Turkish History: week 1

Historiography:
- Pragmatism
- Instrumentalism
- Eclecticism
- Essentialism generalization because of bias
- Anachronism
For:
a) Autocratic legitimation
b) Continuance of hegemony
c) Nationalist projects
History is always written for today and are written for the needs of
the day today. When history is written there are signs of all of the
above^
English, old Turkish/Ottoman, Modern Turkish, Persian/Arabic
- Oman? Othman? Ataman?
No contemporary written sources from the first decades!
From where to look?
- Place of departure/focus of history writing
- Histories from whom?
Origins of the Turkic Tribes
- Immigrated from Central Asia
- Altaic language
- Nomadic tribes based on clan relationship
- Tribes as economic/political social units
- Warrior culture
- Religion: Shamanism/Tengrism
- Occasional tribal confederations under han/khan
- Huns: Great Huns (mete/Mao tun); Ak Huns; Western Huns
(Attila)
- Uyghurs
- Kk Trk / Trkt Confederation
- Krygyz means we are forty
Legends: Grey Wolf; Engenekon; Oghuz Khan as mythological
founder of Turkic people
Sendentary vs Nomadic
- Nomadic pastoralism and oasis argriculture
- Plunder-commerce relationship
Chinese vs Turkic / Mongolic nomads
- Great Wall of China
Persian/Sasanic vs Turkic nomads

Avesta: Iran X Turan

Arabic/Islamic Caliphate vs Turkic nomads
Bizantium versus Turkic Nomads
Roman Civilisation/West vs Turkic Nomads
Most of the early history of early Turks, talks of their barbarism
\
Stepocracy or Tribal Democracy?

Tribal Democracy
customary & transitory authority structure
Continuous mobility and atomistic structure
naturally anarchic spontaneous democracy

Stepocracy
within the tribs there was some kind of hierarchy
Aristocratic
Tribal hierarchy: Ak Budan X Kara budun
Regime charerised by a nomad-shepard-military tribal
confederation ruled by the royal tribe at the centre and a
plenty of tribute paying dependent tribes

Turkish History: Ottoman State to Modern Turkey

Week 2: Thesis on the Foundation of the Ottoman State
Ottoman-Turkish Chronicles Ottoman sources for
foundation period
- Legend: Kayi Tribe of Oghuz Turks every Turkish student
learns this
- Heroes, myths, tales
- Trying to prove they are noble Turcomans not Mongols!
- Not contemporary for the foundation period
- Written early 15th C. written 100 years after the foundation
- Purposeful writing for legitimation and Justification in the 15th
c.
- Power as divine right
- Working in courts Palace historians: Akhmedi,
Ashikpashazade, Yakshi Fakih (said to have written during
Osmans era but we do not have a copy of this)
- Oghuz Khagan / Oguz Han
- Mythic make-up / Chinghisid Yasa
European Sources Mostly Byzantium
J. Von Hammer:
- Based on Ottoman chroniclers
- Extensive information of 10 volumes
- Traditional history, pre-modern, still Turks not Ottomans
- Belief is Turks could not create a lasting empire like the
Ottoman empire.
Nicolae Iorga:
- Ottomans as the inheritor of Byzantine government and
civilization
- Byzantium after Byzantium
- Nomadic Turks could not create such an efficient rule
- These nomads/warriors cannot administer, rule, etc..
European Accounts
Orientalists like A. Rambaud, C. Diehl, R.V. Scala, R. Grousset:
- often argued Ottomans were lacking necessary ingredients of
civilization
- Relied on Byzantine insitutions and laws
- Diehl: Those rough warriors were neither administrators, nor
lawyers and they understood little of politics
- Eurocentrism/Western superiority
- Common understand of Western chronicles

Herbert A. Gibbons the continuation of these orientalists

- 1916 written during the empires last years but on the
foundations of the Ottoman Empire
- This is the period of the sick man of Europe
- A heterogeneous new race from the Shamanist Turks and
Christian converts
- Ottomans: a small tribe of pre-Islamic Turkic naturalist religion
- Mixing with the Greek/Christian population
- Creativity in administration comes from greek-Byzantine
population
- Decline of empire as a result of growing impact of islam:
ignorance, immorality, stagnation typical argument of that
era by western orientalists
Zeki
-

Velidi Togan: reply

Mongol-Tatar heritage / close relatives of Mongols
Ottomans close relatives of Mongols
Proximity to major transit trade routes
From Seljuk to Ottoman: Dynastical change in Turco-Mongolian
tradition not different states
- Turkish nationalist argument
- No need for Christian/greek ingredient already long history of
great empires
- Capability to conquer, administer, stabilize

M. Fuat Kprl:
- Foundation should be analysed in the larger context of the
eras political, socio-cultural and economic environment
- Historical continuity thesis based on Turco-Islamic tradition
- Turkic migration with warrior skills, statehood tradition and
cultural accumulation
- Carriers of Turkic cultural to Anatolia: Alps (warriors), Ahis
(artican lodges) Baciyan-I Rum (women), Abdalan-I Rum
(mystics) singing religious mystic songs
- Kayi tribe theory
- Nationalist Historiography / Orthodoxy in Turkey in Turkey his
arguments are orthodox
- Descendant of Kprl family of Ottomans
- Writing in the 1930s decade after Turkish Independence War
- Foreign Minister of Turkey
Paul Wittek
- Gazi Thesis based on Akhmedis Iskendername of early 15th C.
and 1337 inscription at Bursa Shahadet mosque I Orhan Gazi
son of Gazi commander of Gazis, etc..
- Main/dominant of Gaza thesis of origin of ottomans in the
West

Contrary to Gibbons: demography not sufficient; a rooted

tradition was must!
Contrary to Kprl: Kayi theory of origin is myth!
Frontier culture/inclusive regardless of ethnic but regarding
religion
The Rise of the Ottoman Empire was first published by the
Royal Asiatic Society in 1938

Gaza Thesis:
Two motives for expansion:
- Religious fervor
- Economic Benefit
Expansion of Islam by force
Loss of religious fervor was the reason of stagnation and
collapse
Served as the paradigm of the Ottoman histories for half cen.
In western academia
Crictic Rudi Paul Lindner:
- No religious motive in the foundation Ottoman wars against
both Christian and Muslim enemies
- Gaza is the ideological legitimation of a latter era
(interregnum)
- First tribal in essence then sedentarised and was aliented to
tribal origins
- Imperium in imperio not possible
- As state centralized tribal groups became a threat
Other critics of Gaza Thesis:
- Not a result of religious zeal
- Sultans marrying Byzantium emperors girls
-

Ronald C. Jennings:
Friendly relatons with Christian population
Orhan as groom to Byzantine emperor
Orhan and Osman never used the term gaza
Colin Imber
Application of Austria-German romantic nationalist thesis to
ottoman case by Wittek
Never a national state, but dynastical state
15th Cent: bulk of Ottoman army not voluntary but from timar
system and Janisarries
Rise of Safavids: need to focus on Sunni Islam after 15th
Century they portray themselves as orthodox and Sunni in
opposition in competition, used the orthodoxy to be the
greatest representatives of Sunni islam

Gyula Kaldy-Nagy
- Gaza Ideology to spread Islam was contrary to Empires
interest: applying diff taxing system; withering of tax benefit
(jizya 1/5th of all revenue) if everyone is Muslim, lose taxes
and money; Devshirme system to collapse
Shinasi Tekin:
- Bad fame for the terms gaza and gazi in Islamic world till end
of 14th century
- 1337 Inscription which forms basis of Gaza thesis is fake!
And should be writtin in 1417 (period of Interregnum)
Heath Lowry:
Gaza = Akin / Gazi = Akinji (frontier warrior)
- Devoid of religious meaning in Turkish/Ottoman Gaza wasnt
used
- Non-Muslim akinjis / customary brotherhood
- Plundering multi-religious confederation
- Subjugation not by force of arms but fairer taxation, justice
and more mobile social structure compared to Byzantine
Empire
- Limnos island case study of 1490:
- Ottoman Janissary garrison of 20 soldier
- Christian local population responsible for defense against
other Christian invaders to stay apart of Ottoman empire
he argues is against Gaza thesis
- Ottomans provided Christians more opportunities than
Catholic rule and Byzantium
Colin
-

Heywood
Radically different view on Ottoman origins
Norther Black Sea connection
Great Power Politics: Altin Orda Ilkhanid

Lecture 3
Murad Is Ottoman State
- huge expansion on European side of the empire
- new method of conquest:
- As if two states one in Romania and one in Anatolia
administrative division was established like this
- Murad I died against Serbian powers 1339
Bayezid I, the thunderbolt

1389 Battle of Kosovo

- Assassination of Sultan Murad I on the battle field
- Court decision by Pashas (army commanders elites) for
succession
- Fratricide at Battlefield: Yakub Chelebi
1389-90 Attempt for consolidation in Balkans
- Bayezid marriage with daughter of Serbian king
- most mariages of Ottomans were political
- transfer of large Turcoman population to Skopje
- situation Turcoman raider units to south of Danube walachia
and bosia
1390 Spring Anatolian Campaign
Elimination of Aydin, Sauhan, Germiyan, Menteshe and the Hamit
Principalities
- Participation of Serbian king lazarevic and Byzantine prince
Manuel
- Sultan was using Serbian and Byzantic-Hellanic powers to
crush these principalities
1391 First Siege of Constantinople (7 months)
- wanted it badly..
1393 Northern Anatolia Campaign
- Burhan-ed Dins Eretna State
- Candar and Isfendiyar Principalities
Just crushing Anatolia
1394 Turns attention to Europe and enters Central Greece
1395 down to Attica Peninsula Patras in Greece
1396
1396
-

Second Seige of Constantinople

Nicopolis War
From Andrianople to Nicopolis: 600 km in 24 hours!
Crusade by Holy Roman Empire, Knights of France, Hungary,
Wallachia, Venice, Bulgaria
1397 Karaman Campaign
- Conquest of Konya
- An army consistently largely of slaves and Christian
vassals, in the operation against Anatolian emirates
- Turkish muslims in Europe and Christian in Anatolian
campaigns
1933 East Anatolian Campaign
- Conquest of Malatya
- Reaching the Euphrates
Before the Ankara War:
- Empire from Danube to Euphrates
- Political union in Anatolia after elimination of all
principalities

Centralisation / crush of Turkish principalities

Oldest records of taxation in Ottomans from era of Bayezid I
the state is just not only crushing other principalities but
registering them (land and property) sign of centralization
symptons of central state
Transfer of large scale vakif property controlled by the ulema
to the state

Timur before Ankara War

- was typical Mongolic-barbarian nomadic empire
- warriors army
- establish in central asia
Letter Diplomacy
Timurs first letter:
- Ruler of Rum county (Anatolia)
- We / Amir of the great majority of humanity
- By the power of sword not inherited from father as yourself
- Do not shelter Kara Yusuf and Ahmed Jelayir
- Do not be one of the inferior rulers that did not follow our
orders
Bayezids reply:
- Old dog
- Infidel as Byzantine Tekvurs (castle rulers)
- Do not liken Ottoman soldiers neither to Indian, Persian
Iraqi or Egyption soldiers, nor the mundane Tatrs/Kipchaks
- Bayezid invites to the battle field:
If you do not come to the battle field upon this letter, may
God make all your wives divorced by three Talaqs!
- Directly using Islamic terminology
Timurs second letter
- You are accusing us as being infidel but my soldiers are all
Muslims from generations and generations while yours are
converted infidels
- (I am really representing Islam)
- I am the Amir of all Muslims
- My genealogy comes from the Chingis
- accept my overlordship and go on your holy war against the
infidels
- Your genealogy is clear to us and everybody
- Coming from an inferior Turkish tribe right is mine because
I come from Chingis
Bayezids second letter
- Timur The groom youre not coming family by blood youre
just the groom
- They know their tribal affliliations, tribal a background
- my grandfather ..

Battle Day July 20, 1402:

Perfect military maneuver by Timur
- From Tokat to South Kayseri than again north-west of Ankara
- Ankara ubuk Plain / dam building to divert water / poising
water resources
- Ottoman Army tired and thirsty after rushing from Tokat back
to Ankara
- Quick removal of Ankara Castle and transfer to the ubuk
Plain
- Serbian Troops on one side, Tatars on the other and changed
to Timurs side in the war because they are turkic
- Saw elephants first time on battle field
Bayezid army:
- Serbian Bosnian units
- Janissaries of devshirme origin
- Tatars
- Crescent strategy
Timurs army:
- 32 elephants
- units of Anatolian Turkish principalities
two armies with the highest military technology of the day
Results:
- Timur wins the war
- Timurid suzerainty on Anatolia
- Anatolian Turkish principalities re-established
- Byzantium Empires life span extended an additional 50 years
- Some Ottoman territorial loses in Rumelia
- Interregnum-Civil strife for the throne (day after war until
1315
- Ottoman legitimacy crisis
- Ottomans main aim was to sit on the throne of Byzantine
King for Timur aim was china, wanted to secure western
side of the country not Constantinople; giving principalities
x;
Legitimacy of Rule:
- Performance-based - a sign of Gods Will if winning war its
NOT cos of the army but God
- Charismatic leadership
- Divine intervention
- Luck/fortune
- Tradition
- Ancestry / Genealogy
- Religious, Islamic / Christian / Shamanistic
- Legality / procedural
Timurs Chingisid Legitimacy:

Dual strategy: Yasa (Gengis law) for nomads & tribes; Islam for
sedentary and towns
Leadership of his clan, Barlas
Ascendancy over other tribes of the Chaghataid realm used title
of Amir
Legitimate his power in accordance to the Yasa of Chingis Khan:
1370 kurultai
Puppet Chingissid Khan Soyurgatmish
Timurs Islamic legitimacy:
Islamic Symbols:
- protection for local Sufi orders including Yasawiya and
Naqshbandiyya
- a magnificent tomb for late Sheykh Ahmad Yasawi
- Islamic prayer before ascendancy wars in Central Asia
- Drum and standard presented by Seyyid Bakara
- Just using symbols for political reasons
- Perfect mlange of Ghnegsid and Islamic traditions of
legitimacy
- Shahrukhs two divans (council of state)
- Divan-I Turk for military/nomadic
- Divan-I Sart for sedentary/Islamic
- Dominance of Islam over Yasa in the second generation with
Chingissid puppet Khan vs Abd al- Said
Legitimacy Crisis in Ottoman Realm
- Title of Sultan-ur Rum by Caliph with the permission of the
Caliph required recognition
- Ottomans: Non-Ghenghisid, non-Sayyid and even not from
prominent Oghuz tribe
- Invention of Kayi genealogy during and after Interregnum
old noble tribe
- Adopted title of Khan
- Intention of Osmans Dream
- Captive chevaliers taken prisoner at the Battle Nicopolis in
1396 to be demonstrated to public in the streets of main
Islamic cities such as Cairo, Baghdad and Tabriz
- Murad II had appointed Molla fenari as first Sheykh al-Islam
of the state in 1424: post-Ankara Islamic legitimation
- Became part of Ottoman bureaucracy would ask the
Sheykhs if its good, permissible to do x, y, z. is it good to
attack here, beneficial for islam, etc
Mustafa Ali 16th Century:
Even the non-Muslim Genghis Khans rule was legitimate since
undeniable civtory was obvious sign of divine consent
Bayezids Son
- lot of sons, some taken as captive by Timur

sons became local sultans no single authority in Ottoman

realm

Period of Interregnum:
- 1402 Ankara war-1413 Battle of amurla
- Anatolia vs Rumelia?
- Active support/intervention by Byzantine, Christian states in
Rumelia and Anatolian Turkish Beys
- Orthodoxy vs Heteroxy Islam
Sheykh Bedreddin Revolt
- Religious authority under Musa (ruling Rumelian side) during
interregunum
- First exile to Iznik after Mehmeds dominance over Musa
- Then rebellion in Balkans
- Dobruja/Wallachia/Seres: followers Torlak Kemal and
Borkluce Mustafa in Anatolia
- Oneness of the existence everything is God
- Methods of worship/not important: not tool but the aim
important
- God is in everything that exists Pantheism
- Common ownership of everything
- Hell and heaven as reflections of the bad and good in the
souls of living
- Fatwa by Sunni Ulema for execution of Sheykh al-Islam
- Cult in Turkish left win politics of 1960s
Mehmed I Second Founder of Ottoman State
- Vassalage of the Shahrukh, son of Timur
- Complete transfer of Capital to Edirne Return to preBayezid policy; Again at the right of Danube
- Attempt to acquire some of the lost Anatolian lands via
peaceful methods: excuse to Shahrukh; Mints in the name of
Shahrukh
- 42 days hidden death! Fake Mustafa phenomenon
- Mehmeds intial plan: Murad in Rumelia; Mahmud in Anatolia
- Murad as the only Sultan after the Pashas initiative
- Restore pre-Timur European lands
Comments:
- Ottomans surviced at the brink of collapse
- Paved way to the Mehmed IIs law of frantricide for Nizam-I
alem state ideology
- Anarchy is worse than anything
- Vlad Draku Prince of Wallachia Drako the impaler
- Initiatied later Islamisation orthodox Sunni Islam for
legitimacy
- Sunni Islam for social hierarchy particular version of Islam
has been the Islam of the authority masses united under the
religious leadership of Sheykh al-Islam

Phases of Ankara War:

Saving the Empire:
Leadership of Mehmed
Ottoman kul-slave- system:
Peasants and Merchants benefited more from centralized authority
than feaudal regimes
Great prestige of the Ottoman Sultan in the eyes of the Muslims
Ulema and Janissaries supported Mehmeds son Mrad, who
ascended the throne in Bursa Ottoman Capital. Defeated uncle;
Saved under Murad his reconciliatory politics (keeping peace
with the Karamanids & Candarids also avoding any possibility of
provoking Timurs son Shahrukh) and awareness of the need for
military action to ensure rule in the Balkans use of cannons and
muskits- ; tactic of surrounding enemy camp from all 4 sides with
carts
Economic development under Murad as trade increased and Bursa
and Erdine expanded
Absence of central authority, economic and civil strife ensured
public appeal of charismatic leaders to rise up and attract followers
such as Sheykh Bedriddin

Week 5
First Ten Ottoman Sultans
- Get list from page
- They are considered the greatest there was expansion
in their rules despite Ankara wars
1451-1699 dominant
Murad II
- Overcomign the Interregnum syndrome
- Byzantine release of Fake Mustafa
- Seige of Constantinople 1422 for 3 months
- 1432-1436 Albanian resistance led by Albanian
cheitains against timar system
- Two unsuccessful sieges of Belgrade