Civ 700

700 Miscellaneous Civil
Abstract
Section 700 covers: site clearing and grading requirements; excavation and backfill
for foundations, trenches, roads, and other earthwork; pavement selection and
design (asphalt and concrete); selection and specification of chain link fencing; and
required clearances around railroad tracks in Company facilities.
This section includes a variety of civil engineering tasks commonly encountered
throughout the Company. Some of these tasks require the approval of a registered
specialist. In these cases, the intent of this section is to provide Company personnel
with sufficient information to: (a) develop preliminary designs and (b) communicate effectively with contractors.
This section is written for entry-level engineers or experienced engineers working
outside their discipline or area of expertise.
Chevron Corporation
Contents
Page
710
Soils and Earthwork Principles
700-3
711
Soils Report
712
Hazardous Materials
713
Soils Background Information
714
Soil Compaction Principles
715
Fill Materials
720
Grading Design and Layout
721
Rough Grading Plan
722
Finished Grading, Paving and Drainage Plans
723
Recommended Slopes
724
Recommended Road Grades
725
Balance of Cut and Fill
726
Slope Stabilization
730
Earthwork Equipment and Construction Methods
731
Equipment
700-1
700-9
700-12
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December 1993
Civil and Structural Manual
732
Clearing, Dewatering and Surcharging
733
Soil Placement and Compaction
734
Excavation and Backfill (Foundations and Trenches)
735
Mudwaves
740
Roads and Paving
741
General Considerations and Layout of Pavements
742
Paving Selection
743
Asphalt Paving
744
Concrete Paving
745
Paving Repairs
746
Alternative Surface Treatments for Foot or Vehicle Traffic Areas
747
Alternative Surface Treatments for Non-Traffic Areas
750
Chain Link Fencing
751
Fencing Components
752
Materials
753
Fencing Installation
760
Railroad Clearances
770
Model Specifications, Standard Drawings, and Engineering Forms
771
Model Specifications
773
Engineering Forms
753
Fencing Installation
780
References
700-20
700-48
700-53
700-57
700-58
700-2
Chevron Corporation
710 Soils and Earthwork Principles

This section provides an overview of grading and earthwork fundamentals, terminology, references, and guidelines for design and layouts.
711 Soils Report

A soils report is a fundamental component of many civil projects. Many of the early
design decisions will be shaped by the information in this report. Issues addressed
in a soils report include:
Site topography
Classification of on-site soils
Identification of surface or subsurface rock or other materials difficult to

excavate
Identification of weak soils that must be either excavated and removed, or

improved to stabilize or strengthen
Water table level
Identified sources of borrow material for engineered backfill
Specific site recommendations for:
Cut and fill procedures

Compaction procedures
Soil stabilization programs
Road and paving
Subgrade
Base/subbase
Paving thicknesses
Section 200 explains how to obtain a soils report.
712 Hazardous Materials

It is becoming increasingly important to determine if the soils at a site have become
contaminated with hazardous wastes. This potential problem must be investigated
whenever the site was previously occupied by, or in close proximity to industrial
facilities. It will be necessary to work closely with the Companys environmental
specialists to determine the hazard, reporting requirements, handling, and disposal
procedures. Verification that hazardous materials are present will almost certainly
result in a significant impact on project costs, schedule, and permits. Protective
clothing and equipment may be required to handle the material.
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713 Soils Background Information

This section defines some of the standard terminology used in soils engineering,
and discusses soil classification and compaction.
Soils Terminology
The primary soils terminology used when discussing earth moving activities
includes:
Consolidation: Increasing the density of soil. Consolidation of soils occurs as the
loading pressure is increased with the addition of overlying materials or the application of external loads. The voids in the soil decrease and the soil particles are forced
closer together. In a saturated soil, discharge of water must occur to have consolidation.
Density: Density is the weight of a given soil quantity divided by the measured
volume, expressed in lb/ft3.
Dry Density: Same as density excluding the weight of any water or moisture in the
soil (lb/ft3).
Moisture Content: Expressed as Percent Moisture Content.
Percent Moisture Content =
weight of wet soil weight of dry soil
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100
weight of dry soil
Permeability: The ability of soil to discharge water vertically or laterally. This
property depends on soil density, particle size, and degree of saturation. Coarsegrained soils have high permeability. Silts and clays have low permeability.
Plasticity: The ability of soils to deform without cracking or crumbling. Plastic
soils can be rolled between the fingers to form a long thin, flexible thread.
Porosity: Porosity is the ratio of voids to the total volume of the soil aggregate.
Frequently expressed as a percentage, and referred to as percentage of voids.
Soils Classification: The common classification is made by size of individual soil
particles. Major divisions are, by decreasing grain size: gravels, sand, silts and clays.
Grain-size Distribution
To classify soils, a mechanical analysis (Particle-Size Analysis of Soils, ASTM D
422) is made using sieves to determine the size of the grains which make up the soil
and the percentage of the total weight represented by the various grain sizes. This
distribution is normally represented on a semi-logarithmic plot as shown in
Figure 700-1 below. The finest mesh sieve used is 0.07 mm (200 sieve) so that analysis is normally limited to grain sizes larger than this size. Other techniques are
used to further classify the silt and clay particles which pass through the 200 sieve.
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Chevron Corporation
Fig. 700-1
Grain-size Distribution
Soil Classification
The significant properties associated with the major classifications are:
Gravel and Sand. Gravel and sand have essentially the same engineering properties, differing mainly in degree. These soils are easy to compact, little affected by
moisture, not subject to frost action, and are highly permeable. Stability of these
materials will depend on how uniformly they are graded in size. If all grains tend to
be approximately the same size (a near vertical line on the grain size plot) the soil
will be more permeable, and less stable when not confined. Such soils are referred
to as being poorly graded. Soils that have a less vertical line on the grain-size plot
are called well-graded and are less permeable and more stable.
Silt. Silt is inherently unstable, particularly when the moisture content increases.
Silty soils are difficult to compact, susceptible to frost heave, have low permeability, and erode readily. Silts exhibit little or no plasticity.
Clay. Clay is frequently identified as having a grain size less than 0.005 mm. It may
possess considerable strength when air-dried, and can be made plastic by increasing
water content. It exhibits shrinking and cracking when it dries and expansion when
moisture is restored. The bearing capacity is extremely variable depending on the
moisture content. Clay has low permeability which can make it difficult to compact,
and consolidation under loads may take months or years.
Natural soil deposits can be a mixture of the major classifications. For more details
on soil classification refer to a soils text book.
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December 1993
714 Soil Compaction Principles

To achieve a high degree of soil compaction, it is necessary to understand the moisture and density relationship for the soils under review. This is particularly true for
cohesive soils, rather than sands or gravel.
A series of density-moisture tests are conducted on the soil(s) encountered at a
construction site: both the natural on-site soils and any planned imported fill. The
testing procedure the Company generally specifies is the Modified Proctor Test
(ASTM D 1557, AASHTO T-180), as it is considered appropriate for the earthwork
equipment in modern use. This testing is done under controlled laboratory conditions and results cannot be duplicated in the field.
A typical plot of the laboratory test results is given in Figure 700-2. The compaction curve will normally exhibit an increase in dry density as the water content
increases up to a peak, after which density decreases with additional water content.
Optimum moisture may run from 8% to 15% for sandy clays, 15% to 25% for silty
clays, and 20% to 30% for clays.
Fig. 700-2
Moisture/Density Curve
Most specifications are written to require a field compaction from 90 to 95% of the
maximum dry density. For areas designed to support future loads, it is desirable to
specify the higher density. In areas where some settlement can be accepted, a lesser
compaction requirement may reduce the cost of construction.
Moisture Control
For soils with moderate to very cohesive properties, the success of a compaction
program is totally dependent on control of the moisture content. Such a program
requires a combination of activities to achieve the desired moisture, including
spreading and reworking the soil if too moist and spraying with water if too dry.
Ordinarily, specify that compaction be done with a moisture content within 2 to 3%
of the optimum content, to achieve a high degree of compaction without extraordinary or costly effort.
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Cohesionless soils may not require strict moisture control to achieve design
compaction. These soils are not frequently encountered.
A program of field measurements for moisture content and density must be maintained during earth moving activities. There are standard ASTM and AASHTO
procedures that cover field measurements. The use of a third-party inspection organization is recommended.
Field Soil Density Tests

Four test methods listed below can determine the in-place density of soils.
Nuclear density moisture gage
ASTM D2922 and D3017
Sand cone method
ASTM D1556
Balloon method
ASTM D2167
Drive cylinder method
ASTM D2937
The last three methods are time consuming, and are being phased out in favor of the
nuclear density moisture gage. These older methods all follow the same basic procedure:
1.
Remove a soil sample.
2.
Determine a nearly exact volume of the hole (the inplace volume of the
sample).
3.
Weigh the soil sample.
4.
Calculate the soil density.
The nuclear density moisture gage operates by emitting either neutrons or gamma
rays into the soil. The number of gamma rays absorbed by soil particles is indirectly proportional to the soil density. The number of neutrons reflected back to the
detector is directly proportional to soil moisture content. With this gage, a trained
operator can take many readings in a relatively short time. Calibration of the
nuclear density moisture gage is done by comparing measurements using one of the
other methods. For a detailed discussion of nuclear density test methods, refer to
ASTM D2922 and D3017.
Caution For soils with large-size gravel or rock, the nuclear density moisture
gage may yield erroneous results.
715 Fill Materials

Specifications for backfill material usually aim at getting well-graded materials.
This means there is a smooth gradation of grain sizes from coarse to fine, but with a
limitation on the percent of material passing the No. 200 sieve from about 5% to
12%. Such material is considered relatively stable, can be readily compacted to a
high density, and can develop high shear resistance and bearing capacity.
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December 1993
One measure of whether a soil has acceptable gradation is called the Uniformity
Coefficient. This coefficient is frequently included in specifications for fill materials, and is derived from a plot of the mechanical analysis for the material as
shown in Figure 700-3.
Fig. 700-3
Uniformity Coefficient
Grain Size (mm)

D60
Uniformity Coefficient = ---------D10
(Eq. 700-1)
where:
D60= Grain size that is coarser than 60% of the soil.
D10= Grain size that is coarser than 10% of the soil.
For the example shown in Figure 700-3,
D60
1 mm
---------- = --------------------- = 7.1
D10
0.14 mm
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Chevron Corporation
Typical coefficient values for various materials are given below. Soils with a uniformity coefficient over 6 and with little or no plasticity can generally be satisfactorily
placed and compacted.
Poorly-graded materials
1 to 2
Well-graded materials
5 to 10
Silty sand and gravel
15 to 300
720 Grading Design and Layout

The development of grading plans requires the following information:
Topographic map to show existing site contours and drawings
General plot plan to show the proposed location for facilities and roads
Completion of sufficient field soil investigation to determine the presence of

either very hard (rock) or exceedingly soft materials
Conceptual plans for treating and disposal of storm water runoff
As the work progresses on the layout of the rough grading plan, maintain good
communication with those responsible for plot plan development. This will enable
you to exchange current information on changes, and to identify problem areas that
could impact other designs.
General design considerations given in Section 521, Drainage, also apply here.
721 Rough Grading Plan

Rough grading and finished grading plans may be combined, but are usually developed as separate plans to accommodate different contracts, and for the sake of
clarity. Elevations shown for rough grading are usually to the closest 1/10 foot.
Items included on the rough grading plans are:
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Limits of site clearing
GradingGeneral area grading, sub-grades for roads, and rough grading of

tank field including impounding basins and berms. May include earthen tank
foundation pads
DrainageGeneral grading to develop ditches and canals. Requirements for

culverts. At the conclusion of rough grading all areas where there will be subsequent work activity should be relatively well-drained.
ObstructionsUnderground obstructions which the contractor must avoid,

such as conduit banks and underground lines. Overhead lines or other above
ground obstructions to contractors work must also be noted.
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December 1993
722 Finished Grading, Paving and Drainage Plans

Finished grading drawings include the following information. Elevations for
finished grading, paving and drainage are frequently shown on drawings to the
closest 1/100 foot.
Scope of work to dress up the rough grading work and other areas torn up by
other construction activities
Invert elevations for ditches and final design elevations for other areas. Requirements for embankments, ditch slopes and tank berms. Required surface treatment for slope protection
Plans and details for underground drainage and sanitary systems
Plans for concrete and asphaltic concrete for paved areas with high points of
paving and slope requirements. Crushed rock or other specified material for
unpaved areas
723 Recommended Slopes

The maximum acceptable slope for cut sections or embankments will vary with the
type of soil materials, ground loading above the slope, climatic conditions, moisture, and intended slope stabilization, if proposed. For noncohesive soils, slope
stability depends on factors other than the height of the slope, whereas for cohesive
soils the greater the height of the slope, the smaller the slope angle must be. For any
major embankments, or locations where stability is critical, a slope stability study
should be made. Steeper slopes will be subject to a greater amount of erosion
because of water runoff.
Because of the variety of conditions affecting the design, no hard-and-fast rules can
be laid down for acceptable slopes. Figure 700-4, based on railroad and highway
practices, gives some general guidelines.
The range of slopes, listed in Figure 700-4, is considered acceptable for embankments in cohesionless soils up to 20 feet, and for cohesive soils up to 15 feet. For
higher slopes, unusual ground water or soil conditions, and for critical slopes, a
detailed slope stability analysis is recommended.
Fig. 700-4
December 1993
Stable Cut and Fill Slopes
Soil
Cut
Fill
Sand
1-1/2:1 to 2:1
1-1/2:1 to 4:1
Gravel
1-1/2:1
1-1/2:1
Cohesive soils, damp, plastic

(up to 15 ft. high)
1-1/2:1 to 3:1
2:1 to 4:1
Sand and/or gravel with

cohesive binder
1-1/3:1
1-1/2:1
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Chevron Corporation
Observations of nearby slopes in similar soils, natural slopes in the vicinity, or trial
cut excavations can be valuable guides for slope design.
724 Recommended Road Grades

The following grades are recommended for heavily traveled roads that are intended
for unrestricted use by all vehicle types:
3% Preferred maximum
5 - 6% Maximum desirable
5% Maximum grade for areas with ice and snow
Steeper grades may be used for roads with limited traffic requirements (number and
vehicle size).
In the layout of road grades, special attention must be paid to road clearances at
vertical sag and summit curves. The critical vehicle dimensions that govern design
are:
Distance between axles

Vehicle clearances
Projections beyond front and rear axles.
Special purpose vehicles, such as fire protection equipment, may govern the
minimum radii for vertical curves.
725 Balance of Cut and Fill

In the development of a grading plan, it is desirable to minimize the quantity of
earthwork. Where only on-site materials are proposed for use in grading, it is necessary to calculate cut and fill volumes and try to achieve a reasonable balance. The
two methods commonly used for volume calculation are: vertical cross sections and
contour maps.
Vertical Cross-sectionsEarthwork volumes are calculated from plotted crosssections using average end areas between successive cross-sections.
Contour MapsBy this method, volumes are calculated by measuring the area of
upper and lower horizontal surfaces that bound increments of cut or fill. Horizontal
projected areas are determined using contour lines and a planimeter. The volume of
cut or fill between any two successive areas is calculated by multiplying the average
of the two areas by the depth between them.
Errors in determining volumes using these two methods depend on the accuracy
and frequency of cross sections, on the scale of the drawing, the contour interval,
and the precision with which contours are drawn and areas measured.
In the calculation of cut and fill volumes, it is necessary to account for the
shrinkage factor. This factor is the ratio of compacted cubic yards to excavated
cubic yards. Since soils are frequently compacted to a density greater than their
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700-11
December 1993
original state, a greater volume of material must be excavated than the measured
volume of fill.
Exceptions to Balanced Cut and Fill

Frequently there are conditions that preclude a balanced earthwork program, such
as undesirable material on the site that cannot be used and must be replaced by
imported fill; or for consideration of drainage or elevation with respect to adjacent
facilities, the desired nominal grade must be higher (or lower) than balanced earthwork dictates. This will necessitate hauling of material to or away from the site.
726 Slope Stabilization

Stabilization of cut or fill slopes is frequently required. The forces and factors that
contribute to slope failures are:
Weight of earth in the slope

Weight of surcharge, structures, or traffic above the slope
Vibrations from earthquakes and traffic
Weight of water within the slope
Hydrostatic water pressure
Erosion undercutting the toe of the slope
Slope surface erosion
Actions that can be taken to alleviate these problems include:
Flattening the slopes

Improving slope drainage by installing internal drains
Diverting surface water flows
Stabilizing the face of slope with shotcrete, asphalt, coarser materials or vegetation (See Section 747)
Stabilizing with geotextile materials (See Section 742)
Providing benches in the slope
730 Earthwork Equipment and Construction Methods

731 Equipment
The type of equipment required for a particular job depends on such factors as:
Nature of material
Quantity of material
Length of haul
Size and terrain of work sites
The type of equipment typically used for various earthmoving operations are
discussed below.
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Chevron Corporation
Excavation
Crawler or rubber tired tractors with bulldozer bladesUsed for ripping,

scraping and stockpiling
Wheel Tractor-ScrapersGenerally self-propelled but may be towed scrapers.

Most efficient piece of earthmoving equipment, as individual unit can excavate, transport and spread fill. Capacities range from approximately 20 CY to
over 50 CY.
LoadersTractor or rubber-tired
Power shovelsUsed for excavations from embankments
Draglines/ClamshellsUsed for areas too soft for access with other equipment. Clamshells may be used for deep excavations; for example, ones that
require sheet pile shoring.
BackhoeWidely used for foundations, trenching, and ditch construction.

Highly mobile, can work in confined areas. Reasonably good control over
dimensions of excavation.
Trenching
There are two basic types of trenchers: wheel type and ladder trencher. The
wheel trencher has digging buckets on the circumference of a rotating wheel. It
is used mainly for shallow trenching. The ladder-type trencher has buckets
attached to a rotating chain mechanism, and can be used for deeper trenching
than the wheel type. Trenchers are best suited for soil that can be easily excavated. The required width of trench excavated by a trencher is generally significantly less than when excavation is performed with other equipment.
Earthmoving
Wheel Tractor-Scrapersmost economical when earthmoving is confined to a

single site. Not allowed to operate on public roads
Off-Highway Truck or Dump Truckrequired for longer haul distances
On-Highway Trucksused for import or export of material using public roads
Spreading
Wheel Tractor-ScrapersRubber tires provide some initial compaction

Tractors with dozer blades
Compaction
Chevron Corporation
Sheepsfoot rollerHigh-speed production for cohesive material, from moderately cohesive to clay
Grid or mesh rollersUsed to break down oversized particles of non-sticky

material
VibratoryUsed for granular materials
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December 1993
Multi-tired pneumaticUsed for a range of soils from granular to moderately

cohesive
Tamping compactorCan be used for a range of soils from coarse grained to

fine grained. The large units, towed or self-propelled, usually have low production rates. Hand operated units are extensively used for compacting backfill
around foundations.
Final Grading
Motor graders with 12- to 14-foot blade
Moisture and Dust Control
Water truck with sprayer attachment
Earthmoving Production Rates

Production rates for earthmoving are subject to many variables:
Type of equipment
Length of haul
Type of material, firmness, particle size
Unfavorable grades
Rolling resistance (type of ground surface)
Traction
Percent of swell for the soil
Provision for push loading
Job efficiency
Size of job
A good source of information on earthmoving production rates may be found in

References 2 and 3. Rule-of-thumb quantities are given for various sizes of equipment, types of soil, and other site variables. Current unit prices for various operations are also available.
Order-of-magnitude earthmoving production rates for various operations are given
below. In each case the rates are based on average undisturbed soil. Adjustments
would have to be made for hard and difficult soils or unusual conditions.
Dozer ExcavationMass excavation and pushing soil 150 feet to stockpile.
D-6 dozer
50 CY/hr
D-9 dozer
200 CY/hr
Scraper ExcavationMass excavation and transport of soil.

25 CY self-propelled scraper
December 1993
1000-foot haul
9 cycles/hr
225 CY/hr
4000-foot haul
4.5 cycles/hr
113 CY/hr
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Chevron Corporation
Backhoe Excavation
1-1/2 CY Backhoe
77 CY/hr
Grading with Motor Grader

Rough Grading
0.7 acre/hr
Fine Grading
0.4 acre/hr
Caution should be used in using any published rates. A total spread must be considered to determine impact on production rates for any one piece of equipment.
732 Clearing, Dewatering and Surcharging

Clearing
Proposed construction sites often are occupied by other, previously built industrial
facilities. Assuming that all above-ground equipment has been removed, site
clearing will probably consist of removing old foundations and below grade piping
and conduit banks. If foundations were pile-supported it may be necessary to excavate down about 5 feet and cut off existing piles to avoid interference with proposed
new construction.
Try to locate all existing lines and electrical conduit prior to starting field work.
You must verify that lines and conduit are out-of-service before dismantling. Piles
that are cut off should be surveyed to aid in new pile location and installation.
For a grass roots site development, a program to first clear all organic materials
must be undertaken. Small stumps, roots, and other vegetation should be removed
to a depth of 6 to 12 inches below the natural grade. Larger stumps should be
removed entirely. The presence of organic matter in soils is not desirable from an
engineering standpoint because organic matter usually has low bearing capacity,
can draw moisture, can reduce soil stability and, if it decays, will create voids.
The common approach for clearing and grubbing a site is to use a tractor with a
bulldozer blade to scrape away the undesirable material. Old vegetation may be
hauled to an acceptable offsite dump, or, where local regulations permit, it is
pushed into piles, allowed to dry, and burned on-site.
Dewatering
There are three situations where dewatering (lowering the water table) may be
required or desirable:
To keep construction excavation dry

To improve soil strength
To reduce lateral pressure
Keep Construction Excavation Dry. Dewatering is required for foundation or

other construction excavations where the bottom of the excavation is at or below the
water table. For typical foundation work, a hole dug in one corner of the excavation
will generally be adequate to permit water removal. For other situations a tempo-
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December 1993
rary lowering of the water table 2 to 5 feet below the excavation may be required.
This can generally be accomplished with well points and pumps. The techniques
used for a particular installation will be influenced by many factors but will primarily depend on the soils being dewatered. Since water table draw down may occur
over a fairly large area, care must be taken to avoid damage to adjacent existing
structures.
The choice of pumps used for dewatering will depend on the height of lift and flow
volumes. Types of pumps used for this service are:
Vacuum
Centrifugal
Submersible
Jet-eductor
Figure 700-5 provides a schematic of the dewatering procedure.

Fig. 700-5
Dewatering an Excavation
Improve Soil Strength. Dewatering can be used to increase the strength and reduce
future settlement of subsurface soils, particularly for highly compressible silts or
clay-type materials. To achieve these conditions, a permanent lowering of the water
table is required. This involves diversion of surface water by ditching, and drainage
of subsurface soils to provide gravity flow of ground water away from the area. For
every foot the water table is lowered, the soils below are subjected to an increased
effective pressure equivalent to the weight of that foot of water. Lowering the water
table can sometimes significantly improve the soil conditions at a site with consolidation of the subsurface soils.
Reduce Lateral Pressure. Dewatering may also be used to reduce lateral soil and
hydrostatic pressure against sheet piling, as might be encountered on a deep excavation.
December 1993
700-16
Chevron Corporation
Surcharging (Preloading)
Preloading involves the placement of a surface load prior to construction to precompress subsurface soils, such as unconsolidated clay or silts. For consolidation of
soils to occur, pore water must be drained from the soils. For soils with low permeability this consolidation process will take place over a long period of time. The
time rate of consolidation can be greatly accelerated if the distance the water must
travel in the soil is reduced. This is frequently accomplished by the installation of
sand drains as shown in Figure 700-6.
Fig. 700-6
Surcharging With Sand Drains
By installing sand drains, on, say 10-foot centers, water needs to migrate only a
maximum of 5 feet to reach the permeable sand drain. Desired consolidation can be
reached in a matter of months instead of years. Holes for the drains may be augured
and backfilled with sand, or driven with a pile, the soil extracted, backfilled with
sand, and the pile removed.
An alternative to sand drains is the use of geotextile drainage wicks. The principle is identical to sand drains but instead of drilling the required holes, the approximate 5-inch wide drainage wicks are pushed into the ground to the desired depth
with a mandrel. When the drainage wicks are in place, water can easily work its
way to the surface by capillary action.
After removal of the preload (usually excess fill material) the bearing capacity of
subsoils will have increased, and predicted settlements that will result from
construction of new facilities will be decreased. Since preloading may take months
to complete, it may have a significant impact on the construction schedule.
733 Soil Placement and Compaction

Depending on the soil properties, different compaction procedures and equipment
are used. Regardless of the equipment, effectiveness falls off rapidly as the depth
increases from the surface. Therefore, compaction programs limit the depth for
each layer of fill. This depth varies from 4 inches to 12 inches depending on the soil
and compaction method.
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December 1993
Cohesionless Soils
Sand and gravel-type materials are best compacted with vibratory equipment.
Multiple passes with 5- to 15-ton rollers equipped with vibrators are made over the
filled area to achieve desired compaction. Granular soils are compacted most effectively in lifts of 6 to 12 inches; however, even greater lifts have been compacted
with very large compactors.
Soils with Moderate Cohesion

The compacting effect of vibration decreases with increasing cohesion. For such
soils, compaction by rollers is more successful. Of the two most commonly used
rollers, sheepsfoot rollers perform better on plastic soils, while pneumatic-tired
rollers have proven successful for soils with low plasticity. Compaction is generally
done in lifts of 4 to 8 inches for pneumatic rollers, and 6 to 12 inches for sheepsfoot
rollers.
Clays
Highly cohesive soils can be difficult to compact and to control moisture. Under
some conditions the use of sheepsfoot rollers can be effective. However, if the
water content is much above the plastic limit of the soil, the clay will adhere to the
roller or the equipment will settle in the ground. Fill layers are generally limited to
6 to 12 inches.
734 Excavation and Backfill (Foundations and Trenches)

Excavation work must be undertaken with attention paid to the risks involved to
personnel, equipment, and existing facilities. The following items should be considered before excavation work proceeds:
Existing underground obstructions should be clearly identified on drawings

and marked in the field. Hand excavation may be required to identify buried
obstructions.
Equipment operators must be fully informed of the excavation program and

potential interferences.
Careful consideration should be given to shoring and bracing requirements, or

alternative methods to maintain slope stability.
Excavations near existing facilities must be undertaken in a manner that will

not affect vertical or lateral support.
For unusual loading or soil conditions, or where the factor of safety may be
marginal, a detailed stability analysis is recommended.
Backfill should be compacted in 6-inch lifts to 95% of the soils maximum density
where the excavation is close to or under other structures or equipment. Excavation
in open areas that will not be built upon should be compacted to 90 or 95% of the
soils maximum density. The lower compaction limit could be used for naturally
dense soils (dry density > 110 lb/ft3) and the higher compaction limit for naturally
lighter soils.
December 1993
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Chevron Corporation
Shoring for Excavations

The Companys Safety in Designs Manual covers general protection requirements
for personnel in excavations, maximum slopes for unshored excavations, and
shoring member sizes and details for excavations up to 20 feet deep. Please refer to
this manual.
735 Mudwaves
When placing fill over highly saturated organic silty or clay soils, a displacement
condition called mudwaves may occur. The result is lateral displacement of the
soft material and settlement of the fill. The displaced material will often be pushed
up as a wave exceeding the original grade level. This can occur during the fill operations or shortly thereafter. See Figure 700-7.
Fig. 700-7
Mudwave
If there is reason to believe this situation could develop, remedial action is called
for. Remedial actions might include:
Chevron Corporation
Complete removal of the weak soils if not too thick, and replacing with
stronger material
Controlled gradual displacement of the soft material with the fill. This involves
continuous pushing of the wave ahead of the edge of new fill.
Placing a layer of granular material extending outward beyond the edge of the
new fill. The weight and dimensions of this material are calculated so it serves
as a counterweight, resisting failure of the soils supporting the new fill.
Limiting fill procedures to very shallow incremental lifts over an extended

period of time to permit underlying soils to consolidate and gain strength
Limiting the size of equipment used, to reduce loading on the soils
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December 1993
740 Roads and Paving

This section provides the civil engineer, or other engineers working outside their
disciplines, with an overview of paving fundamentals, terminology, references, and
broad guidelines to assist in selecting and specifying appropriate materials for road
and area paving and surfacing. In addition to asphalt and portland cement concrete,
a variety of alternative surfacing materials is also discussed.
741 General Considerations and Layout of Pavements

The purpose of paving includes the following:
Provide an all-weather surface with good non-skid qualities for vehicles
Improve storm water runoff
Provide a surface that channels liquid spills into collection systems and
prevents infiltration into the sub-grade
Provide a cleaner working surface by controlling dust problems and promoting

good housekeeping
Prevent soil erosion problems
Minimize damage from frost
Typical sections for two types of paving are shown in Figure 700-8.
Fig. 700-8
Paving Sections
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Layers of Roads
Subgrade. The foundation soil placed and compacted during the rough grading
work is called the subgrade. Usually it consists of the natural soils found on the
site, unless they have inadequate strength and are replaced with imported soils.
Subbase. The subbase is a compacted layer of well-graded fill. It is sometimes, but
not always required under the base course. It is used over fine grained subgrade
soils to improve drainage, resist frost heave, provide structural support by distributing loads, and to prevent pumping of finer grained soils into the base material at
paving joints and edges.
Base Course. The base course is the layer of well-graded granular material that
supports the paving. It distributes wheel loads over a greater area of the subgrade.
Paved Surface. Paved surfaces are of reinforced concrete or asphaltic concrete that
distributes the load to base and subbase, seals against penetration of surface water
(or liquids), resists abrasion and provides traction. Sections 743, 744 and 745 will
help you select and design the thickness of paved surfaces.
Layout
Road Widths. Lane and shoulder dimensions are given in Figure 700-9 as guidelines for typical road requirements. These are not mandatory dimensions, and judgment should be used to conform to local need or standards.
Fig. 700-9
Standard Lane and Shoulder Dimensions for Typical Roads

Width (feet)
Road Type & Traffic
Single Lane
Shoulder
For high-quality, heavy-duty road with up to 500 or more heavy vehicles

daily. Used for heavily truck-traveled roads and main thoroughfares.
20
For not over 2000 cars and 50 heavy trucks or other heavy vehicles daily.
Used for heavily-traveled access roads.
10
For less than 300 cars and 20 heavy trucks or other vehicles daily. It is
recommended for lightly-traveled access roads.
For less than 50 cars and 5 heavy vehicles daily. Suitable for lower-quality
access roads.
2-1/2
Minimum Radii. The minimum radii at road intersections and curves should be
based on vehicles expected to use the road regularly. Figure 700-10 illustrates the
critical dimensions for determining minimum radii, and Figure 700-11 gives dimensional turning data for other types of vehicles.
Sets of turning radii curves are oftentimes available at Company facilities for the
vehicles in use there. If curves are not available, it may be necessary to develop a
new curve for a particular vehicle. To do this, field measurements are made to
check out turning dimensions with the actual vehicle. Additional information for
turning radii is available in Reference 9.
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December 1993
Fig. 700-10 Turning Radius for Passenger Car
Paving Layouts for Plants

Perimeter Roads. The location of the inside edge of perimeter roads must comply
with Process Plant and Equipment Spacing Guide for Fire Protection Considerations (previously called Design Practice A-233), in the Fire Protection Manual.
Center line elevation should be 6 inches higher than corresponding plant high point
to prevent major plant spills from running off to adjacent areas.
Setback Area. The setback area should be surfaced with asphaltic concrete or 4
inches of compacted crushed rock.
Process Plant Paving. Paving for a process plant (Figure 700-12) should extend 4
feet outside the equipment setback lines. Design of paving should be AASHTO
Designation H-20 loading, or proposed crane loads if greater.
Paving Material. Concrete paving should be used where hydrocarbon spills or
drips may occur during operation or cleanup of equipment, around all machinery to
a width of not less than 4 feet, and where required because of heavy wheel loadings. Where general areal settlement occurs, such as at Richmond, asphaltic
concrete may be required to handle differential settlement problems. See
Section 744 for a discussion of concrete paving.
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Chevron Corporation
Fig. 700-11 Vehicle Dimensions for Turning Radii
Fig. 700-12 Process Plant Paving Layout
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Asphaltic concrete may be used for all other plant paving, except in areas subject to
hazardous waste leaks or spills that could damage paving. Acid bricks or corrosionresistant protective coatings should be used in such areas. Standard Drawing GF-S99943 provides typical details for drainage surfaces in sulfuric acid and sodium
hydroxide service. See Section 743 for a discussion of asphalt paving.
Parking Layout. Layout of parking must be based on intended traffic flow (oneway or two-way), and frequency of in-and-out movement. For space planning,
Figure 700-13 provides general dimensional requirements for 45-degree and 90degree angle parking. The 9-foot stall width is suitable for standard-sized cars.
Fig. 700-13 Parking Layout Alternatives
For additional information on layout of parking lots refer to Reference 9.
Guard Posts
In the layout of paved areas it is frequently necessary to install guard posts. These
can be stationary posts to restrict traffic and protect certain areas, or removable
posts to control access to specific vehicles. Refer to Standard Drawing GE-S-99975
for details.
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742 Paving Selection

Two types of paving can be selected, rigid or flexible. Rigid paving such as portland cement concrete has low flexibility and is capable of distributing wheel
loading over a wide area of subgrade. Flexible paving such as asphaltic concrete,
relies on a relatively thin paving (2 to 4 inches thick) in combination with layers of
base and subbase material to distribute vehicle loads.
The relative costs of Portland cement and asphaltic concrete paving vary considerably between geographic locations. Generally, the initial cost of Portland cement
concrete paving is higher (as much as 30 to 50% in some cases) than asphaltic
concrete paving. However, studies of state and federal highway records by the Portland Cement Association have shown that portland cement concrete paving has a
lower life-cycle cost than asphaltic concrete paving. Life-cycle cost data for pavements in Company facilities are not readily available.
Concrete Paving
Advantages:
Hard wearing surface

Excellent for areas subject to hydrocarbon leaks or spills
Low maintenance when used in areas with stable subgrade
Disadvantages:
Does not perform well on unstable subgrades
Is subject to severe cracking if areal settlement occurs
Is difficult and expensive to repair
Requires special joints to control the location of cracks, relief from expansion,
and for construction
Requires installation of and periodic testing of gas test wells to avoid collection of volatile gases under the slab
Asphaltic Concrete Paving

Advantages:
Easier to shape surface to desired slopes
The greater flexibility of asphaltic concrete paving permits it to adjust to

subgrade changes
Easier to repair
Makes access to subsurface lines easier
Disadvantages:
Chevron Corporation
May be damaged by hydrocarbons

Surface is more easily damaged by heavy concentrated wheel loads
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December 1993
General Applications of Paving

Concrete paving can be used in:
Main process operating areas
Walking areas
Areas subject to heavy vehicle traffic within plant areas
Areas around machinery, or where hydrocarbon spills may occur during plant
operation or cleanup of equipment during maintenance
Asphaltic concrete paving can be used in:
Main process operating areas

Walking areas
Plant setback areas
Roads
Parking lots
Traffic Analysis for Pavement Design

An important consideration in the selection and design of paving is the size of vehicles using the paving and frequency of use. For highway designs, both rigid and
flexible, design aids are based on Equivalent Single-axle (18-kip) Loads (EAL or
ESAL). By this approach, varying axle loads are converted to one design loading,
and traffic volume is measured as the number of repetitions of this design axle load.
For Company designs, a detailed traffic analysis and development of EALs is not
warranted. However, it is important to understand the concept of equivalent loading.
Tabulated in Figure 700-14 are EALs developed for typical vehicles.
Fig. 700-14 Equivalent Single-axle Loads for Typical Vehicle
Vehicle
Total Equivalent
18,000-lb Axle Load
Passenger
0.00036
Pickup Truck
0.00227
Vacuum Truck, Flatbed, Tanker (40 ST)
2.79
75 Ton Crane
26.6
This tabulation demonstrates the significant effect of axle loading on pavements. A

single trip by a 40 ST truck theoretically does as much damage to the paving, base,
and subbase as 7800 autos. A large crane, which may be double the truck weight,
contributes 10 times the equivalent loading of the truck.
Paved areas that will see frequent use of large vehicles obviously must be designed
more carefully and will require greater thicknesses.
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Drainage of Pavements
Good drainage for all the materials supporting pavements is of great importance to
the performance of the paving. The presence of water within the pavement structure
can badly affect an otherwise properly designed project. Excess water will cause
the following problems:
Saturation of the subgrade, base, and subbase reduces the effective loadbearing capacity of these layers.
In areas with freezing climates, thawing occurs from the top downward, trapping water between the pavement and frozen ground below.
The presence of water can cause pumping of fines from the subgrade into the
subbase layer and displacement of the subbase aggregate into the subgrade.
Proper design and maintenance of paved area cross-sections promotes good

drainage. This is accomplished by:
Providing adequate area drainage so that the water table is maintained at an

elevation lower than the upper part of the subgrade
Shaping the subgrade to provide a slight crown effect, which will give a slope
to the subbase and base of about 1/4 inch per foot towards the shoulder
Extending base and/or subbase materials beyond the edge of paving with
adequate slope to provide drainage away from under the pavement
Maintaining paving surfaces to minimize the penetration of surface water

through cracks and joints into the materials below
A recommended slope for road shoulders is 1 inch per foot, with a maximum slope
of 1-1/2 inches to 1 inch per foot for subgrade or subbase materials.
Paving Over Low-Strength Soils

In the past whenever low-strength soils were encountered the available choices
were to excavate the undesirable soils and replace with better material, or to overlay
with thicker subbase materials to reduce unit loading to the subgrade. However,
with the development of a line of geogrid and geotextile products, other alternatives
are available for working with problem soils.
Geogrids. Manufactured of high tensile strength polymer, these grids are designed
with transverse and longitudinal ribs. When laid directly on the subgrade, the grid
geometry provides a mechanism for interlocking aggregate base or subbase material placed on the geogrid. The interlocking serves to prevent lateral movement of
the aggregate and improves load distribution to the subgrade. Grid materials are
inert to chemical and biological conditions normally encountered in soils and are
not expected to degrade.
Information on geogrids may be obtained from The Tensar Corporation, Morrow,
Georgia.
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Geotextile. Manufactured of polyester, geotextile comes in rolls up to 16 feet wide

and 300 to 1000 feet long. When laid over subgrade materials directly below an
aggregate subbase, the geotextile is designed to perform four functions:
The geotextile material maintains separation of the subbase from the subgrade.
Coarse aggregate cannot move downward, and fine soil particles in the
subgrade cannot be pumped upward into the subbase.
The geotextile material is permeable, allowing pore water to pass vertically

through the fabric.
The tensile strength of the fabric provides tensile reinforcement for the subbase.
The geotextile material allows lateral water flow within the plane of the fabric.
This serves to dissipate excess pore water pressure.
Geotextiles are designed to be resistant to freeze-thaw and soil chemicals. Information on the use of geotextiles may be obtained from:
Product Name
Source
Trevira
Hoechst Fibers Industries

Spartanburg, South Carolina
Supac
Phillips Fibers Corporation

Greenville, South Carolina
Typar
Reemay Inc.
Old Hickory, Tennessee
Other products whose function is similar to the ones described above may be available. The decision to use such products to solve soil problems should be based on
economics. An investigation of some actual installations where these products have
been used is recommended until the Company has some in-house experience.
743 Asphalt Paving

The purpose of this section is to provide guidelines for engineers involved in design
and specifications for asphalt and paving. Normally, Company engineers would not
be expected to design actual asphalt mixes; however, they may participate in determinations that will influence final design, or be responsible for paving specifications and construction. The objectives of this section are:
Provide working knowledge of the terminology used for asphalt paving

Provide an understanding of the concepts that control designs
Discuss basic materials and installation methods
Provide guidance on typical paving requirements
The Asphalt Institute as a Resource

The Asphalt Institute has published a large number of excellent manuals covering
every aspect of asphalt use. Copies of these manuals may be obtained through the
Institute by writing to or calling: The Asphalt Institute, Lexington, Kentucky 40512-
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Chevron Corporation
4052, (606) 288-4960. Both Chevron U.S.A. Inc. and Chevron Canada Limited are
members of the Institute, so discounts on purchase of Institute manuals may be
available. An annotated list of references on materials, design, installation, maintenance and repair of asphalt paving is included in Section 780.
Asphalt Terminology
Figure 700-8 illustrates a typical cross section through an asphalt pavement structure.
The following terminology is taken from literature published by The Asphalt Institute:
Asphalt Concrete. High-quality, thoroughly-controlled hot mixture of asphalt
cement and well-graded, high-quality aggregate, thoroughly compacted into a
uniform dense mass.
Asphalt Pavement Structure. A structure that is a combination of asphalt courses
and asphalt-aggregate or untreated aggregate courses, placed above the subgrade.
Full-Depth Asphalt Pavement. A pavement in which asphalt mixtures are
employed for all courses above the subgrade.
Asphalt Prime Coat. A spray application of low-viscosity asphalt emulsion to an
untreated base. Its purpose is to bind the granular material to the asphalt layer.
Asphalt Tack Coat. A spray application of asphaltic material to existing pavement
(Portland cement or old asphalt) to insure bond between the superimposed material
and the existing surface.
Asphalt Seal Coat. A thin asphalt surface treatment used to waterproof and
improve the durability of an existing surface.
Emulsified Asphalt. Consists of fine droplets of asphalt suspended in water. Droplets are held in suspension for a long time because of emulsifying agents. The material can be handled with little or no heat. Comes as rapid setting (RS), medium
setting (MS), and slow setting (SS). Is used for road construction, sealing and
surface treatments and patching mixes.
Liquid Asphalt (Cutback Asphalt). Liquid asphalt, once commonly used, incorporates solvents to thin the asphalt to enable handling at lower temperature.
Solvents include naphtha-type, kerosene-type, or light oil to produce rapid,
medium, or slow curing asphalt materials.
Because of environmental concerns, liquid asphalts have been largely supplanted by
emulsified asphalts. EPA and state regulations either severely restrict or prohibit the
use of liquid asphalts.
Asphalt Cold Mix. A mixture of unheated mineral aggregate and emulsified
asphalt. Mixes may be produced in stationary plants with close control of the
production process, or mixed in place. Spreading and compaction is done with
conventional equipment.
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December 1993
Wearing Course (Surface Course). The part of the paving that directly supports
the traffic. It consists of fine aggregate or coarse sand held by an asphalt binder
designed to resist wear from traffic.
Binder Course. In a multi-layered paving system this layer, directly below the
wearing course, is composed of intermediate-sized aggregate with a somewhat
lesser amount of asphalt.
Basic Design Concepts of Asphalt Paving

Company-wide standard design criteria cannot be used for asphalt paving for the
following reasons:
There are major environmental characteristics that impact the strength and
performance of subgrade materials. AASHTO, for example, has subdivided the
continental U.S.A. into six climatic regions for various combinations of such
characteristics as freeze/thaw cycling, wet, dry, hard freeze, and no freezing.
Materials of construction vary widely. In some locations the highest quality

aggregate is readily available, whereas it may be prohibitively expensive in
others. For example, at Pascagoula sand and shell materials are used extensively for base materials because of their availability in comparison to other
materials.
Asphaltic concrete mixes should be based on local and state highway department specifications. These are the mixes that local asphalt mixing plants are
prepared to furnish, and it is expected they are properly designed to meet local
requirements.
If paving work is required in an area where the Company has not had previous experience, considerable knowledge of local paving practices can be developed from the
following sources:
District office for the state department of highways

County or city offices responsible for public roads
Local geotechnical engineers
Asphalt plant operators and paving contractors
Personal observation of local roads under equivalent service
Information from these sources should provide a sound basis for making a judgment about materials, design criteria, and installation procedures for achieving a
quality paving at reasonable cost.
Subgrade Strength Evaluation

Thickness requirements for asphalt pavements depend largely on the strength of the
finished subgrade. For a project with significant paving requirements, with heavy
vehicle loading, and no directly relatable paving experience at the site, subgrade
evaluation should be included as part of other geotechnical studies. Since stability
of the subgrade is closely related to its density and moisture content, soil testing
should be done as near as possible to anticipated in-service conditions.
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Frequently, however, because of the nature and intended use of the proposed paving
and the available local knowledge and experience with the subgrade materials, an
engineer can proceed with confidence to design a paving without a site specific
subgrade evaluation.
If testing is to be made to evaluate the strength of the subgrade, there are a number
of widely used methods employed for asphalt pavement design. These same tests
can be used for testing in-place base and subbase strengths. These tests include:
Plate Bearing Test

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Method
Resistance Value Method (R-Value)
Resilient Modulus (Mr) Method
Results from any of these four evaluation methods cannot be converted from one
value to an equivalent value in another method; however, References 4 and 5
provide information on approximate relationships. Following is a brief description
of these test procedures.
Plate Bearing Test (ASTM D1195). This test can be used for subgrade evaluations
but also strength measurements for subbase, base, or finished pavement. The procedure involves loading a test plate (from 6 to 30 inches in diameter) on the surface of
the materials. Deflection and rebound measurements are made at the plate and at
distances up to 1.5 times the diameter from the edge of the plate.
California Bearing Ratio (ASTM D1883 or AASHTO T193). The CBR test
consists of measuring the load required to cause a plunger of standard size to penetrate a soil specimen at a specified rate. The CBR rating is the resultant of the above
test expressed as a percentage of the load for the same test performed on a standard
sample of crushed rock.
Resistance Value Method (R-Value) (ASTM D2844 or AASHTO T190). This
evaluation follows a two-step procedure:
The resistance value determines the thickness of a pavement structure required

to prevent plastic deformation of the soil under imposed wheel loads.
The expansion pressure test determines the thickness or weight of cover

required to maintain the compaction of the soil.
The design R-Value is determined from the moisture content and density at which
these two thicknesses are equal.
Resilient Modulus (Mr) Method (Asphalt Institute Manual MS-10). This test
determines the resilient modulus of untreated fine-grained subgrade soils for conditions that are representative of stresses in pavements subjected to moving wheel
loads. It involves testing of soils in a triaxial chamber, subjected to repeated loads
of fixed magnitude, frequency, and load duration. It is expressed in pounds per
square inch (psi).
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December 1993
Thickness Guidelines
Figure 700-15 provides some guidelines for estimating paving and base/subbase
thicknesses for three types of subgrade materials and five types of service/traffic
requirements for the roads.
The guideline thicknesses are based on a relatively dry and non-freezing location.
Figure 700-16 provides a relative comparison of roadbed soils to show the impact
that various climates have on design requirements.
Thickness Guidelines for Untreated Aggregate Bases

Figure 700-16 shows that relatively poor subgrade soils can be treated in about
the same manner regardless of the climatic conditions at a particular site. For
subgrade soils judged to be fair, additional base/subbase thickness is probably
required for the more severe climates. For soils rated good, climate becomes a
more important consideration. Subgrade soils rated good in locations subject to
hard freezes could be expected to perform no better than fair soils in areas
without freezing. For example, good subgrade materials in Wyoming should probably be downgraded to fair when using Figure 700-15. Subbase and base thicknesses should be adjusted accordingly.
Fig. 700-15 Thickness Guidelines for Untreated Aggregate Bases
Approximate Thickness (in.)(1)
Subgrade Soils
Typical Evaluation Values
Relative Quality
CBR
Resist. Mod. (Mr)
GOOD
Coarse-grained soils
(well-graded)
40-60
12,000 psi
Gravel, sand
w/limited clay binder
FAIR
Coarse-grained soils
(poorly-graded)
20-40
5,500 psi
Sands, and sand/clay

mixtures
POOR
Fine-grained soils
Plastic, high shrinkage
and expansion,
low-permiability
Note
4-20
3,000 psi
Traffic VolumeTrucks & Cars

>500
Unlimited
<500
Unlimited
<50
<2000
<20
<300
<5
<50
Pavement(2)
Base &
Subbase(3)
Pavement(2)
Base &
Subbase(3)
Pavement(2)
Base &
Subbase(3)
12
11
10
The guidelines given are based on untreated aggregate bases. An alternative design, using asphalt mixtures for base or subbase
courses, resists pavement stresses better than unbonded aggregate laters which have no tensile strength. Consequently, wheel
loads are spread over broader areas and less pavement thickness is required.
(1) In considering the total pavement structure it should be understood that there is no single unique design solution. Instead there are
many combinations of paving, base and subbase that will provide satisfactory results. The combination selected should be the one
most attractive for reasons of cost and construction/maintenance considerations.
(2) Paving thicknesses are based on asphaltic concrete (hot-mix). Alternative paving materials (cold-mix) may require additional thickness
or additional base/subbase.
(3) A minimum of 6-inches of higher quality base materials should be placed over lower quality subbase materials.
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Fig. 700-16 Impact of Climate on Various Roadbed Soils

Relative Subgrade Quality
Soil Resilient Modulus (psi)
Climate
Description
Examples
Good
Fair
Poor
Dry, no freeze
So Calif
So Texas
12,000
5,500
3,000
Wet, no freeze
W Oregon
No Calif
Gulf States
9,500
5,000
2,800
Wet, freeze/thaw
cycling
Midwest and
East Central States
7,300
4,500
2,700
Wet, hard-freeze
spring thaw
Great Lakes to
New England
5,700
4,000
2,700
Dry, freeze/thaw
cycling
E Washington
No Texas
8,200
5,000
3,000
Dry, hard freeze,

spring thaw
Wyoming
Montana
5,700
4,100
2,800
Base and Subbase Construction

Compaction. Base courses should be compacted in layers not exceeding 4 inches.
Subbase should be compacted in layers not exceeding 6 inches.
Base course, subbase, and top 6 inches of subgrade should be compacted to a dry
density not less than 95% of the maximum dry density (Modified Proctor).
Materials
For a subbase with a minimum CBR of 20 (R-Value 55) the following materials are
acceptable:
Coarse sand
Poorly graded gravel
Sandy loam
Decomposed granite with fines
Gravel containing fines
Sand/shell mixtures
Not over 20% by weight of this material should pass a 200 mesh sieve. A very fine
sand or a silty sand is unacceptable as a base or subbase material. Maximum size of
stone should be not greater than one-third the thickness of the base course or the
subbase course.
For a base with a minimum CBR of 70 (R-Value 80) the following materials are
acceptable:
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Crushed rock
Pit run gravel (well-graded)
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December 1993
Well-graded sand (asphalt stabilized)

Coarse decomposed granite (well-graded)
Not over 7% by weight of this material should pass a 200 mesh sieve. Maximum
size of stone should be not greater than one-third the thickness of the base course.
If the depth of frost penetration exceeds the total thickness of subbase, base and
pavement, the subbase thickness shall be increased until this total equals the frost
depth or a maximum of 18 inches.
In areas subject to frost damage, base and subbase materials should contain not
more than 8% by weight of particles finer than 200 mesh. This requirement is to
maintain good drainage through the materials and reduce frost heave potential.
Where low-quality subgrade soils are present, consideration should be given to the
use of geotextiles, as discussed in Section 742. It may be that the cost of using
geotextile fabric over the weak subgrade can be offset by reduction in base/subbase
costs.
Types of Asphalt Paving

The two types of asphalt paving most frequently used for new construction are
plant mix (hot mix or cold mix) and road mix (mixed-in-place).
Plant Mix (Hot Mix). Asphalt paving mixtures prepared in a central mixing plant
are known as plant mixes. Asphalt concrete is considered the highest-quality plant
mix. It consists of well-graded, high-quality aggregate and asphalt cement. The
asphalt and aggregate are heated separately from 250 to 325F, carefully measured
and proportioned, then mixed until the aggregate particles are coated with asphalt.
The hot mixture, kept hot during transit, is hauled to the construction site, where it
is spread on the roadway by an asphalt paving machine at temperatures above
240F. The uniform layer of asphalt mix is spread by a paver, motor grader, or by
hand followed by compaction with rollers to proper density before the asphalt
cools. Spreading of asphalt can be done in lifts from 2 to 4 inches compacted thickness.
Advantages
Produces a high-quality paving surface suitable for heavy traffic
Good quality control can be achieved at the mix plant
Ambient temperatures are not as critical, and since the aggregate is heated the
moisture can be controlled
Limitations
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Requires carefully monitoring the work to make sure that compaction procedures and equipment are adequate to meet specified compaction before the
mixture has cooled
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Requires a hot-mix plant within a suitable distance of the work site. If the plant
is too far from the site, mix temperature considerations and economics may
preclude use of hot mix.
Hot-mix plants in cold regions usually shut down during winter months.
Plant Mix (Cold Mix). Cold-mix paving is a mixture of unheated mineral aggregate and emulsified asphalt that can also be produced at a central mixing plant. Like
a hot mix, the production can be closely controlled, but cold mix has the advantage
of being spread and compacted at normal ambient temperatures. Cold mix can be
placed in lifts of 2 to 3 inches compacted thickness. The disadvantage of cold mixes
is that they do not provide the high-quality, long-wearing paving that is attainable
with hot mixes.
Road Mix (Mixed-in-Place). Road mix paving is emulsified asphalt sprayed onto
and mixed into aggregate at moderate-to-warm ambient temperatures. Mixed-inplace construction can be used for surface, base, or subbase courses. As a surface or
wearing course, it usually is satisfactory for light and medium traffic rather than
heavy traffic. However, mixed-in-place layers covered by a high-quality asphalt
plant-mix surface course produce a pavement suitable for heavy traffic. The advantages and limitations of mixed-in-place asphalt are:
Advantages
Utilization of aggregate already on the roadbed or available from nearby

sources and usable without extensive processing
Elimination of the need for a central mixing plant. Construction can be accomplished with a variety of machinery often readily available, such as motor
graders, rotary mixer with revolving tines, and traveling mixing plants.
Limitations
Should not be done when atmospheric temperatures are under 50F. If the
temperature is too cold, proper mixing of asphalt and aggregate is difficult.
Control of surface moisture for the aggregate is important. Excessive moisture

causes problems in mixing, curing and compacting. Generally surface moisture
must not exceed about 3%.
Cold mix used for a surface course is suitable only for medium and light traffic.
The quality of mixed-in-place paving is more difficult to control than plant

mixes.
Asphalt Application
Prime Coat. For most untreated granular bases an asphalt prime coat should be
used. When the base course for paving has been properly compacted and loose
material removed, it is ready to be primed with asphalt. A pressure distributor is
used to spray approximately 0.2 to 0.5 gal/yd2 of low-viscosity asphalt on the
prepared surface of the base. The asphalt should be fully absorbed by the base and
allowed to set and cure before placing the surfacing.
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Tack Coat. Any time asphalt surfacing is to be applied over a surface of existing
asphalt, such as a surface (wearing) course over a binder course, a tack coat should
be applied to achieve proper bonding. The tack coat must be very thin and must
uniformly cover the area to be paved. Asphalt is sprayed on at a rate of approximately 0.05 to 0.15 gal/yd2.
Asphalt Consultation Service

Chevron, through its Asphalt Technical Service (510) 242-2736, provides a consultation service for customers on asphalt-related problems. This group does not
provide design services, but its broad background and reference sources provide an
excellent in-house resource to respond to specific questions or problems.
744 Concrete Paving

This section discusses the principles for design of Portland cement concrete paving
for roads and plant areas.
Subgrade
The most important consideration for a concrete subgrade is its ability to provide
uniform support. Concentrated wheel loads are distributed over a large supporting
area of the subgrade because of the rigidity of the concrete slab. The effectiveness
of slabs on grade to distribute loads is demonstrated by tests conducted by the PCA
and others. Wheel loads up to 15,000 pounds applied to 6-inch and 8-inch thick
slabs resulted in subgrade pressures of 5 psi or less. If the subgrade is non-uniform,
with abrupt changes from hard to soft, cracking may occur where the slab bridges
over soft spots or rides on hard spots.
Most references for thickness design of Portland cement concrete paving evaluate
subgrade support on the basis of modulus of subgrade reaction (Westergaards
k). The modulus is determined by the loading pressure to make a rigid 30-inch
diameter bearing plate deflect 0.05 inches into the subgrade material (ASTM D1196). This factor is intended to measure the temporary (elastic) properties of the
subgrade, rather than long term soil bearing properties.
The value of k is as follows (pounds/cubic inch):
load (psi)
k = -------------------------------------------deflection (inches)
(Eq. 700-2)
where:
Deflection = actual measured deflection (approximately 0.05 inch)
Typical values for subgrade materials are shown in Figure 700-17.
Subbase
A subbase is not mandatory for concrete paving slabs, but should be considered
where the following conditions exist:
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700-36
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 700-17 Typical k Values for Subgrade Material

Relative Quality
K Value (pci)
Examples of Subgrade Soils
Very Good
>550
Crushed Rock
Good
400-550
Well-graded gravel
Fair
250-350
Sand/Clay Mixture, Well-graded
Poor
150-250
Gravel/Clay, Poorly Graded
Very Poor
<150
Silts and Clays
When the subgrade lacks uniformity because of minor soil variations. A

subbase layer will not correct major subgrade defects, which should be
corrected by excavating poor material.
For paving where a significant number of vehicles with axle loads exceeding H20 are expected to routinely use it
To provide a stable working surface during paving construction
Where subgrade materials are known to be problem soilsdifferential

shrinkage and expansion or excessive frost heave.
If a subbase is provided, it is recommended that the thickness be limited to 4

inches. Tests by the Portland Cement Association show minor increases in subgrade
support with thicker subbase. A thicker subbase should only be used for large
wheel loads on poor material.
For subbase construction, dense-graded material meeting the following limits is
recommended:
Sizemaximum aggregate size not to exceed 1/3 subbase thickness

Passing 200 sieve15% maximum
Plasticity Index6% maximum
Paving Design
For light traffic areas, walkways, and areas restricted to automobiles or pick-up
trucks, a 4-inch slab is considered adequate. For any areas expected to carry heavier
vehicles, up to an equivalent H-20 loading, a minimum 6-inch slab should be used.
For areas expected to carry heavier loads, such as work areas for large mobile
cranes, a more detailed paving design may be appropriate. Refer to References 5, 6,
and 7 for design procedures and thickness design charts. Refer to Figure 700-18 for
recommended thickness guidelines for various subgrade strengths and anticipated
loading.
Wire-Mesh Reinforcement. Wire-mesh reinforcement serves mainly to keep
shrinkage-temperature cracks that may occur in the slab from opening up. If cracks
are kept closed, shear will continue to be transferred by aggregate interlock. Reinforcement does not appreciably increase the load carrying capacity of the slab, nor
does it prevent cracking. The recommended wire-mesh reinforcement for slabs is
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December 1993
Fig. 700-18 Thickness Guides for Concrete Paving

Subgrade Description and (K) Value
Silts & Clay (Highly
Compressible)
< 100 pci
Sandy Silts & Clays

Poorly-graded
Sands or Gravel
100-250 pci
Sand/Clay
Mixtures Wellgraded Sand &
gravel >250 pci
Slab (in.)
4-1/2
Subbase (in.)
with or without
Slab (in.)
5-1/2
Subbase (in.)
Slab (in.)
6-1/2
Subbase (in.)
Design Vehicle
Loading
Pickup
H-15
H-20
6 x 6W1.4 x W1.4. It should be placed at mid-depth or slightly higher in the slab,

as flexural stresses can be expected at both the top and bottom of the slab.
Paving Details. Refer to CIV-EF-738 for standard paving details. The following
comments relate to details that appear on this form.
Thickened Edges. At places where there is a loss of continuity for the slab, it is
necessary to provide additional slab strength. All free edges for 4-inch slabs should
be thickened to 6 inches at the edge, and 6-inch slabs thickened to 8 inches. Thickened edges should taper to the nominal slab thickness about 2 feet from the slab
edge.
Joints
Joints are placed in concrete paving to control the location of cracks and avoid
uncontrolled random cracking. The basic joint types, as illustrated in
Figure 700-19, are:
Expansion (or Isolation) Joints

Control (or Contraction) Joints
Construction Joints
Expansion Joints. Expansion joints provide horizontal and vertical relief to the
slab for expansion caused by temperature and moisture changes. They also allow
differential movement between the slab and other fixed structures or foundations.
There is no load transfer across the joint. Typical locations for expansion joints
include:
December 1993
At high points within a concrete paved area

Where foundations penetrate the paving slab
Where it is desirable to avoid transfer of vibrations from equipment to the slab
Where there are pile-supported structures or foundations
Where slabs abut buildings
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Chevron Corporation
Fig. 700-19 Concrete Slab Joints
Control Joints. The objective of control joints is to purposely induce a plane of

weakness in the slab so that shrinkage cracks will occur along that line and
nowhere else. It is recommended that the depth of the control joint be no less than
1/4 the depth of the slab. Common methods for making the joints include adding
molded inserts at pour time or sawing the concrete while it is still green. Control
joints should be spaced no more than 20 feet apart unless expansion or construction
joints are present to control cracking. Control joints should form a square pattern if
possible.
Construction Joints. Construction joints should be made where interruptions occur
in the concreting operation or at the end of each days pour. The location of
construction joints can be shown on drawings or preplanned when construction
begins. At other times the requirements must be determined in the field when interruptions to pouring operations occur. Weather is a common factor in determining if
a construction joint is required. A 30-minute delay on a hot, dry windy day might
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December 1993
be the maximum acceptable delay between concrete pours. Under less severe conditions a longer delay might be acceptable. The objective is to avoid formation of
seams or planes of weakness that can occur if fresh concrete is deposited against
concrete which has partially set, instead of still being plastic. Reinforcement is
carried continuously across construction joints, to assure load transfer between slab
sections. Load transfer-capability can be increased with the use of dowels or keyed
construction joints.
Location of Joints. The location of joints is an important consideration.
Figure 700-20 illustrates some recommended practices regarding joint location.
Fig. 700-20 Typical Joint Layout
Paving Finish
It is recommended that paving for walks or area paving first be given a float-finish
followed by drawing a broom or burlap belt across the surface. This practice gives a
coarse scored texture that provides traction.
Concrete Materials
Minimum 28-day concrete strength for paving should be 3000 psi. Prohibit all
vehicle loads on concrete slabs until 75% of design strength is reached. Limit
loading on slabs to lighter weight vehicles only, until full design compressive
strength is reached. For areas subject to freezing, air-entrained concrete should be
used. See Section 200 of this manual for a discussion of soils, foundations, and
concrete.
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Chevron Corporation
Gas Test Wells

A potential explosion hazard is created if gas pockets form beneath concrete
paving. This may occur if there is damage to drain lines. Hydrocarbon spills that
migrate under the slab may also collect at drain line locations if backfill materials
are more permeable than the surrounding soils. Gas test wells per CIV-EF-738
should be provided at maximum 20-foot spacing over all drain lines that underlay
concrete paving.
Gas test wells serve a dual purpose. First, they allow inspection for settlement and
gas pockets by probing and testing with a combustible gas indicator. Second, they
allow injection of grout under the concrete pavement to fill the voids. The grout is
injected under pressure through the well after removal of the plug. A special
grout consisting of fine sand, soil, cement, and sometimes other ingredients is used.
This procedure has also been used to raise slabs in areas where considerable settlement occurred. Where general areal settlement is predicted, gas test wells should be
installed on a 20-foot center-to-center grid in both directions to permit grout
pumping.
Joint Sealants
Sealants prevent the intrusion of liquids through the slab and keep the joint free of
undesirable material. Expansion joint material should have the following properties:
Resist hydrocarbons
Be impermeable
Deform to accommodate movement at the joint
Recover original properties and shape after cyclical deformations
Remain bonded to the joint face
Not harden or become brittle through aging or weathering
An excellent summary of sealant products currently on the market can be found in

ACI 504R, Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete Structures (Reference 8).
Pile-Supported Slabs
At sites where equipment foundations are pile-supported because of poor soil conditions, some consolidation of the subgrade soil between foundations is often
expected. Asphalt paving for such areas can usually accommodate this type of
movement or can be resurfaced as required to correct this condition. Reinforced
concrete slabs cannot respond easily to such differential settlement conditions, and
the result is unwanted cracking and tilting of slabs.
Pile support designs have been used to prevent settlement of slabs for sites with
poor soil conditions. To minimize piling requirements, the most common practice is
to support slabs from planned foundation structures to the greatest possible extent.
Where additional support is required, pile-supported grade beams can be used.
Refer to Section 200 for design of piles and to Specification CIV-MS-4841
(Section 2000).
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745 Paving Repairs

Flexible Paving
Asphalt paving is subject to a variety of failures, whose causes and methods of
repair vary. The Asphalt Institute has an outstanding reference on this subject entitled Asphalt in Pavement Maintenance (MS-16). This publication has excellent
photos illustrating the major problems for purposes of identification. Recommended repair procedures are given for each type of problem. Subjects include but
are not limited to:
Excessive deflection
Alligator cracks
Shrinkage cracks
Slippage cracks
Distortions
Corrugations
Raveling (progressive separation of aggregate)
Potholes
Rigid Paving
Maintenance consists mainly of filling in cracks and expansion joints to prevent
entry of water to the subgrade, and to minimize further deterioration of the concrete
along the edges of the crack or joint. Cracks should be cleaned out as thoroughly as
possible and sealed. Deteriorated jointing materials should be cleaned out and
replaced with rubber asphalt compounds. Such sealing materials for cracks and
joints have less tendency to become brittle in cold weather, and to soften and track
under traffic in hot weather Joint crack sealants are covered by ASTM Specification
D 1190 and AASHTO M 173.
In extreme cases where a concrete slab has settled, it may be desirable to pump a
grout mixture to the underside of the slab to restore it back to the original elevation.
Sometimes differences in slab elevations can be corrected with asphalt concrete
patching, or by completely overlaying the slab with asphalt concrete.
The Asphalt Institute Manual (MS-6) provides recommended repair procedures for
Portland cement concrete paving, such as cracks, scaling, and spalling.
Subgrade Problems
Paving problems often are traced to inadequate subgrade support. This may be due
to poor drainage, improperly compacted subgrade, low-strength subgrade materials,
or inadequate backfill and compaction over trenched lines or culverts. In such cases
it may be necessary to remove the damaged portion of paving to expose the
subgrade. Subgrade replacement, recompaction or use of geotextile materials are
possible remedies. For information on geotextile materials refer to Sub-section 742.
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746 Alternative Surface Treatments for Foot or Vehicle Traffic Areas

Paving with asphalt or portland cement concrete is generally limited in scope to
areas where, because of traffic loads or other considerations, the cost of paving is
justified. There are, however, other surface treatments that have application for locations with foot or limited vehicle traffic. These include:
Crushed rock
Gravel
Stabilized soil
Walking on these surfaces is difficult unless the suggested gradations are used and
the materials are compacted to 90 to 95% of their maximum density.
Compacted Crushed Rock. Depending on the subgrade, the use of approximately
4 inches in depth of crushed rock will provide adequate support for occasional
vehicle loads.
Crushed rock surfacing is commonly used where an all-weather, well-drained
surface is desired, where neat appearance is important, and where heavy vehicle
traffic is not a factor.
For the best wearing surface, a well-graded crushed rock material is desired. The
following gradation is suggested for a well-compacted surface:
Sieve Size
Amount Passing Sieve, %
1 inch
100
3/4 inch
90-100
1/2 inch
25-60
3/8 inch
10-15
No. 4
0-3
To limit the growth of vegetation through the rock surface, an application of an

approved weed killer is recommended prior to spreading the crushed rock.
Gravel. Gravel as used herein refers to the wide variety of soil mixtures that have a
significant portion of gravel (grain size 2 mm to about 3 inches) and/or coarse
sand.
Gravel may be found naturally on the site, or may be imported to the location from
a borrow pit. It can be well-graded (relatively uniform distribution of grain-size
particles) to poorly graded (with excessive percentages of certain grain sizes and
absence of others). Some gravel will exhibit some plasticity, whereas others will be
non-plastic.
The well-graded gravels provide better and longer-lasting surfaces, and they tend to
perform better if they have a small percentage of clay which acts as a binder.
Poorly-graded gravel materials have a tendency to become soft during wet weather
and loose and dusty in dry weather. The wearing properties for gravel surfaces can
be improved by the application of emulsified asphalt to further cement the gravel.
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Well-graded gravel usually has grading (grain-size distribution) that falls within the
following limits.
Designated Sieve
Amount Passing Sieve, %
No. 10
20-100
No. 40
10-70
No. 200
3-25
Stabilized Soil. Besides normal compaction techniques for strengthening soils,

there are chemical additives that will enhance soil properties. These include:
Portland cement
Asphalt
Lime
Calcium chloride
These treatments can be used to accomplish the following:
Upgrade the strength of very poor subgrade materials under roads

Decrease the permeability of soils
Act as a palliative to control dust problems
To surface areas not subject to heavy vehicle loads
The quantity of additive required and the anticipated stabilization gain will depend
on the properties of the natural soil and the depth of soil to be stabilized. Laboratory testing may be required to assess the value of using chemical additives. The
common procedure followed for stabilizing soils includes:
Scarifying the existing surface

Spreading chemical additives
Mixing with motor grader using windrow mixing or alternative procedure
Spreading
Compacting as required
747 Alternative Surface Treatments for Non-Traffic Areas

This section discusses surface treatments for non-traffic areas where, for reasons of
erosion and dust control or esthetics, a treatment other than paving is desired.
Treatments discussed are:
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Shotcrete (gunite)
Vegetation
Spray-on-asphalt
700-44
Chevron Corporation
Shotcrete
Shotcrete is the generic name for the process of pneumatically projecting mortar or
concrete at high velocity onto a surface. The name Gunite, often used interchangeably with shotcrete, is one of a number of names for this application.
As an alternative to paving, shotcrete has been used extensively for:
Embankment stabilization
Improvement of hydraulics and side stabilization for ditches and channels
Surfacing under grade-level pipeways for improved drainage and appearance.

It is effective for getting between lines and into areas which are difficult of
access. See Section 600 for more details on this subject.
In general shotcrete is a structurally sound and durable material. It exhibits good

bonding characteristics if properly applied. The strength of shotcrete is considered
comparable to conventional concrete having the same composition. Shotcrete has a
greater potential for shrinkage cracking because of a high-cement factor.
There are two types of shotcreting processes: dry mix and wet mix.
Dry-mix process. This process starts with a mixture of aggregate and cement. This
material is carried by hose to a distribution nozzle using compressed air. Water in
metered quantities is introduced at the nozzle under pressure for mixing with the
cement/ aggregate materials. The resulting mixture is jetted from the nozzle at high
velocity at the surface receiving shotcrete.
Wet-mix process. In this process water, cement and aggregate are all blended and
mixed together. The mortar is conveyed to a distribution nozzle where it is jetted
towards the work surface. An accelerator is frequently introduced at the nozzle to
expedite the initial set of the shotcrete. Additional air can be injected at the nozzle
to increase velocity and improve the gunning pattern.
Finishing. For dry-mix, the natural textured shotcrete finish is preferred from a
structural and durability standpoint. The dry-mix shotcrete is usually stiff and difficult to work with. Further finishing can reduce bonding and create cracking. Wetmix shotcrete is somewhat easier to finish.
Where a smoother finish is desired, apply a thin surface finish coat of sand and
cement over the shotcrete. This coat can be applied wet and finished with a float,
brush, or steel trowel finish.
Because shotcrete is normally not hand finished, it is susceptible to variations in
thickness and surface elevation. Surfaces which are sloped for drainage should be
checked for ponding before the job is accepted.
Reinforcement. Reinforcement is frequently used with shotcrete surface treatment
to reduce crack propagation and to increase flexural strength. A commonly used
fabric reinforcement uses wires on 4-inch centers. Openings in fabric less than 2
inches should not be used because of the possibility of honeycombing. One layer of
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December 1993
mesh is recommended for each 3 inches of shotcrete, with the mesh in the center of
the shotcrete layer.
A fibrous reinforcement is now being offered as an alternative to wire fabric for
secondary reinforcement, where structural reinforcement is not required. This material is introduced into the cement and aggregate mix, and is distributed three-dimensionally throughout the shotcrete. It is intended to reduce shrinkage and improve
wearing properties. One such product is called FORTA CR manufactured by
FORTA Corp, Grove City, PA.
Shotcrete Aggregate. For most shotcrete applications, the maximum size of aggregate is commonly limited to a range from 3/8-inch to 3/4-inch. With proper proportioning, the use of aggregate larger than 3/8-inch can contribute greater strength to
the shotcrete, but the larger particles tend to have the most rebound during the application process.
Figure 700-21 gives recommended gradations from ACI 506R (Reference 8).
Fig. 700-21 Recommended Aggregate Gradation
Percent by Weight Passing Individual Sieves
Sieve Size, U.S. (standard square mesh)
Gradation No. 1
Gradation No. 2
Gradation No. 3
3/4 in (19 mm)
100
1/2 in (12 mm)
100
80-95
3/8 in (10 mm)
100
90-100
70-90
No. 4 (4.75 mm)
95-100
70-85
50-70
No. 8 (2.4 mm)
80-100
50-70
35-55
No. 16 (1.2 mm)
50-85
35-55
20-40
No. 30 (0.600 m)
25-60
20-35
10-30
No. 50 (0.300 m)
10-30
8-20
5-17
No. 100 ( 0.150 m)
2-10
2-10
2-10
The gradation of the aggregate used for shotcrete is of considerable importance. If

the percentage of coarser aggregates is too great, additional cement content is
required to achieve the desired strength. To get the most economical mix, an aggregate gradation within the limits given in Figure 700-21 is recommended.
A method frequently used for specifying the fineness or coarseness of an aggregate
uses an index number called the Fineness Modulus (F.M.). The calculation of a
fineness modulus is relatively simple as illustrated in Figure 700-22.
An aggregate consisting primarily of finer materials has a low Fineness Modulus.
For coarser aggregates, the F.M. increases. For typical shotcrete, the aggregate has a
fairly narrow range, approximately 2.0 to 5.0. Richmond generally specifies 3 or
less for their work.
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Chevron Corporation
Fig. 700-22 Example Calculation of Fineness Modulus for a Graded Aggregate

U.S. Std.
Sieve Analysis
Percent Coarser
Than Each Sieve
No. 100
98
No. 50
79
No. 30
61
No. 16
20
No. 8
12
No. 4
3/8 in
0
Total
Fineness Modulus (F.M.)
F.M. =
Sum of Percentages
Coarser Than Each Sieve
100
F.M. =
274/100 = 2.74
274
If a facility anticipates a considerable amount of shotcrete work, a program of

testing various mixes is recommended. The objective is to come up with the most
economical mix specification that meets the desired strength requirements
(commonly 2500 psi, 28-day). Shotcrete can then be specified with:
Minimum cement content

Aggregate gradation limits
Maximum F.M.
Admixtures
Vegetation
Grasses or other vegetation that are suitable for the soil, climate, and site conditions
are frequently used for erosion and dust control and for esthetics. Local knowledge
and input from agronomists should be used to select the right materials and procedures.
Frequently the planting of vegetation is required on slopes where wind and water
erosion is a problem. A common method of anchoring the soil in place until the
vegetation has established itself is to use erosion control fabric. This material
consists of a knitted construction of yarn interwoven with biodegradable paper.
Asphalt mulch treatments have also been used to maintain soil stability until vegetation is well started. There are two procedures used for asphalt mulch applications,
both using asphalt emulsions.
Chevron Corporation
Applying an asphalt spray directly to an area that has been seeded, fertilized,
and dampened. The thin asphalt film holds the seed in place and helps hold the
moisture in the soil. The film shrinks and cracks readily as the plantings
emerge, and eventually disintegrates.
Spreading straw or hay mulching materials followed by an asphalt spray, or

combining the mulch with asphalt prior to spreading.
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December 1993
Spray-on Asphalt
Spray-on asphalt may be used to control dust or to stabilize slopes from erosion.
Before asphalt application, the surface should be dressed so as to be relatively free
of lumps and large rocks, and then sterilized to deter weed growth.
This method of treatment was used extensively at one time when cutback asphalt
materials could be used. Currently, slow setting emulsified asphalt has to be used as
a substitute for this spray-on asphalt, and good penetration of this material into the
soil is not expected. Emulsified asphalts tend to produce a surface film over the
subgrade rather than cementing the soil particles together. Rapid weathering and
disintegration of the asphalt is expected. The value and desirability of using sprayon-asphalt treatment is certainly open to question for the following reasons:
Does not provide a pleasing appearance

Is subject to mechanical damage
The asphalt is subject to weathering (oxidation) and requires respraying
750 Chain Link Fencing

This section discusses chain link fencing materials and the Company practices that
are generally followed for fencing installations.
The objective for most fencing installations is to:
Define the limits for Companys facilities or property
Restrict or impede unauthorized access
Prevent accidental entry to hazardous areas.
Proposed fencing requirements should be reviewed with Company facility operators, and with local or Corporate security personnel.
751 Fencing Components

To understand fencing terminology, please refer to Figure 700-23. The following
descriptions relate to the primary components included in this figure.
Wire Mesh
The size of wire mesh is determined by measuring the distance between parallel
sides of the mesh. The common size for standard industrial use is 2 inches. The
generally accepted Company standard for perimeter fence height is 6 feet; however,
higher fencing (such as 8 feet), has been used around electrical substations. Mesh
with 9-gage (0.148-inch) fabric wire is normally specified; however, mesh is also
available in 11-gage (0.120-inch) wire, which may be suitable for light industrial
use. Corrosion protection for the mesh is discussed in Section 752.
Top and bottom edges of mesh (selvage) should be twisted and barbed for industrial
applications rather than knuckled.
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Chevron Corporation
700-49
Fig. 700-23 Chain Link Fencing Terminology and Erection Details
Chevron Corporation
December 1993
Posts
Generally, line posts are spaced at 10 feet on centers for a 6-foot high fence. The
posts should have sufficient section properties to meet the minimum section moduli
specified in Specification CIV-MS-1952.
Round and square posts should be furnished with post tops to exclude the entry of
moisture. This feature is usually combined with barbed wire supporting arms that
fit over the top of the post.
Tension Wires
For most industrial installations, top and bottom tension wires are used. Top rails
are sometimes substituted for top tension wires in locations where appearance is a
consideration. Tension wires provide significant lateral stiffness to the fence wire
mesh both at the top and bottom. Without the tension wire, the mesh can be more
easily stretched and deformed between posts. This condition is undesirable because
of the non-uniform appearance and because it can make entry easier.
Extension Arms with Barbed Wire

Extension arms, usually single arm extensions, are provided at the top of posts to
support the barbed wire. The arms are installed to angle outward in locations where
it is desired to increase the difficulty of scaling. However, where the fence is
installed on the property boundary line, extension arms are angled inward to
prevent encroachment over the line.
The use of razor wire as a substitute for barbed wire is not recommended. It is undesirable for reasons of aesthetics (giving a prison yard appearance) and is more
likely to cause injury than normal barbed wire.
Gates
Gates are an important element for any fencing installation. They are highly visible
and subject to severe punishment. The types normally considered are:
Swing Gates. Single gates are 3 feet wide and larger, and double gates are generally 6 feet wide and larger. Swing gates are:
The least costly

Used extensively at openings infrequently operated
May be difficult to operate in snow or icy conditions
Roll-type Gates. When choosing a gate, consider that roll-type gates are:
December 1993
Easily operated by one person

Can be adapted for automatic operation
Take up less space than swing gates
Provide a neater, cleaner appearance
Can be used for up to 30-foot wide single openings
Require maintenance of rollers and automatic operators
700-50
Chevron Corporation
Gate designs differ significantly from one manufacturer to another. A careful

review of the vendors details and specifications is warranted to assure that the
desired quality of gate is obtained.
752 Materials
The commonly used fabric materials for fencing are discussed in the following:
ASTM A392
Specification for Zinc-Coated Steel Chain-Link Fence Fabric
ASTM F668
Specification for Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)Coated Steel ChainLink Fence Fabric
ASTM A491
Specification for Aluminum-Coated Steel Chain-Link Fence

Fabric
The following additional ASTM Standards cover specific subjects that relate to
chain link fencing:
A 121
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Barbed Wire
A 123
Zinc (Hot Galvanized) Coatings on Products, Fabricated from

Roller, Pressed and Forged Steel Shapes, Plates, Bars and Strip
A 585
Aluminum-Coated Steel Barbed Wire
A 824
Metallic-Coated Steel Marcelled Tension Wire
F 552
Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Link Fencing
F 567
Installation of Chain Link Fence
F 626
Fence Fittings
F 669
Strength Requirements of Metal Posts and Rails for Industrial

Chain Link Fence
F 900
Industrial and Commercial Swing Gates
Galvanized Steel
Zinc coating for the wire mesh may be ordered in two weight classes, (Class 1)
1.2 oz/ft2 of uncoated wire or (Class 2) 2.0 oz/ft2 For most installations the heavier
coating is recommended.
Galvanizing, the least costly coating for chain link fencing, is widely used for wire
fabric, posts, and hardware for inland installations and where corrosive atmospheres
are not expected. Limitations are that the life expectancy can be shortened from
perhaps 20 years to about 5 years under severe environmental conditions.
Vinyl-Coated Steel
Vinyl (PVC) coating is widely used to protect fencing in coastal areas and other
installations with severe corrosive atmospheres. Typical vinyl-coated wire mesh
uses a minimum 6 to 7 mil coating over zinc-coated wires. Vinyl coating for all
fencing components, including barbed wire, is available for installations with very
severe environmental conditions.
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December 1993
Vinyl-coated mesh comes in two types of application. The higher quality system
fuses the vinyl to the galvanized wire core. This method provides a coating that has
good flexibility, peel and crack resistance, and good low-temperature performance.
The second type of application uses an extruded vinyl coating over the wire core.
Tests indicate about equal performance of the two types under severe corrosive
conditions, but the extruded type is less resistant to physical damage.
Vinyl-coated fencing not only provides the best performance for severe environmental conditions, but is the most attractive in appearance. A drawback to vinylcoating is its higher cost.
Aluminized Steel
In appearance aluminized steel coating looks very much the same as the galvanized
steel coating. Aluminizing extends the life of the fencing material beyond that of
galvanizing for many applications, but test results suggest this may not be true for
all installations. The cost justification for aluminized fencing will require a specific
study of the intended service.
Fencing Costs
The cost of galvanized, vinyl-coated, and aluminized fencing is highly variable,
apparently the result of wide fluctuations in the base price for aluminum and the
difference in quality of vinyl-coated products. Galvanized fencing has consistently
the lowest cost, with aluminized fencing up to 25% higher, and vinyl-coated
fencing perhaps 25 to 50% higher than galvanized. Current pricing information
should be obtained when considering alternative fencing systems, and pricing
should be based on detailed specifications for the materials.
753 Fencing Installation

Specification CIV-MS-1952 covers materials and installation requirements for
chain link fencing installations. For most installations the preferred method is to
have the contractor supply all materials included with the installation contract. This
avoids the problem of material shortages and the disposal of excess material on job
completion.
Engineers should be aware that electrical grounding of the fence may be required,
for example, safety fences around electrical equipment. However, this work would
normally be included with an electrical contract and not be part of the fence installation contract.
To fully define fencing requirements for purposes of an installation contract, the
following documents are required:
December 1993
Layout drawing
Property line clearances
Elevation drawing if required
Specification CIV-MS-1952
Specified fencing materials (wire fabric, posts, hardware, etc.)
700-52
Chevron Corporation
Height of fabric
Type of fabric
Zinc coating class if other than Class 2
PVC coating class:
Class 1
Extruded
Class 2a
Thermally extruded
Class 2b
Thermally fused
Special conditions
The acceptance criteria used for a fencing contract must include quality of workmanship in addition to completion of the scope of work and conformance with
material specifications. If attention is not paid to the following items, the visual
effect may be unpleasing:
The grade along the fencing lines should be dressed up to be uniform and
smooth prior to fence installation. This is necessary to assure that the bottom
tension wire and fabric maintain a constant dimension from the grade.
Fencing lines and posts must be aligned straight and true.
Fencing fabric must be properly tensioned so that loose sections do not appear
between posts.
The top of posts should be either at the same elevation, or if on sloping ground
a uniform slope should be maintained.
Careful planning should be made to minimize the number of changes in slope.
The use of an experienced fencing contractor, monitored by Company inspectors,

will generally yield a quality installation which will look good and will last for
years.
760 Railroad Clearances

The purpose of this section is to list requirements for track clearances that are
required by law, and to provide railroad operators a safe passageway on each side of
the tracks for performance of their work around moving trains.
Minimum Track Clearances

Track clearances vary from state to state and with individual railways. For design of
new rail spurs or facilities in the proximity of existing railroad tracks, the designer
must check with the railroad and state governmental authority that determine local
legal clearance requirements. Figure 700-24 provides the Companys recommended
minimum clearance requirements for standard gage railroad tracks. The clearances
shown are in conformance with those specified by the State of California PUC
(General Order No. 26-D). They may or may not meet or exceed requirements in
other locations.
Chevron Corporation
700-53
December 1993
Electrical clearances must conform to those required by the State of California PUC
(General Order No. 95), and to the Companys Safety in Designs Manual (Reference 11).
Fig. 700-24 Recommended Minimum Clearance Requirements for Standard Gage Railroad Tracks
Walkways
Walkways alongside the tracks must be kept free of ditches, vegetation, and other
tripping hazards. Safe, smooth, and level walkways must be provided for the safety
of railroad operators. Figure 700-25 shows the recommended clearances adjacent to
industrial side tracks by the American Railway Engineers Association (AREA)
(Reference 10). Individual railways are not required to conform with the AREA
recommended practices and generally set their own standards.
Rail Spur Planning

A discussion with the railroad company serving the area is the initial step to planning a proposed in-plant industrial spur installation. Their input should address, but
not be limited to, the following items:
December 1993
Division of responsibilities
Matchline between railroad and Company work
Responsibility for designs
Furnishing of materials
700-54
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 700-25 Recommended Clearances Adjacent to Industrial Side Tracks
Chevron Corporation
Responsibility for installation work

Location of spur turnout (from industrial lead track, branch line, or siding)
Geometry of industrial in-plant track
Radius of turnout and in-plant curves
Gradients (maximum slope)
Clearances
Distances between adjacent tracks
Rail section (weight lb/yard)
Ballast/subballast requirements
Roadbed embankments
Material specifications
Construction specifications
Signs and safety markings
700-55
December 1993
Derail requirements
The individual railway serving the site will in most cases be able to furnish its own
published technical specifications for industrial tracks. Other reference sources are
References 1 and 10.
Layout for Rail Spur

Figure 700-26 provides some dimensional data for preliminary planning of new rail
spurs. The turnout data given are from recommendations and requirements of the
Union Pacific System, and are based on using a No. 9 frog. The frog is the
special crossover section required where the outer rail of the curve for the spur
crosses the straight-through rail of the main track. Turnout radii and clearances will
vary with the railroad involved and with the importance of the connecting railroad
track (main, lead, or spur).
Fig. 700-26 Industrial Track Turnout Data
Maintaining Required Clearances

In order to maintain required track clearances the following guidelines should be
followed.
December 1993
A suitable line or other marker should be maintained on all platforms adjacent

to railroad tracks to indicate minimum track clearance for stored material.
700-56
Chevron Corporation
Material, tools, equipment, or other articles should not be placed on the ground
or on platforms at a distance less than 8 feet 6 inches from the center line of
any straight track or 9 feet 6 inches from the center line of any curved track.
Excavations adjacent to or under any railroad track should not be made until
the excavation has been approved by the railroad company representative.
Drainage openings or open drainage ditches should not be installed within the
required legal track clearance.
Pipes, power lines, cables, or wire should not be installed over or under any
railroad track until the plans have been approved by the railroad company
representative.
The minimum clearance for pipes crossing below or running longitudinally

along all railroad tracks must be in compliance with the requirements of the
state and the railroad company.
All underground conduit shall be encased in red-colored concrete. The

minimum clearance for conduit crossing below and running longitudinally
along railroad tracks shall comply with piping clearances as described above.
770 Model Specifications, Standard Drawings, and Engineering Forms

771 Model Specifications
CIV-MS-581
Clearing, Grading, and Earthwork
CIV-MS-1952
Chain Link Fencing
772 Standard Drawings

GF-S99943
Details for Sumps, Pump Foundation and Drainage in

Sulfuric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide Service
GA-S99975
Removable and Stationary Guard Posts
773 Engineering Forms

CIV-EF-738
Chevron Corporation
Paving Details
700-57
December 1993
780 References
General
1.
Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers. Merritt, Frederick S., Editor. McGrawHill Book Company.
A general, all-inclusive handbook that includes discussion on nearly all aspects of

civil engineering. This includes earthwork, paving, fencing, drainage, and railroads.
2.
National Construction Estimator. Craftsman Book Company.
Revised annually to maintain current pricing information on all types of construction activities. Provides material cost data, productivity rates for work activities,
crew size information, and estimated hourly rates.
Grading and Earthwork

3.
Caterpillar Performance Handbook. Caterpillar Tractor Co.
Provides extensive data on all types of excavation, earthmoving and grading equipment. Discusses the principles used to determine machine productivity.
Roads and Paving

4.
The Asphalt Institute Manuals.
MS-1, Thickness DesignAsphalt Pavements for Highway and Streets.

Topics discussed are: design principles, traffic analysis, materials evaluation, and
design procedure.
MS-2, Mix Design Methods for Asphalt Concrete.
Topics discussed are: design practices for hot mixes, methods of mix design.
MS-8, Asphalt Paving Manual.
Topics discussed are: preparation of subgrade and bases, paving equipment, paving
operationsspreading, compaction, and inspection.
MS-10, Soils Manual.
Topics discussed are: soil investigation, soil classification, determination of strength
values for design of pavements.
MS-14, Asphalt Cold-Mix Manual.
Topics discussed are: materials, equipment for mixed-in-place, central plant mix,
material and construction, and specification.
MS-16, Asphalt in Pavement Maintenance.
Topics discussed are: maintenance of asphalt pavements, asphalt in maintenance of
Portland cement concrete pavements, selection of mixtures and maintenance equipment.
December 1993
700-58
Chevron Corporation
5.
Interim Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. American Association of

State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
A comprehensive design manual for the design of flexible and rigid pavement structures. Has a chapter on Low-Volume Road Design which is probably the most
relevant with respect to Company facilities.
6.
Slab Thickness Design for Industrial Concrete Floors on Grade. Portland

Cement Association.
Provides design charts for slab thickness for both single- and dual-wheel axle loads.
7.
Concrete Floors on Ground. Portland Cement Association.
Discusses subgrade bearing capacity, design procedures for slabs, jointing practices, construction, repairs and overlays.
8.
ACI Manual of Concrete Practice. American Concrete Institute.
Provides numerous recommended practices, standard specifications, and guides that

relate to construction and inspection of Portland cement concrete pavements. A
partial list follows.
No.
Title
ACI 316
Recommendations for Construction of Concrete Pavement and Concrete Bases
ACI 302.1
Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction
ACI 504R
Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete Structures
ACI 506R
Guide to Shotcrete
9.
Architectural Graphic Standards. American Institute of Architects.
Provides dimensional data for layout of parking and on-site roads.

Railroads
10. Manual for Railway Engineering. American Railway Engineering Association.
Contains principles, data, and specifications pertaining to design and construction of railways.
This manual highlights and supplements the safety requirements of local, state, and
federal regulations, including railroad clearances.
11. Safety in Designs. Prepared by CRTCs Health, Environment, and Safety
Group.
Chevron Corporation
700-59
December 1993

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700 Miscellaneous Civil

Soils and Earthwork Principles

Soils Background Information

Soil Compaction Principles

Grading Design and Layout

Rough Grading Plan

Finished Grading, Paving and Drainage Plans

Recommended Road Grades

Balance of Cut and Fill

Earthwork Equipment and Construction Methods

700 Miscellaneous Civil

Civil and Structural Manual

Clearing, Dewatering and Surcharging

Soil Placement and Compaction

Excavation and Backfill (Foundations and Trenches)

Roads and Paving

General Considerations and Layout of Pavements

Alternative Surface Treatments for Foot or Vehicle Traffic Areas

Alternative Surface Treatments for Non-Traffic Areas

Chain Link Fencing

Model Specifications, Standard Drawings, and Engineering Forms

Civil and Structural Manual

700 Miscellaneous Civil

710 Soils and Earthwork Principles

711 Soils Report

Classification of on-site soils

Identification of surface or subsurface rock or other materials difficult to

Identification of weak soils that must be either excavated and removed, or

Water table level

Identified sources of borrow material for engineered backfill

Specific site recommendations for:

Cut and fill procedures

Section 200 explains how to obtain a soils report.

712 Hazardous Materials

700 Miscellaneous Civil

Civil and Structural Manual

713 Soils Background Information

Civil and Structural Manual

700 Miscellaneous Civil

700 Miscellaneous Civil

Civil and Structural Manual

714 Soil Compaction Principles

Civil and Structural Manual

700 Miscellaneous Civil

Field Soil Density Tests

Nuclear density moisture gage

ASTM D2922 and D3017

Sand cone method

Drive cylinder method

Remove a soil sample.

Weigh the soil sample.

Calculate the soil density.

715 Fill Materials

700 Miscellaneous Civil

Civil and Structural Manual

Grain Size (mm)

Civil and Structural Manual

700 Miscellaneous Civil

Silty sand and gravel

720 Grading Design and Layout

Topographic map to show existing site contours and drawings

Completion of sufficient field soil investigation to determine the presence of

Conceptual plans for treating and disposal of storm water runoff