Chapter 3

Weight estimation
Introduction
A good estimate of the airplane weight is
necessary for proceeding further with the design.
However this weight would be revised every time
a major change is effected in the design.
Remarks:
Before proceeding further we make a few
remarks.
i) Chapter II of (Ref 1.4) entitled Selecting principal
features of an airplane deals with advantages
and disadvantages of various features of the
airplane layout e.g. wing location, engine location,
tail configuration etc. We will deal with these

topics in later chapters, but the student is advised to

go through the aforesaid chapter at this stage.
Similarly chapter 3 of Ref 1.13 and chapters 3 and 4
of Ref 1.12 be referred to.
ii) Chapter III of Ref 1.4 entitled Flight,
characteristics as function of airplane parameters
gives formulae for performance variables like Vmax,
hmax and (R/C)max in terms of parameters like wing
area(S), aspect ratio (A), atmospheric density ()
and thrust/power loading (T/W) or (W/P) . These
would have been covered in the course on airplane
performance. Student is advised to review those
portions and go through the aforesaid chapter. We
recapitulate the salient features in the next section.

1. Steady level flight

With reference to Fig.3.1 the equations of
motion, in standard notation, for this flight are:
T D =0
L-W =0
L =1/2 ( V2 S CL), D = 1/2( V2 S CD)
Tr = D = W(CD / CL)

Fig 3.1 Steady level flight

Further if drag polar is parabolic i.e.

CD = CDo + KCL2 , then :
Tr= D= (1/2)V2SCD= (1/2) V2S(CD0+KCL2)

2W
1
Tr = 2 V S C D + K

2
1
2 V S

KW 2
Pr =
=
V SC D 0 +
1000 2000
500 VS
Tr V

Thus Tr or Pr = f(W,S, ,polar).

(3.1)

(3.2)

2. Steady Climb:

Fig 3.2 Steady Climb

With reference to Fig.3.2 the equations of motion are:
T D W sin = 0
L W cos = 0
Hence
R/C = V sin = V(T D)/W

If the drag in climb is approximated as equal to drag

in level flight (DL), then
(3.3)
R/C = (TV - DLV)/W =1000 (Pa PrL)/W
where PrL is the power required in level flight and Pa
is the power available.
Hence R/C is proportional to excess power.
For piston engined airplane V(R/C)max is approximately
equal to Vmp; where Vmp is the speed corresponding
to minimum power in level flight.
For jet engined airplane the ratio of V(R/C)max to Vmd
is greater than one and depends on thrust weight
ratio; Vmd is the speed corresponding to minimum
drag in level flight.
Hence (R/C)max = f(W, W/S, Tmax or Pmax, drag polar)

3. Absolute Ceiling (Hmax):

At absolute ceiling or Hmax , the power available
equals the minimum power required in level flight
for an airplane with engine propeller combination.
For an airplane with jet engine, at Hmax , the
thrust available equals thrust required in level
flight i.e. :
Pa = (Pr)min or (Ta) = (Tr)min
(Tr)min and (Pr)min in level flight occur at CL
corresponding to CLmd and CLmp respectively. If the
drag polar is parabolic, then
CLmd=(CD0/K)1/2
CLmp=(3CD0/K)1/2

(3.4)

Hence,

Trmin= W (CD/CL)min

Prmin

1
2

1/4

1 2W 256
3
=
C
K

DO

1000 S 27

(3.5)

Hence Hmax depends on the drag polar, W/S and

variation of engine output with altitude.

4. Range and Endurance:

The Breguet formulae for range and endurance for
airplanes with engine-propeller combination and jetengine, in standard notation, are given below. The
range is in km and the endurance is in hours.
(a) For engine-propeller combination the range (REP)
and endurance (EEP) are:
R EP

EEP

8 2 8 9 .3 p
=
lo g 1 0 (W 1 / W 2 )
BSFC C D / C L
1

2
1565.2 p
S 12 W1

( )
1
=

CD
W
W
1
2

BSFC (
3 )

2
CL

(3.6)

(3.7)

(b) For Jet-engined airplane the range (Rjet) and the

endurance (Ejet) are given by:

9.2

W1 12
(
)
S

W 2 12
1 ( )
W1

Rjet

Ejet

W1
2.303
=
log 10 (
)
T SF C ( C D / C L )
W2

1
2

TSFC ( C D / C L )

Hence,

REP
R jet

W1
= f BSFC , p , (C L / C D ) max ,
W2

W1
W
1/ 2
= f TSFC , (C L / C D ) max , , ,
S
W2

(3.8)

(3.9)

EEP
E jet

W1
W
3/ 2
= f BSFC , p , (CL / CD ) max , , ,
S
W2

W1
= f TSFC , (CL / CD ) max ,
W2

5. Turning:

Fig 3.3 Turning flight

With reference to Fig.3.3 , the Equations of
motion in a steady, level, coordinated turn are:
T-D =0
L cos = W
L sin = (W/g)(V2/r)

Hence
r= V2/(g tan ),

= (g tan )/V
It may be noted that since Lturn > Llevel and
(Tr)turn > (Tr)level the turn is limited by CLmax, nmax and
Tamax; nmax which equals (L/W) is the maximum
allowable load factor and Tamax is the maximum
available thrust.
Consequently
max = f(Ta,nmax , drag polar,CLmax)
rmin= f(Ta,nmax, drag polar, CLmax)

6. Take off run (s1):

Fig 3.4 Phases of take off flight

With reference to Fig.3.4 the equations of motion
during ground run are:
T D - R = (W/g) a
R = W L
where is the coefficient of
rolling friction between the
ground and the tyres and a is
the acceleration.

Hence s1 =

Vt .o

VdV
W
=
a
g

Vt .o = k

2W
SCL max

Vt .o

VdV
T D (W L )
(3.10)

where k = 1.1 to 1.3. Hence, higher the value of Vt.o ,

longer is the take off run. Consequently , for reducing
the take off run, low W/S , high CLmax and high T/W are
suggested. The take-off distance (sto) is proportional to
take-off run (s1) . Hence ,
sto =f(T, CLmax, polar, W/S, )
As regards the landing distance (sland), a low wing
loading (W/S), high CLmax and good braking system are
suggested i.e.

sland = f(CLmax, W/S, braking system)

3.1 Weight Estimation
A good estimate of weight is necessary for further
design. In the procedure given in Ref.1.11, the
weight estimation is carried out by calculating the
weight of the fuel required for the mission (Wf)
and using the formulae for empty weight (We)
based on analysis of similar airplanes. The stages
involved are given below.
We write

Wg = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wf + We

Wcrew & Wpayload are known as they are given in the

design specifications.
Wf & We depend on gross weight (Wg).
Hence

W g = Wcrew + W pay

Or

W
1 (

Wf

We
+(
)W g + ( )W g
Wg
Wg

crew

+ W

pay

W
) (
W

(3.11)
e
g

3.2.1 Empty-Weight estimation:

Figure 3.5, reproduced from Ref.1.11, gives the trends
of We/Wo for different types of airplanes. Note the log
scale on abscissa.
These curves can be approximated by an equation of
the type:

We
= A W gC
Wg

(3.12)

Where Wg = Take- off gross weight in pounds or kgf

A and c depend on the type of airplanes (Table 3.1).

Fig 3.5 Empty weight fraction trends.

(Adapted from Ref. 1.11, Chapter 3)

Type of airplane

A
(W0 in lbs)

A
(W0 in kgf)

Sailplane-unpowered

0.86

0.83

-0.05

Sailplane-powered
Homebuilt-metal/wood
Homebuilt-composite
General aviation single engine
General aviation- Twin engine
Agricultural aircraft
Twin turboprop

0.91
1.19
1.15
2.36
1.51
0.74
0.96

0.88
1.11
1.07
2.05
1.40
0.72
0.92

-0.05
-0.09
-0.09
-0.18
-0.10
-0.03
-0.05

Table 3.1 Values of A & c for different types of airplanes

(contd.)

Type of airplane

A
(W0 in lbs)

A
(W0 in kgf)

Flying boat

1.09

1.05

-0.05

Jet Trainer

1.59

1.47

-0.10

Jet fighter*

2.34

2.11

-0.13

Military cargo/bomber*

0.93

0.88

-0.07

Jet Transport

1.02

0.97

-0.06

Table 3.1 Values of A and c in Eq.(3.12)

(Adapted from Ref.1.11, Chapter 3)
Remarks:
i) * A variable sweep airplane is heavier . Hence
multiply the value of We/ Wg by 1.04 in this case.
ii) Use of composites: A reduction in weight by 20%
can be expected when composites are used in place

of aluminum in a particular component . However

there are other components with metallic
materials. Hence , an overall reduction of 5% is
reasonable and multiply the values of We/Wg given
in the above table by 0.952. For homebuilt
airplane using composites, a larger reduction in
structural weight is expected and We/Wg given
above be multiplied by 0.85 .

3.2.2 Estimation of fuel fraction

Fuel weight consists of the following .
I.

Fuel required for mission .

II. Fuel required as reserve.

III. Trapped fuel which cannot be pumped out.
Mission fuel depends on the following factors.
a) Mission to be flown.
b) Aerodynamics of the airplane viz. (L/D) ratio.
c) SFC of the engine.

Mission profile:
a) Simple mission: It consists of take off, climb,
cruise, descent, loiter and landing.
b) Anti-submarine warfare(ASW) airplane :
Reference 1.11, chapter 3 considers the mission of
such an airplane to consist of warm up, take off,
climb, cruise, reconnaissance (certain number of
turns, or certain minutes of maximum power),
weapons drop, cruise back, descent, loiter and
landing (see Fig 3.6).

t
descen

Fig 3.6 Mission profile for ASW

(Adapted from Ref.1.11,chapter 3)

Weight fractions for various segments of

mission:
The fuel required in a particular phase of the
mission depends on the weight of the airplane at the
start of that phase and the distance covered or the
duration of time for the phase. Let the mission
consists of n phases. The weight fraction for the
phase i is denoted as Wi / Wi-1.
Let W0 be the weight at the start of the flight (warm
up) and Wn be the weight at the end of last phase
(say landing) then,

Wn W1 W2
Wn
=

"""
W0 W0 W1
Wn 1

(3.13)

To analyze the fuel required in various segments,

Ref.1.11, Chapter 3 considers the mission profile to
consists of the following typical phases.
Warm up and take off
Climb
Cruise
Loiter
Cruise back
Loiter
Land
It (Ref.1.11) gives recommendations for fuel
fractions in some of these phases (Table 3.2) and
gives guidelines for calculating them in other
phases.

Following guidelines are given:

Phase

Wi/Wi-1

Warm up & take-off

0.97

Climb

0.985

Landing

0.995

Table 3.2 Standard values of weight fractions

(Adapted from Ref. 1.11, Chapter 3 )
The cruise and loiter phases are mission specific
and Reference 1.11, Chapter 3, gives the following
guidelines to calculate the fuel fractions.

Fuel fraction during cruise:

Following Reference 1.11, Chapter 3, the distance
(dR) covered when a quantity of fuel (dWf) is
consumed in time dt is given as:
L / D)
(
dR
dR
Vdt
V
=
=
=
= V
dW f
dW
CTdt
CT
CW
Where C is the specific fuel consumption, T is the
thrust, V is the flight velocity and ( L/D ) is the lift
to drag ratio.
Integrating,

Wi 1
V ( L / D)
V L
R=
dW = ( ) ( ) ln

CW
C D
Wi
Wi 1
Wi

Or

RC
Wi
= exp

(
/
)
Wi 1
V
L
D

(3.14)

Fuel fraction during loiter:

Following Reference 1.11, Chapter 3 the endurance
(dE) when a quantity of fuel (dWf) is consumed in
time dt is given as:

dE
dE
dt
1
1
=
=
=
=
(L / D)
dW f
dW
CTdt
CT
CW
Integrating,
L
( )
Wi 1
1 L
D
E=
dW = ( )( ) ln

CW
C
D
W
i
Wi 1
Wi

Or

EC
Wi
= exp
L
Wi 1
( )
D

(3.15)

Specific fuel consumption (C) :

For jet engines SFC is :
C= (fuel consumed per hour in N)/(thrust in N) or hr-1.
Some times fuel consumption is measured in
milligrams per second and the thrust is still measured
in Newton's . In this case the units of C would be
(mg/ Ns). Figure 3.7 gives SFC Vs Mach number (M)
for various engines.
Following Re.1.1, Chapter 3 , in the case of airplane
with propeller, we define C in the following manner.
We know that the propeller efficiency (p) is given by:
TV ,where P is in Watts .
(3.15a)
p =
P
where BHP in HP and T & V are in
TV
or p =
(3.15b)
550(BHP ) FPS units .

Fig 3.7 Specific Fuel consumption trends.

(Adapted from Ref 1.11, Chapter 3)

Recalling that,
we get:

Wf
C =

C = C power

Time
Thrust

and using Eqs.(3.15a &b)

or C = C bhp

V
550 p

Where Cpower is mg/s/Watt of power and

Cbhp is lbs / hr/ BHP .
Typical values of C for jet engines are given in
Table 3.3.
C (hr-1)
Cruise

C (hr-1)
Loiter

Pure turbojet

0.9

0.8

Low-bypass turbojet

0.8

0.7

High-bypass turbojet

0.5

0.4

Type of engine

Table 3.3 Typical values of specific fuel consumption for

jet airplanes (Adapted from Ref. 1.11, Chapter 3).

Specific fuel consumption (Cbhp) for airplanes with

engine propeller combination are given in Table 3.4.
The units are lb/hr/ bhp.
Remark:
Use p =0.8 for variable pitch propeller and p =0.7
for fix pitch propeller during loiter. To get Cbhp in
N/hr/kW multiply by 5.972 to the value in lb/hr/ bhp.
Cbhp
Cruise

Cbhp
Loiter

Piston-prop(fixed pitch)

0.4

0.5

Piston-prop(variable pitch)

0.4

0.5

Turboprop

0.5

0.6

Type of engine

Table 3.4 Values of specific fuel consumption for

airplanes with engine propeller combination
(Adapted from Ref. 1.11, Chapter 3).

Estimation of (L/D)max:
The drag polar of an airplane can be approximated as:
CD= CD0+KC2L
Then it can be shows that (L/D)max = 1/{2(CD0K)1/2}
Thus (L/D)max depends on CD0 and K . Further CD0
depends primarily on the wetted area of the airplane
(Swet) and K depends primarily on the aspect ratio of
the wing (A) . Hence Ref.1.11 suggests a parameter
called wetted aspect ratio (Awet) defined as:
(3.15c)
Awet = A/(Swet/S) ; where S is wing area.
When (L/D)max is plotted vs Awet it is found that the
values, for various airplanes of a category, fall on a
single curve (see Fig.3.8) . The guidelines for choice
of Swet/S, are given in Fig.3.9 which is reproduced
from Ref.3.11, chapter 3.

Wetted aspect ratio = b2 / Swet = A/ ( Swet/ S)

Fig 3.8 Maximum lift to drag ratio.
(Adapted from Ref. 1.11, Chapter 3)

Fig 3.9 Wetted area ratios

(Adapted from Ref. 1.11, chapter 3)

Thus for a preliminary estimate of (L/D)max the steps

are as follows.
Chose wing aspect ratio from data collection.
Chose Swet/S from Fig.3.9 and calculate Awet from
Eq.( 3.15c).
Corresponding to this Awet and for the chosen type
of airplane , choose (L/D)max from Fig.3.8.
Remarks:
i) To show the validity of the above procedure,
Ref.1.11, Chapter 3 compares two airplanes
namely B-47 and Avro Vulcan. These two airplanes
have different shapes (Fig.3.9) but nearly the same
(L/D)max. The steps to calculate (L/D)max for these
two airplanes are given in table 3.5.

S (m2)
Swet/S (Fig.3.9)
Swetted (m2)
Span (m)
Aspect ratio
Wetted aspect
ratio
(L/D)max (Fig 3.8)

B-47

AVRO VULCAN

132
7.9
1050
35.4
9.4
1.2

320
2.8
892
27.4
3.0
1.1

17.2

17.0

Table 3.5 (L/D)max for B-47 and Avro Vulcan airplanes

(Adapted from Ref.1.11 , Chapter 3)

ii) The values of (L/D) in Eqs (3.14) and (3.15) are not
always equal to (L/D)max. The reason is as follows.
From Eq.(3.8) we note that the value of CL for the
maximum range of a jet airplane corresponds to
(CL1/2/CD)max. Similarly CL values for maximum
endurance for a jet engine (Eq.3.9), corresponds to
(CL/CD)max . Further from Eqs.(3.6) & (3.7) the CL
values for the maximum range and maximum
endurance of an airplane with engine-propeller
combination are those corresponding to (CL/CD)max and
(CL3/2/CD)max respectively. For a parabolic polar it can
be shown that the values of (L/D) for CL corresponding
to
both
(CL1/2/CD)max
and
(CL3/2/CD)max
are
0.866 (L/D)max . The values of (L/D) which maximize
range and endurance are indicated in Table 3.6.

Type of airplane

(L/D) for
maximum range

With Jet engine

0.866(L/D)max

(L/D) for
maximum
endurance
(L/D)max

With engine propeller

combination

(L/D)max

0.866(L/D)max

Table 3.6 Optimum values of (L/D)max for various flights

Fuel fraction for mission:
After calculating the fuel fractions in various phases
of the mission, the weight of the airplane at the end
of the mission is given by:
Wn
Wo

W1
Wo

W2
X

Wn
X ----X
Wn-1
W1

Consequently the mission fuel fraction is:

(1-(Wn/Wo))
Remark:
Generally an allowance of 6 % is provided for reserve
and trapped fuel. Thus ,
Wf
Wo

= 1.06 [ 1 -

Wn

(3.16)

Wo

Remark:
Take-off weight calculation:
Having obtained (Wf/W0) and (We/W0) the take-off
weight can be calculated. However the expression for
(We/W0) involves W0 and an iterative procedure is
needed. This is illustrated through the following
example taken from Ref. 1.11, Chapter 3.

Example 3.1
Type of airplane: Antisubmarine warfare airplane (ASW)
Given :
Payload + equipment weight=10,000 lbs (44,547 N)
Crew of 4: Consequently, weight of crew is
4*200=800 lbs (3564 N)
Cruise Mach no. = 0.6 at 30,000 ft or 9144 m
Loiter for 3 hrs at a point 1500 nm (2775 km) from
take-off point.
Estimate the gross weight of the airplane.
Solution:
Wpay + Wcrew = 44547 + 3564 = 48111 N

Weight fraction for mission segments:

1) Warm up and take-off (Table 3.2): W1/W0=0.97
2) Climb (Table 3.2): W2/W1 =0.985
3) Cruise:
R = 1500 nm = 9,114,000 ft = 27,78,658 m
C = 0.5 / hr = 0.0001389 /s (Table 3.4)
M = 0.6 at 30,000 ft; speed of sound = 994.8 ft/s
V=0.6 X 994.8 =569.9 ft/s = 173.75 m/s

Estimation of (L/D)max:
Since antisubmarine warfare airplane is not included in
Fig.3.9 we take value of (L/D)max as 16 which
represents an average value for military jets (Fig.3.8).
Since the airplane under consideration is a jet airplane
we get from Table 3.6:
(L/D)cruise = 0.866 X 16 = 13.9
Therefore fuel required during forward part of the
cruise is givenby:

W3
R C
= exp

L
W2
V D
( 2778658 0.0001389)
= exp
= exp ( 0.16 ) = 0.852
(173.75 13.9)

( )

4) Loiter :
E = 3 hrs = 10,800 s
C = 0.4 / hr = 0.0001111 /s
(L/D) in this phase = 16
Therefore the fuel fraction in this phase is given
by:

W4
E C
= exp

L
W3

10800 0.00011
= exp
= exp ( 0.075 ) = 0.9277
16

( )

5) Fuel fraction for cruise back to starting station

(from step 3):

W5
= 0 .8 5 2
W4

6) Fuel fraction for loiter at destination :

E = 20 minutes = 1200 s
C = 0.0001111 /s
L/D = 16
Therefore,

W6
E C
= exp

L
W5

1200 0.000111
= exp
= exp ( 0.0083) = 0.9917
16

( )

7) Fuel fraction for landing (Table 3.2):

Hence

W7
= 0.995
W6

W7
= 0.97 0.985 0.852 0.9277 0.852 0.9917 0.995 = 0.635
W0

Wf
= 1.06 (1 0.635 ) = 0.387
Consequently,
W0

Empty weight estimation:

For military cargo / bomber category, Ref.1.11 gives
A = 0.93 , C = -0.07 in Eq.( 3.12) i.e.

We
= 0 .9 3W 0 0 .0 7where W0 is in lbs and is same as Wg.
W0
Estimation of W0:
Noting that Wpay+Wcrew = 10,800 lbs, Wf/W0 = 0.387,
we can write for the chosen ASW airplane:
W0 =

10800
1 0 .3 8 7

We
W0

10800
(3.16a)
0 .0 7
1 0 .3 8 7 0 .9 3W 0

Since Wo is involved in the right hand side also, an

iterative procedure is adopted. We assume Wo,

calculate We/W0 and substitute in the above
equation. If the resultant value of Wo is different
from the assumed value, the iteration is continued.
The process is illustrated in Table 3.7.
Step

W0 guessed value
(lbs)

(We/W0) from
Eq.(3.12)

W0 from
Eq.3.16a

50,000

0.4361

61,057

60,000

0.4305

59,191

59,200

0.4309

59,328

59,300

0.4309

59,311

59,310

0.4309

59,309.6

Table 3.7 Iterative procedure to get Wo

Since the assumed and obtained weights are same in

step 5, the iteration is stopped and the gross weight
of the airplane is 59,310 lbs or 264,230 N
Remarks:
i) Trade-off studies:
Before finalizing the design specifications, it is useful
to examine the effect of changing certain parameters
chosen earlier. Such studies are called trade-off
studies. For example we examine the effect of
changing the distance from 1500 nm by 500 nm.
Repeating the calculations shown above, we get the
following gross weights (Ref.1.11, Chapter 3).
Range
W0(lbs)
1000 nm
43,397
1500 nm
59,310
2000 nm
85,911

Another trade-off study could be by varying the

payload from 5,000 lbs to 20,000 lbs while
keeping the range as 1500 nm.
Payload
5,000 lbs
10,000 lbs
15,000 lbs
20,000 lbs

W0(lbs)
34,966
59,310
82,335
104,581

A third trade-off study would be to find the

influence of using composites instead of the
conventional materials. This would alter the empty
weight fraction. Reference 1.11,Chapter 3,
suggests 5% reduction in empty weight i.e.
We
= 0 .9 5 0 .9 3W 0 0 .0 7
W0

With Wpay = 10,000 lbs and range of 1500 nm, we

get:
W0 = 53,771 lbs
After considering the results of the trade-off
studies the designers finalizes the range, the
payload and the material for the airframe.
ii) Section 2 of Appendix 10.2 deals with the revised
weight estimation of a jet transport. While
considering the fuel required for cruise allowance
has been made for the headwind and the distance
covered in going to alternate airport if landing is
refused.
iii) The weights of other candidate designs can also
be estimated using the above weight estimation
procedure.

Exercises
3.1 An airplane under design has the following
features:
Weight of payload + crew = 26000 N
Estimated fuel fraction (Wf / Wo ) = 0.387
Empty weight fraction ( We / Wo)= 0.837 Wo-0.7;
where Wo is in Newtons.
Obtain the gross weight ( Wo) of the airplane.
[ Answer : Wo = 107,810 N ]

3.2

The empty weight fraction (We / Wo) is

expressed as AWoc . A look at the values of c
shows that it is negative for all types airplanes
i.e. if empty weight goes up the empty weight
fraction decreases or the gross weight goes up
by a larger amount. Explain this.
( Hint : Consider what happens to the fuel
required when

the empty weight goes up ).