Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Received 30 November 1998; received in revised form 11 August 1999; accepted 16 August 1999
Abstract
A fast recursive algorithm for determining the Gaussian filtered mean line was deduced using the central limit theorem and an
approximation method. This recursive algorithm uses a small number of multiplications per loop and otherwise such simple computer
operations as addition and subtraction, and therefore, can achieve a very high computational speed. Special cases are also presented in which
the relatively inefficient multiplication operation in the computer can be replaced by the efficient digit shifting operation, and the filtering
computational efficiency is enhanced further. High-order algorithms are proposed for practical use to improve filtering accuracy. The
forward filtering and backward filtering implementation of the recursive algorithm results in zero phase distortion of the filtered mean
line. A new relationship between the Gaussian filtering method and the classical 2RC filtering method is also established using this
algorithm. Published by Elsevier Science Inc.
Keywords: Surface roughness; Mean line; Digital filter; Recursive algorithm; Gaussian filter
1. Introduction
The mean line is the reference line used for surface
assessment. In surface metrology, the determination of the
mean line is a fundamental procedure for describing and
assessing surface characteristics. Almost all surface parameters are defined and calculated based on the mean-linesystem or M-system [1,2].
The least-squares method and the 2RC filter are the
traditional methods for determining mean lines [3]. The
former method produces mean lines that are sensitive to the
location of the sampling lengths on the surface profile and
are generally discontinuous from one cut-off length to the
next because of their being calculated piecewise for each
cut-off length within the entire evaluation length [3]. The
latter method distorts the true profile because of its nonlinear phase characteristic [3]. In the 1960s, Whitehouse [4,5]
worked on this problem and developed the concept and
Contribution of the National Institute of Standards and Technology,
not subject to copyright.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 301-975-5356.
E-mail address: yibao.yuan@nist.gov (Y.-B. Yuan).
0141-6359/00/$ see front matter Published by Elsevier Science Inc.
PII: S 0 1 4 1 - 6 3 5 9 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 3 1 - 8
63
or [Eq. (4)]
aa yi k ab xi r
N
yi
k1
r0
where ak, br, M and N are the constants of the digital filter.
From Eq. (3), it can be seen that the mathematical model
of the digital filter only deals with multiplication and addition operations. It is well known that the efficiency of
multiplication is much lower than that of addition. Therefore, the computational speed mostly depends upon the
number of multiplications performed once the mathematical
model of a digital filter is developed. As a result, reducing
or eliminating the multiplication operations is the key issue
for increasing the computational efficiency. This idea has
been successfully used for developing the FFT algorithm
[10] and is the approach by which we improve the efficiency
of the Gaussian filter.
2.2. Approximation of Gaussian function
The Gaussian function [Eq. (5)]
Gu e u
(5)
1 4 1 6
u u
2
6
(6)
1
1 u2
(7)
2. Basic theory
(4)
(1)
(2)
a yi k b xi r
N
k0
r0
(3)
64
e mu
m
2
2 u2/m
e u e u e u
e
m
m
2
(9)
1 u 2 m 1 mu 2
1 mu 2
mm 1 4
u
12
m 2u 4
remainders
12
e mu remainders
2
(10)
1 t/c2
e
c
(11)
H 1 c/
1
1
1 / c 2
3
e f/fc
(14c)
1
1 / c 2
3
1
H 2 c /
1 2 c / 2
H 4 c /
e /c
(14b)
so the amplitude transmission characteristic of its corresponding mean line filter with the form of a 2RC low-pass
filter can be calculated by this way [Eq. (14c)]
1
1 3 c / 2
1
1 4 c / 2
1
H 5 c /
1 5 c / 2
e c/
(12)
(13)
From Eqs. (12) and (13), it can be seen that this form of the
Gaussian filter is actually a low-pass filter.
(14a)
H 3 c /
ht e jtdt
1
1 1 c/ 2
1
H 6 c /
1 6 c / 2
(15)
4
(16)
(17)
16
(18)
32
(19)
65
Fig. 1. The transmission characteristic deviation of the theoretical approximation filters H2 H6 from the Gaussian filter.
1
1 4/ c 2
H a4 j H a4j
H a4 j 2
1
1 4 c / 2
1
1 4/ c2 s 2
(22)
H a4s
(20)
(21)
4
s
(23)
c
66
ri ri 1 b xi xi 1
2ri 1
y mN t i y mN t i 1 b rN t i
rN t i 1 2y mN t i 1
10441 z 1
(24)
100N c 1044 100N c 1044 z 1
(25)
(30)
It can be seen that the number of multiplications in Eqs. (29)
and (30) are reduced to one-half of those used in Eqs. (26)
and (27). That means the computational efficiency is increased by nearly 2:1.
For the special cases when b 1044/(100Nc 1044)
2k the multiplication by 2k can be implemented as a digit
shift based on binary storage. Then, all multiplication operations left in the filter equations are replaced by bit shift
operations, so that the Gaussian filter algorithm achieves its
highest efficiency. The values of Nc that suit this condition
are [Eq. (31a)]
N c 1044 2 k 1044/100
(31a)
(26)
k 6, N c 658
y mN t i a y mN t i 1 b rN t i
rN t i 1
(29)
k 7, N c 1326
(27)
(31b)
(28a)
b 1044/100N c 1044
(28b)
ri ri 1 2 k xi xi 1
2ri 1
(32)
y mN t i y mN t i 1 2 k rN t i
rN t i 1 2y mN t i 1
(33)
Eqs. (32) and (33) show that the Gaussian filtered mean line
can be calculated merely by using such simple operations as
addition, subtraction, and digital shifting.
3.2. Sixteen-cascade, zero-phase-shift, Gaussian mean line
filter
Higher-order approximations of Gaussian mean line filters [H5(c/), H6(c/), etc.] can also be designed using
the same methods described above. For example, the Gaussian filter from H5(c /) consists of a 16-fold cascade of
zero-phase-shift filters or a 32-fold cascade of elementary
filters. The elementary filter is [Eq. (34)]
H 5 z
14931 z 1
100N c 1493 100N c 1493 z 1
(34)
Each zero phase filter has the same general form as that
described in Eqs. (29) and (30). The only difference is [Eq.
(35a)]
b 1493/100N c 1493
(35a)
(35b)
2
n
16
1044 2 1 cos
2
n
2
n
(36)
where n is the number of sampled points within a spatial
wavelength , n (/c) Nc.
The sixteen-cascade zero-phase-shift Gaussian filters
transmission characteristic is [Eq. (37)]
H e
j
2
n
32
1493 2 1 cos
2
n
2
n
16
(37)
If Nc is chosen to be large enough, for example, Nc 200,
it can be shown that both digital approximation filters above
approach the Gaussian filtering characteristic well. For any
value of Nc, not just the special values that eliminate multiplication operations, both IIR type digital filters are fast
enough for mean line filtering. For example, if we assume
that Nc 1600, a typical set-up condition for one of our
instruments, then [Eq. (38)]
H 4 e j Nc
16
49.98%
50.00%
(39)
H e
j
2
n
16
(40)
H e
j
2
n
32
(41)
H e
32
H 5 e j Nc
67
(38)
68
Fig. 2. The transmission characteristic deviations of the digital approximation filters H416 and H532 from the Gaussian filter.
Based on a simple approximation function and the central limit theorem, the complicated method for calculating
the Gaussian filtered mean line is considerably simplified.
The new recursive algorithms are accurate and are also fast,
Fig. 3. (a) Surface profile and its filtered mean lines; (b) the mean line deviations of the practical approximation filters from the Gaussian filter; (c) the
amplified mean line deviations of (b).
the 2RC filtered mean line and Gaussian filtered mean line.
The amplitude transmission characteristic of a Gaussian
filtered mean line is well approximated by those of an 8RC
zero-phase-shift filtered mean line or a 16RC zero-phaseshift filtered mean line.
When using the eight-cascade, zero-phase-shift Gaussian
filter to process a 7-cut-off-length surface profile containing
11,200 sampled data points, only 0.66 seconds are required
using a PC 486/33 MHz computer in C language. For the
16-cascade zero-phase-shift Gaussian filter and 32-cascade
zero-phase-shift Gaussian filter, only 1.32 seconds and 2.64
seconds are taken for filtering under the same constraints,
respectively. For the same conditions, 18 seconds are estimated for Krysteks fast Gaussian filtering algorithm [13]
from the calculation, (11,200/9333) 15 s 18 s, where
9333 is the number of filtered data points, and 15 s is the
filtering time in Krysteks example. Because, the computational efficiency of Krysteks method is comparable to an
existing fast convolution method based on FFT techniques
[13], we conclude that the current approach is considerably
faster than that approach, as well.
The fast recursive algorithm described in this paper can
also be used in 3-D surface topography for determining the
Gaussian filtered mean plane, which can improve the computational efficiency even more. The algorithm for determining the 3-D Gaussian filtered mean plane will be discussed elsewhere.
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