effects,
but as narrow as possible to maximize the field
strength in the magnet gap (i.e., maximum B 2
term in the power-density equation). Also, run
times of the order of minutes were required in this
case to achieve relatively steady fluid and electrical conditions. Thus implied water-cooled,
refractory-lined walls. Therefore, the magnet gap
volume available being 16 X 4 X 289 in., a maximum cross-sectional area of flow of 289 X 11 in.
was decided on, i.e., 3.14 in.2; similarly, to maximize gas velocity (the u s term), without sacrific-

COMBUSTION OSCILLATOR FOR MHD ENERGY CONVERSION

ing temperature but allowing for the predicted
improvement due to velocity and pressure
modulation of the plasma, a Mach No. of 0.7 was
chosen, and a channel pressure of 1.5 arm absolute. To further reduce Hall effects in the
magnetic field, the fluid density should be relatively high--i.e., the channel should be run at up
to 3 atm pressure. To obtain higher amplitude
oscillations it was decided to operate on liquid
fuel, this being based on the tests with liquid
propane on the combustion oscillator, and references on rocket instabilities (e.g., Agosta5) which
showed that liquid fuel, compared with gas,
produces higher amplitude pressure waves through
the physically controlled feedback mechanism of
droplet shattering, causing high instantaneous
energy release. The fuel mixture, therefore, was
to be kerosene ~ alcoholic KOH seed -I- gaseous
oxygen, which gives a flame temperature of up to
3500~
On these considerations, the mass-flow rate
G = pAu = 0.7cpA,

where
p = po(P/Po) (To/T)

= 0.016 lb/ft 3

(taking the reference density of combustion

gases -- 0.097 lb/ft 3, pressure and temperature in
the channel = 1.5 atm absolute, and 3300~
respectively) and
u = 0 . 7 c o ( T / T o ) 1/~ = 2410 ft sec-1;

thus, G = 37.5 lb/min. For 1% by weight of

potassium in the products, this requires flow
rates of 7.1 lb/min kerosene, 2.4 lb/min of 25%
KOH in alcohol, and 28.3 lb/min oxygen, representing a thermal input of ,~2.75 MW. Thus, in
the M H D channel, the steady flow design
parameters were:
Temperature, 3300~
Pressure, 1.5 atm absolute
Velocity, 2410 ft sec-~
Thermal input, 2.75 M W
Magnet gap, 2} in. with M H D interaction
width = 188 in.
Magnetic field strength, 18 kG.

Description of Combustor and M H D Channel

The combustor, as in the first apparatus, was of
rocket-motor geometry, consisting of a stainlesssteel body (4 in. diam X 10 in. long) with impinging iet injector (16 pairs of like on unlike

569

jets), and a transition section which acted as a

subsonic nozzle. Through the center of the injector, provision was made for generation of a
shock wave, either to initiate oscillations or to
cause a transitory pressure wave for comparison
with steady flow. Figure 6 shows the main features
of the colnbustor and M H D channel.
The M H D duct was constructed of a watercooled brass section lined with 0.075-in. magnesium plates as shown, and fitted with pressure
transducers and conductivity probes. Molybdenum was used for the electrodes, for its high
resistance to corrosion and heat.

Instrumentation and Experimental

Measurements
In the adjacent control room, the previous
instrumentation was adapted for use on either rig.
However, the longer-duration M H D oscillator
was operated manually, since variable test conditions were required and all flows could be varied
during runs.
Analog recordings of measurements by the UV
recorder included pressures in the combustor, fuel
and oxygen flows (via turbine flowmeters coupled
to frequency-to-D.C, convertors), and electrical
conductivities. High-frequency measurements
were taken by Photocon capacitance-type transducers. Waveform outputs were displayed on
oscilloscopes for photographing. Since it was
required to correlate pressure, conductivity, and
power conversion variation, these quantities
could be recorded as both AC and DC levels on
an S-channel FM tape recorder, and analyzed by
spectrum analyzer on playback.
Information required digitally, e.g., pressures
and temperature~ of cooling water, fuel, and
oxygen, were transmitted from transducers and
thermocouples to a data logging unit and could
be printed out during tests via a Teleprinter
Editing set.
The magnet was designed for a field strength
of 20 kG in a 2 in. gap, and was powered by a
36 kW generator. The latter had a critically
excited field winding, and a small auxiliary
winding which allowed the magnet current to be
varied up to 200 A by means of a transistorized
feedback amplifier, which derived its error signal
from a 200 A current shunt in the magnet-supply
cable.
The electrode pairs in the M H D duct could: be
used to determine electrical conductivity (by
applied electrical field tests), and also the power
generated. In the first case, an electrode pair was
polarized with a DC potential, with simultaneous
measurement of interelectrode current, or alter-

570

OSCILLATORY

COMBUSTION

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COMBUSTION OSCILLATOR FOR MHD ENERGY CONVERSION

natively polarized by saw-tooth voltages, which
allow dynamic V-I characteristics to be photographed from the oscilloscopes. For power measurement, an automatic switching system enabled
a selection of load resistors, 8, 15, and 50 ohms,
to be connected to each electrode pair sequentially
Voltage and current readings could be recorded
on the data logger.
Avoiding damage to the generator duct required
gradual heating, which was provided by spark
ignition of a propane/.air pilot flame and running
for about 3O min at about 5O kW thermal input,
The main injector then could be started, using
either propane or kerosene and oxygen, and
gradually brought up to full power. The alcoholic
KOH then could be injected for M H D tests. The
reverse procedure was used for shutdown.

Preliminary tests were able to be carried out

using only a mixed fuel consisting of propane gas
on the light-up injector jets and ethyl alcohcl on
the other eight, with a central atomizing jet for
alcoholic KOH each of which could be separately
controlled. Design conditions were approached in
that thermal inputs of up to 1.8 MW gave
pressures up to 2 atm absolute in the combustien
chamber, with an estimated gas velocity of 2000
ft sec-1 in the M H D section, and magnetic field
strength up to 17 kG.
For this maximum field strength, the theoretical open circuit voltage
65V

for the electrode separation of 2.5 in., compared

Dc

/I
~/
f " / ^J ~ .
q
V v

~Ac
-^a
/ ~/ j
f
~1~
I
V
V
!

'/

"vv1

FIG. 8. DC and AC oscilloscope traces from

Rig L.2. DC gain: 10 V/div; sweep, 1 sec/div.
AC gain: 1 V/div; sweep, 10-3 sec/div.

Results and Discussion

Vor = u B d =

/ ~

571

FIG. 7. Current variation on electrode pairs for

20 volts applied.

with experimental values of up to 60 V. This is

considered reasonable in view of the probability of
leakage currents, both internally in the gas and
at the magnesia duct walls. With regard to
electrical conductivity, an apparent value is
given by
= d/bL.Is~/Vor

where b L is the area of electrode, and I,, =

short circuit current. In the magnetic field, unconfirmed results of about 7 mho/m were obtained for this value, which is low compared to
previous values of around 18 mho/m obtained
using the R F probe and without magnetic field.
This result implies that the Hall-effect currents
were appreciable. Power generation tests, made
by connecting four of the electrode pairs to load
resistances, gave outputs of up to 72 W for a
thermal input of about 1.5 MW.
Improvements were required to achieve full
design performance for steady flow, but a few
oscillatory runs were attempted by variation of
equivalence ratio for a few seconds during a 5 min
run. It was found that instabilities of mixed
frequency could be excited. As an example, the
oscillogram of Fig. 7 shows the current variation
due to an applied voltage of 20 V at four of the
electrode pairs. The acoustic frequency, in this
case, for an open-ended duct = n c * / 4 L ~-~ 700 Hz
for the first harmonic (total duct length of 45 in.)
compared to the above value of approximately
670 Hz. 11l the magnetic field, the type of output
variation obtained due to instabilities is shown in
Fig. 8, where DC and AC values are indicated.
Amplitudes of such outimt voltage variation were

572

OSCILLATORY COMBUSTION

of the order of 18% of the DC level, the predominant frequency of 1750 Hz corresponding to
the third harmonic of the acoustic frequency. It
was interesting to note that this proportion increased with magnetic field strength.
In conclusion, the oscillatory combustion results showed that the required type of highamplitude pressure waves could be generated
under conditions suitable for MHD energy conversion. The MHD oscillator proved capable of
operating with steady flow for periods of up to
10 rain, but with rather low conversion of thermal
to electrical power. The first pressure oscillations
caused output oscillations which were amplified
by increase in magnetic field strength. Further
work is required at higher pressures to improve
the efficiency of power generation and the amplitude of the pressure waves, the aim being to
effectively couple magnetic interaction with
acoustic modulation.

REFERENCES
1. THRING, M. W.: J. Inst. Elec. Engs. 8, 23~
(1962).
2. IBBERSON, V. J. AND HARRIS, D.: Temperature
and Velocity Modulated Systems, Royal Society
Symposium on MHD Power Generation, Now
1965.
3. IBBERSON, V. J. AND TAYLOR, D. S.: Electrical
Conductivity of Oscillatory Combustion Plasmas,
Ninth Symposium on Engineering Aspects of
MHD, The University of Tennessee Space Institute, April 1968.
4. OLSON,R. A. AND LARY,E. C.: Rev. Sci. Instr.
33, 3350 (1962).
5. HAMER, S. S., AOOSTA, V. D., ANn PESCHKE,
W. T.: "Combustion Instability ia Liquid
Propellant Rocket Engines," Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, Report No. PIBAL No.
891, Jan. 1966.