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COMPLETION STRING

WHAT IS A COMPLETION STRING?


The completion string consists of tubing and other equipment necessary to achieve optimal flow
performance and safety during production of hydrocarbons to the surface or injection of fluids to
the formation. If there is a surface leak, the down hole safety valve (DHSV) which is a part of
the completion string can be closed and thus prevent hydrocarbon escape at the platform. The
completion string will also protect the casing from the formation pressure and corrosion attacks
by the well fluid.

COMPONENTS
Common completion string components are:

Tubing hanger
Tubing joints

Completion string connections

Control lines

Down hole instrumentation and control system (DIACS)

Down hole safety valve (DHSV)

Annular safety valve (ASV)

Gas lift valve (GLV)

Side pocket mandrel (SPM)

Permanent down hole gauge (PDG)

Production packer

Electrical submersible pump (ESP)

Sand control equipment

Other completion string components are:

Adjustable union
Blast joint

Casing packer

Circulation valve

Crossover joint

Debris sub

Disappearing plug

External casing packer

Flow coupling

Fluid loss control valve

Indicating coupling

Landing nipple

Orienting swivel joint

O-ring seal sub

PBR seal assembly

Perforated pup joint

Pump-out sub

Pup joint

Safety joint

Seal bore

Tubing anchor

Wireline entry guide

Several components in the completion string are well barrier elements like the downhole safety
valve and the production packer. Other components have no well barrier function like downhole
gauges and sand control equipment.

WHAT DOES IT LOOK LIKE


The figure below shows a typical completion string with the major components and their
location.

Figure 1: Typical completion string

CONFIGURATIONS
The most common configuration of the completion string is to have an 'upper' completion ending
with a tail pipe just below the production packer. Another common completion string

configuration includes an upper and lower part where the lower completion often refers to the
sand control equipment installed. Other expressions used to describe the completion string
configuration follow:

Single string
Dual string

Monobore

Straight bore

Tapered bore

INSTALLATION
The completion string is installed in the well after all casing and liners have been run and
cemented in place as part of the well drilling process. The completion string is landed in the
wellhead when using a vertical Xmas tree (topside or subsea). For subsea completed wells with
horizontal Xmas trees the completion string is landed inside the Xmas tree block. The process of
installing the lower and upper completion string for a selected case is described below:

Lower completion string installation


Upper completion string installation

REPLACEMENT
Most equipment in the completion string is permanently installed and the completion string must
be pulled to replace these items. This is called a workover or heavy intervention. Some
permanent equipment is repairable or replaceable from inside the string through wireline or
coiled tubing operations. This is called a thru-tubing intervention or light intervention. There
can also be temporarily installed equipment in the completion string like plugs and memory
gauges.

OPERATING MODES

Operating modes describe the flow direction and the medium flowing through the completion
string. Major operating modes are:

Gas injection wells


Gas producing wells

Oil producing well

Simultaneous water and gas injection wells (SWAG)

Water alternate gas injection wells (WAG)

Water injection wells

Water producing wells

The operating mode may change during the lifetime of the well. One example is conversion of an
oil producing well to a gas producer. This can be achieved through minor equipment changes or
through a major workover. Required changes depend on selected equipment and materials in the
initial well. Some oil wells have limited production performance due to low reservoir
pressure. One option for improved production performance is pressure support through water or
gas injection wells. Another option is artificial lift.

Artificial lift

TUBING SIZE AND FLOW RATE


The production flow rate is determined by the reservoir pressure, the density of the completion
string fluid and the flow resistance from the reservoir to the separator. The flow resistance can
further be divided into:

Drawdown from the reservoir to the wellbore


Flow resistance through the completion string

Topside throttling at the choke

First stage separator pressure

The reservoir pressure minus the density of the completion string fluid is the 'driving force' for
the flow. Reduced pressure in the completion string due to pressure drop may cause free gas
(pressure below the bubble point) which reduces the fluid density causing increased 'driving
force' for well production. This will also be the effect by injecting gas into the tubing. The
optimum tubing size is selected to provide highest possible flow rate without tubing failures or

other operational problems like slugging during the operational lifetime. Large tubing will reduce
the flow friction through the completion string and cause higher drawdown. This will not always
cause higher flow rate. The reason is the reduced inflow performance from the formation to the
near wellbore and finally into the wellbore.
The flow resistance and flow rate into the wellbore (inflow performance) is decided by the
inflow performance relationship (IPR) curves worked out by the reservoir engineers. These
curves are affected by e.g. skin effect, well pressure below the bubble point, water cut, reduced
reservoir pressure with time, etc. The flow resistance and flow rate through the completion string
and to the seperator (outflow performance) is calculated in flow simulations and presented as
outflow performance relation ship (OPR). OPR's for different tubing sizes and the IPR curve is
presented in the same plot to determine optimal tubing size. The flow rate is determined by the
intersection point between the IPR and the OPR curve (same flow rate). Some times a smaller
size tubing is selected to e.g. provide stabile flow rate. Thus, tubing size selection is not only
decided by flow rate calculations through the completion string, but by the total flow resistance
from the reservoir to the separator. The completion engineer must discuss the completion string
design with the drilling engineer to solve potential conflicts with the casing program. The
completion engineer must also calculate the velocities in the completion string and evaluate if
erosion will be a problem.

Grade, weight and materials


The tubing grade (strength), weight (wall thickness) and materials (corrosion, erosion, etc) is
decided in the conceptual completion design phase, while the equipment procurement will be a
part of the detailed completion design phase. Tubing materials are decided by the operators
material experts. The tubing grade and weight will be a result from the tubing stress analysis.

Tubing stress analysis

Materials selected for downhole equipment like downhole safety valve (DHSV) may be nobler
than the materials used for the tubing due to additional requirements like sealing
performance, wear resistance, etc.

Synonyms
Synonyms for outflow performance relationship (OPR) are:

Vertical lift performance (VLP) curves


Tubing performance curves (TPC)

TUBING HANGER
WHAT IS THE TUBING HANGER?
The tubing hanger forms part of the secondary barrier in a well and is located at top of the
completion string. The purposes of the tubing hanger is to enable to run, hang-off and set (orient
and lock), and seal the completion string either inside the wellhead or inside the valve block of
the horizontal subsea Xmas tree. It forms the main structural load-bearing and supporting
interface for the completion string. The tubing hanger also accommodates the number of required
down hole control line penetrations and connections, and thus an important function required for
the tubing hanger is the alignment orientation and sealing interface to the wellhead or
alternatively inside the valve block of the horizontal Xmas tree.

TYPES
The following types of tubing hangers are commonly used:

Tubing hanger for vertical topside Xmas tree


Tubing hanger for vertical subsea Xmas tree

Tubing hanger for horizontal subsea Xmas tree

There is also available a dual string tubing hanger which allows for two completion strings to be
run down hole, mainly used for topside wells, but this is not described further here.

CONFIGURATIONS
The required number of downhole control lines to accommodate will sometimes require special
design and qualification requirements for the tubing hanger, in particular for subsea wells. The
number of lines can vary from one or two and up to ten for some subsea well completions with
DHSVs, several zone control systems (DIACS) and downhole gauges. These will involve a
number of different stab-in and sealing design solutions for the hydraulic and electric lines,
depending on the tubing hanger type and the requirements to the control lines themselves.

TUBING JOINT
WHAT IS A TUBING JOINT
A tubing joint is a single tubular pipe and is the basis component in the completion string. Tubing
joints are part of the primary well barrier above the production packer and below the DHSV. The
major issues to specify for a tubing joint are:

Outside diameter
Weight per foot (instead of ID)

Length

Drift ID

Material, alloy and grade

Connection

Most well tubulars are specified by the outside diameter. Weight per foot is used instead of
specifying the inside diameter. ISO 11960 divides the joint length into three ranges, where range
1 includes the shortest and range 3 the longest joints. A typical joint length in range 3 is 12
meters. The drift ID must be known to allow safe passage of any equipment. Tubing is
manufactured and supplied in various materials, alloys and grades for different operating
conditions, applications and dimensional requirements. Tubing joints are also delivered with a
high number of various threaded connections available from different manufacturers. One option
is the integral connection type with a box (internal threads) and a pin (external threads) on
the ends of the tubing joint. Another option is the coupling connection type with pin (external
threads) on both ends of the tubing joint and a separate connector as a box (internal threads) in
between.

COMPLETION STRING CONNECTIONS


WHAT ARE COMPLETION STRING CONNECTIONS
A completion string connection is a threaded connection to connect completion string
components. The connection must provide sufficient pressure- and structural integrity. Both

pressure- and structural integrity are influenced by physical loads in the completion string like
tension, compression, bending and torsion. Major environmental conditions having influence on
the pressure- and structural integrity are pressure differential, temperature and the surrounding
medium. Combinations of physical loads, environmental conditions, design details, materials and
surface treatments have influence on the resistance to failure mechanisms like deformations,
galling, corrosion and cracking.

TYPES
The two main connection types are:

Integral
Coupling

Detailed connection designs are described in API and ISO standards. Most vendors offer
modified connection designs for improved performance including higher axial strength, reduced
OD and improved pressure integrity. These modified connections are often called premium
connections. In the North Sea, the premium connections are used for almost all casing and tubing
applications.

THREADS
Common thread types used for completion string connections are:

API standard 8 round thread


API standard 10 round thread

API buttress thread

Reversed angle load flank thread (also called Hook well thread)

Premium threads (vendor specific types)

Premium threads are often based on modified versions of the API buttress thread form or
modified versions of the reversed angle load flank thread. Contact the manufacturers of the
premium threads for more details about their respective thread designs. The API standard 8- and
10-round threads are now rarely used for any completion string applications. The basic API
buttress thread however might still be used for downhole tubulars in some cases around the
world.

SEALS

Common pressure seal principles are:

Thread seals
Polymer seals

Metal to metal seals

The thread seal is dependent on a thread compound to seal the clearance between the mating
thread elements. The thread compound may dry out due to temperature, time and exposed
medium, reducing its sealing properties and especially for gases.
The polymer seals typically use a Teflon seal ring in a groove between the mating surfaces.
Teflon rings will expand more than the metal upon heating. Combined with extrusion, this may
cause deformed seal and thus leakage upon cooling. The seal may be acceptable at reduced
pressure and temperature applications.
The metal to metal seals are shoulder type, sliding type or a combination. The shoulder type
makes axial compression strain and stresses in the connection shoulder when the connection is
preloaded. The sealing force is proportional to the preload. The torque during make-up is thus
of high importance. Too low preload will cause too low sealing stresses and too high preload will
cause yield in the sealing surface. The sliding type makes radial compression strain and stresses
in the interface between a curved surface at the pin and a conical surface on the mating part. The
sliding type seal may be pressure energised (increased sealing stresses and thus sealability when
exposed to pressure) or energised by a reverse angle torque shoulder. Premium connections use
metal to metal seals which are the most reliable seals, especially at high pressure and
temperature.

VENDOR DESIGNS
Short introductions to selected premium connections from different vendors follow:

Hunting
JFE

NKK

TenarisHydril

VAM

Other

More details on the above connections can be found in the annual Casing & Tubing Reference
Tables published in the November and January editions of 'World Oil'.
Note that special connections exist for the completion string and casing when these are parts of a
so-called top tension riser system. Examples of applied connections for this application are Grant
Prideco (HFR1, HFR1 EE, HFR2), Shell JDS and Mannesmann PRC.

CONTROL LINE
WHAT IS A CONTROL LINE
Control lines are small diameter metal tubular clamped or banded to the outside completion
string and run down hole with it. The control lines are used for hydraulic remote operation
of downhole equipment such as downhole safety valves and transferring sensor signals from
down hole gauges for pressure, temperature and flow monitoring. Hydraulic control lines are
simple metal tubulars. Such tubes can also be used for injection of chemicals downhole such as
scale and corrosion inhibitors, but are then often called injection lines. Typical OD's and wall
thicknesses for single hydraulic control lines and chemical injection lines are:

OD x 0.035" wall thickness


OD x 0.049" wall thickness

OD x 0.065" wall thickness

Increased wall thickness means higher pressure resistance. Required pressure class is calculated
for the tool to be operated. See e.g. the down hole safety valve (DHSV). The tubes may be either
seamless- or welded tubes. The seamless tubes are more expensive and limited in length
compared to the welded tubulars. Common materials for the control line metal tubular are:

AISI 316L
Incoloy 825

Inconel 625

Each alloy can be studied in the material database. Common fittings for the hydraulic control
lines and chemical injection lines are:

Swagelok
Autoclave

API 6A recommends Autoclave at pressure classes above 5000 psi.

TYPES
Different types of control lines are:

Hydraulic control line (tube)


Electric control line (tube/cable insulation/electric conductor)

Fibre-optical control line

Flat pack umbilical combines one or several lines in an encapsulated flat configured umbilical
with special clamps for clamping to the completion string. The encapsulation is a thermoplastic
that increases the crush and wear resistance during installation. The cruch resistance can further
be improved by including one or more braided wires alongside with the control lines inside the
encapsulation.

DOWNHOLE INSTRUMENTATION AND


CONTROL SYSTEM (DIACS)
WHAT IS DIACS
DIACS is the common term used for well completion equipment and systems that include the
functionality to remotely control from the surface the inflow and monitor the production from
several zones or lateral branches down hole individually without the need for intervention tools.
DIACS is alternatively used to remotely control and monitor the injection into several injection
zones individually.
The DIACS is installed as an integrated part of the completion string and consists normally of
tubular components with a number of remotely controlled inflow control valves (ICVs), zonal
isolation packers, downhole gauges for flow-, pressure- and temperature- monitoring, and one or
several downhole control lines. The inflow valves are mainly sliding sleeve type valves with the
following positions: Full closed, full open or intermediate. The intermediate position can be
stepwise or infinitely variable. Both the production packer and the zonal isolation packers will
have a design that allows for the control lines to be feed-through without impairing the sealing
function of the packers.

Figure 1: Example of DIACS system for 3 zones with isolation packers.

TYPES
Different types of DIACS exist. The type of system is often classified from what kind of valve
actuation that is used for the ICVs. The following types of DIACS are classified:

Electric DIACS
Hydraulic operated DIACS

Electro-hydraulic DIACS

An electric DIACS is a DIACS where valve actuation, control and sensor signals are transferred
electric. There are no hydraulic components included in the system. The electric DIACS valve is
actuated by an electric motor. Electric power and signals are transferred through the same control
line down hole.
A hydraulic operated DIACS is a DIACS where the valve actuation is by hydraulic power
supplied through control lines. Separate electric or optical cables are applied for sensor signals to
the surface.
An electro-hydraulic DIACS system is a DIACS that apply a redundant control line with
hydraulic fluid for actuation of the ICVs. All valves uses power from the same control line. The
hydraulic power to each valve is distributed by use of electrical controlled solenoid valves. The
actuation signals are sent through an electric control line. The same electric control line is
applied for sending pressure and temperature data to the surface. A large number of zones with
valves and sensors can be controlled through one single hydraulic and one single electric control
line if no redundancy is applied.
The DIACS systems are mainly assembled as an integrated part of the completion string, and
they are thus tubing retrievable (TR) systems. A few of the inflow control valves from some of
the manufacturers can be installed as separate wireline retrievable (WR) valves in side-pocket
mandrels (SPM), allowing valve replacement by wireline operations. Also separate sensor units
or modules may be installed in side-pocket mandrels and can thus be retrieved and replaced by
wireline. In order to be included in the term DIACS, any system needs to have both remotely
controlled inflow valves and sensor units installed down hole. A system with direct hydraulic
operated inflow valves for one or several zones in a well without any form of sensors will
normally not be classified as a DIACS, but simply as a zone inflow control system.

STANDARDS
There are no general standards on DIACS or on the individual components. One ISO standard
covers some of the necessary interfacing issues. That is ISO 13628-6: Petroleum and natural gas
industries Design and operation of subsea production systems Part 6: Subsea production
control systems (2nd edition 2006). This standard includes requirements and recommendation on
how to integrate and facilitate the control of intelligent well completions or DIACS into the
system architecture of subsea production control systems, both with respect to the control
hardware and software functionality, such as interfacing, communication protocols etc. In
addition the IWIS joint industry project (Intelligent Well Interface Standardization) has now
issued a Recommended Practice document (2007) on all relevant interfacing issues regarding
systems, technology and operation, including the subsea X-mas tree system.

SYNONYMS
Synonyms for DIACS are:

Smart well completions


Intelligent wells

ABBREVIATIONS
COMMON SHORTENINGS RELATED TO DIACS are:
DIACS:
HCM:
ECM:
SPM:
ICV:
IWCS:
IWE:
SEM:

Down hole Instrumentation And Control System


Hydraulic Control Module
Electric Control Module
Side Pocket Mandrel
Inflow/Interval Control Valve
Intelligent well control system
Intelligent well equipment
Subsea electronic module

DOWNHOLE SAFETY VALVE (DHSV)


WHAT IS A DOWNHOLE SAFETY VALVE
The DHSV is a primary well barrier element located in the upper completion string that
consists of a valve unit and an actuator. The purpose of the DHSV is to prevent uncontrolled
flow of well fluids from the reservoir and up the tubing in an emergency situation by closing the
valve.
The most common downhole safety valves are hydraulically opened from the surface by
applying pressure in a hydraulic control line that is banded or clamped to the outside of the
completion string. The hydraulic pressure acts on a piston and moves a flow tube down to open
the valve. Valve opening will also compress a power spring. This spring returns the valve to
closed position when the control line pressure is bled off. Most DHSVs today are using a flapper
valve mechanism to close the valve since this has proven by experience to be the most reliable
valve type. The flapper valve also offers pump-through capabilities that are beneficial for
maintaining well control. The downhole safety valve will close in three scenarios:

Close automatically when having a hydraulic power supply failure (fail-safeclose)


Close automatically by the control system in an emergency situation
Closed manually during regular valve leak testing and other downhole
operations

TYPES
The two major types of hydraulic operated downhole safety valves with flapper are the tubing
retrievable surface controlled subsurface safety valve (TRSCSSV) and the wireline retrievable
surface controlled subsurface safety valve (WRSCSSV). An introduction follows:

TRSCSSV
WRSCSSV

The above types of DHSVs dominate the market completely today. Other less common types of
DHSVs are available but not further described in this database.

CONFIGURATION
DHSVs are used in all types of wells that are capable of flowing to the surface or sea, including
production wells and injection wells. For wells with the X-mas tree located on the sea floor
(subsea wells) it is common to consider the use of two TRSCSSVs with separate hydraulic
control lines for the purpose of redundancy. The Norwegian Petroleum Safety Authority also
stipulates that two downhole safety valves should be considered for all subsea and high-pressure,
high-temperature (HPHT) wells on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. If only one TRSCSSV is
installed, it is normal to facilitate this with so-called WRSCSSV insert capability.

STANDARDS
A brief description of main content, requirements and acceptance criteria in standards for
downhole safety valves follow:
ISO 10432: Downhole equipment - Subsurface safety valve equipment.

The latest edition is from 2004. ISO 10432 is identical to API Spec 14A, 11th edition 2005. This
standard specifies requirements to factory acceptance testing (FAT), called functional testing in
this standard, and qualification tests (QT), called validation testing in this standard, for new
valves. Tests require both water and nitrogen/gas as test medium. Maximum variations allowed
in opening and closing pressures are specified. Acceptance criteria are:

Leak acceptance criteria gas: 0.14 Sm3/min


Leak acceptance criteria liquid : 10 cm 3/min

Optional leak acceptance criteria gas: 0.014 Sm 3/min (functional test only)

Optional leak acceptance criteria liquid: 1 cm 3/min (functional test only)

ISO 10417: Subsurface safety valve systems -Design, installation,


operation & redress

The latest edition is from 2004. ISO 10417 is identical to API RP 14B, 5th edition 2005. This
standard gives main requirements to installation, testing and acceptance criteria of the DHSV
during its operational lifetime in the well. Acceptance criteria are:

Leak acceptance criteria gas: 0.42 Sm3/min


Leak acceptance criteria liquid: 0.4 l/min

If the leak rate can not be measured directly, indirect measurement by pressure monitoring of an
enclosed volume downstream of the valve shall be performed.
NORSOK D-010: Well integrity in Drilling and Well operations

The latest edition is from 2004. Section 15.8 specifies the requirements to the DHSV as the
primary well barrier to which all DHSVs installed in wells on the Norwegian Continental Shelf
(NCS) and in Norwegian waters has to comply with, in accordance with the Rules and
Regulations set forth by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD). Test requirements and leak
acceptance criteria is the same as ISO 10417. Additional requirements in the D-010 standard are:

Regular testing: 30 minutes duration at maximum 70 bar (7 MPa) across


flapper

If the leak rate exceeds the acceptance criteria, the test can be attempted three times to verify the
valve status. If accept criteria is still not met, further investigation and remedial action shall be
undertaken. Testing interval is monthly until three consecutive qualified tests have been
performed. Thereafter, every three month until three consecutive qualified tests has been
performed month. Thereafter, every six month.
RF Sand slurry test procedure

Rogalands Research (now IRIS) has made a sand slurry test procedure for safety valves. This is
not a standard but a test procedure for DHSV qualification testing. The sand slurry test specified
in ISO 10432 (Class 2 flow test) is often replaced by the RF sand slurry test procedure by most
of the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS) operators. The procedure includes circulation tests

and slam tests with sand containing water, through a high number of cycles and with valve
operating cycles (opening/closing) and flapper leak tests in between. Acceptance criteria are:

Leak acceptance criteria water: 10 cm3/min

Note that the nipple profiles and lock mandrels have other standards for requirements to testing
and qualification. But any test of a WRSCSSV which includes loads on the valve assembly,
typically during slam tests, should be done with the WRSCSSV lock mandrel and the
WRSCSSV assembly locked into a relevant nipple profile.

ABBREVIATIONS
Common names for downhole safety valves are:
DHSV:

Down Hole Safety Valve (all types)

SCSSV:

Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve

SSCSV:

Sub Surface Controlled subsurface Safety Valve


(storm chokes)

SSSV:

Sub Surface Safety Valve

TRSCSSV:

Tubing Retrievable Surface Controlled Subsurface


Safety Valve

TRSV:

Tubing Retrievable Safety Valve

WRSCSSV:

Wireline Retrievable Surface Controlled Subsurface


Safety Valve

WRSSCSV:

Wireline Retrievable Sub Surface Controlled


subsurface Safety Valve

WRSV:

Wireline Retrievable Safety Valve

ANNULAR SAFETY VALVE (ASV)


WHAT IS AN ANNULAR SAFETY VALVE
The annulus safety valve is a barrier element integrated in the tubing string and consists of a
valve unit and a packer element with hanger. The ASV is located below the downhole safety
valve. The main reason for this is to avoid the control line to the downhole safety valve to go

through the ASV. The purpose of the ASV is to close the A-annulus to prevent flow of
hydrocarbons from A-annulus to surface. This will typically be the case in GLV completions
where gas is pumped into the A-annulus from the surface and down to the gas lift injection point
of the completion string. Wells with gas lift pumped through A-annulus will typically have 50m3
of gas under high pressure accumulated in the A-annulus.
The packer element and the slips are set in the production casing. The valve unit is located in a
flow path that bypasses the packer element. When the valve unit is closed the entire annulus is
sealed. When the valve unit is open, it is possible to flow annulus through the packer bypass
path. The valve unit of the ASV is hydraulically operated, in the way that hydraulic control line
pressure is required to open the valve and keep it open. The valve unit of the ASV is a fail safe
close device and closes automatically upon bleed-off or loss of the hydraulic control line
pressure.

TYPES
The type of ASV is determined from whether the packer with hanger is an integral part of the
ASV system or if the packer with hanger is a separate tubing component from the valve itself.
Both systems are tubing retrievable (TR). Different designs exist from the various manufacturers.
The valve type is normally a sliding sleeve type or a rod/piston type. The ASV with packer
integrated has either one control line for setting packer and operate the valve or two control lines
where one is used for packer setting and one for valve control. The ASV and packer as separate
completion string components have one common control line.

GAS LIFT VALVE (GLV)


WHAT IS A GAS LIFT VALVE
A gas lift valve is a valve that enables injection of gas from the A-annulus to the completion
string. The purpose of the gas lift valve is to provide artificial lift in the completion string and
thus increased production. Gas is injected into the A-annulus at high pressure and further into the
completion string through the gas lift valve. The gas lift valve is located in a side pocket mandrel
(SPM) making it possible to retrieve the valve without pulling the entire completion string. The
side pocket mandrel also provides almost full bore in the completion string where the gas lift
valve is located. The gas injected into the completion string will reduce the hydrostatic pressure
inside the completion string and thus increase the differential pressure between the reservoir and
the bottom of the well (increased drawdown). This will increase the production rate and
sometimes being a condition for even starting the production. That could be a well with heavy
and viscous oil or a completion string filled with kill fluid. All gas lift valves will have a check

valve to prevent back flow from the completion string to the annulus when reducing the pressure
in A-annulus. Gas lift valves located between the production packer and the down hole safety
valve should define the check valve as a primary barrier. An alternative is to apply an annular
safety valve. All gas lift valves will also have a nozzle to regulate the maximum gas injection
rate.

TYPES
There are two main types of gas lift valves.

Operational GLV
Unloading GLV

CONFIGURATIONS
Wells with high gas injection pressure available combined with high pressure integrity of the
completion string and the production casing, can often have a single gas lift valve installed and
still have acceptable lift. This valve will be an operational GLV. Other wells with lower gas
injection pressure available, less pressure integrity of the completion string or production casing,
or need for a deep set valve to provide acceptable lift, will not be able to open a single gas lift
valve at required depth. Such wells must have one or more unloading GLV's above the deepest
set GLV (which is the operational GLV) to assist in the process of getting gas down to the
operational GLV. The unloading valves are only operational during production startup. When normal production is established, only the deep set operational GLV will circulate gas
from the A-annulus into the completion string.

STANDARDS
A brief description of main content, requirements and acceptance criteria in standards for
production packers follow:
ISO 17078-2 Flow control devices for side-pocket mandrels

The latest edition is from 2000. The major issues in this standard are:

Environmental service
Qualification testing (validation testing) procedure and acceptance criteria
Factory acceptance test (functional testing) procedure and acceptance
criteria

Quality control

The standard is also specifying other issues like specifications, documentation and storage. The
standard has four environmental service classes (E1 to E4). The standard for quality control
increases as the number increases. E4 will thus be the highest quality level. That includes
specification of the environmental conditions by the purchaser not covered by E1, E2 and E3.
The standard has two quality control grades (Q1 to Q2). The qualification testing of the design
has three grades (V1 to V3). The requirements become tougher as the number decreases. V1 will
thus have the toughest requirements. The factory acceptance testing has three grades (F1 to F3).
The requirements become tougher as the number decreases. F1 will thus have the toughest
requirements. The standard for quality control increases as the number decreases. Q1 will thus be
the highest quality level. Additional quality requirements can of course be specified by the
purchaser.
StatoilHydro test program

ISO 17078-2, table A-2, describes GLV testing requirements for both design validation testing
(qualification testing) and product functional testing (factory acceptance testing). The test
procedures and acceptance criteria are described in ISO 17078, annex E to N. ISO 17078-2,
annex I, Back check testing, describes testing requirements for the back check function. The
back check valves described in ISO 17078-2, annex I, are designed and intended to prevent
reverse flow through a flow control device. They are not designed nor intended to be a part of the
safety system, nor provide a tight shut-off pressure safety seal. Thus, StatoilHydro has worked
out a test procedure with tougher requirements to accept the GLV as a primary well barrier. There
are two versions available:

StatoilHydro procedure made by the main office


StatoilHydro procedure made for Tyrihans

The latter version has even tougher requirements for test pressure and includes additional testing
with increased flow rate during unloading (displacement of the annular fluid). The unloading test
is also performed with particles.
Other related standards

Other related standards of relevance are:


ISO 17078-1: Side pocket mandrels
ISO 17078-3: Running, pulling and kickover tools and latches for side pocket mandrels
ISO 17078-4: Practices for side pocket mandrels and related equipment

SIDE POCKET MANDREL (SPM)


WHAT IS A SIDE POCKET MANDREL
The side pocket mandrel is a completion string component that has a receptacle bore or a side
pocket machined or welded on alongside the main SPM tubular conduit. The receptacle bore is
typically 1", 1" or 1 in diameter and is mainly used to house inserted devices such as gas
lift valves that require communication with the annulus. The design of the side pocket mandrel is
such that the inserted device does not obstruct the main completion string conduit, providing
unrestricted access to completion string components below. Components are normally inserted or
pulled from the SPM by wireline using a special kick-over type running tool, which interact
with dedicated tool orientation and manipulation profiles found inside the SPM.

Figure 1: Side pocket mandrel

PERMANENT DOWNHOLE GAUGE


(PDG)
WHAT IS A PERMANENT DOWNHOLE GAUGE
A permanent downhole gauge is a sensor unit that is installed integral to the completion string in
a permanent gauge mandrel. The sensor signal transmission is most commonly pressure or
temperature data and is through a signal line that runs from the permanent gauge mandrel on the
outside of the completion string in the A-annulus and up through the tubing hanger and X-mas
tree.

TYPES
The typical categories of downhole gauges are:

Quartz (piezoelectric)
Fiber optic

Capacitance

Strain

Venturi effect

The alternative to a PDG is to run temporary installed sensor units on wireline that include a
battery pack and internal memory (so-called memory gauges).

PRODUCTION PACKER
WHAT IS A PRODUCTION PACKER
The production packer is a primary well barrier element located in the bottom part of the upper
completion string and consists of an anchor mechanism, a packer element and an actuator. The

production packer is set inside the cemented part of the casing during completion string
installation. The purposes of the production packer are to anchor the completion string to the
casing and to establish an isolated area between the casing and the completion string above the
production packer. This isolated area is called the A-annulus. The components of the well below
the production packer are normally in contact with the reservoir fluids. The production packer is
actuated either mechanically or hydraulically. Hydraulically set production packers are
recommended in deviated wells. The production packer actuator compresses the entire anchor
and packer assembly. The first step is expansion of the anchor and the second step is expansion
of the packer element.

TYPES
It is normal to distinguish between permanent and retrievable production packers. Both types are
based on the same principle design with a metal slips that anchor the packer to the casing wall
and an expandable packer element that provides seal against the casing wall. An introduction
follows:

Permanent production packers


Retrievable production packers

Some low-budget wells have a lower part of the completion string that is cemented to the
production casing. These solutions are not described in this database.

CONFIGURATIONS
There is one production packer per well.

STANDARDS
A brief description of main content, requirements and acceptance criteria in standards for
production packers follow:
ISO 14310: Downhole equipment Packers and bridge plugs

The latest edition is from 2001. This standard specifies the following issues:

Quality control
Qualification testing (validation testing) procedure and acceptance criteria
Factory acceptance test (functional testing) procedure and acceptance
criteria

Documentation

The standard has three quality control grades (Q1 to Q3). The standard for quality control
increases as the number decreases. Q1 will thus be the highest quality level. Additional quality
requirements can of course be specified by the purchaser. The qualification testing of the design
has seven grades (V0 to V6). The requirements become tougher as the number decreases. V0 will
thus have the toughest requirements. The V3 grade has the toughest requirements for liquid as
test medium. The V0 and V1 grade has the toughest requirements for gas as test medium. The
V3, V1 and V0 grades include all the following combined loads:

Differential pressure
Axial load

Temperature cycling

The V0 grade has a zero bubble acceptance criteria. The V1 grade has an acceptance criterion of
maximum 20cm3 during a hold period of minimum 15 minutes. The V3 grade has an acceptance
criterion of no more than 1% reduction in the maximum rated differential pressure over the hold
period after sufficient time has been allowed for stabilisation. The V3, V1 and V0 grades also
include pressure reversal testing and require control of the casing ID used during the test.
NORSOK D-010: Well integrity in Drilling and Well operations

The latest edition is from 2004. Section 15.7 specifies the requirements to the production packer
as the primary well barrier to which all production packers installed in wells on the Norwegian
Continental Shelf (NCS) and in Norwegian waters has to comply with, in accordance with the
Rules and Regulations set forth by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD). Some
additional requirements in Norsok D-010 are:

The packer shall minimum be tested to V1 grade as described in ISO 14310


Retrievable packers must be retrieved by mechanical intervention

Retrieving by tubing manipulation is not allowed to avoid accidental


activation

The packer must resist maximum expected design pressure

The maximum expected design pressure shall be based on worst case


scenario

ELECTRICAL SUBMERSIBLE PUMP


(ESP)
WHAT IS AN ELECTRICAL SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
An electrical submersible pump is a downhole centrifugal pump rotated by an electric motor to
provide artificial lift in the completion string and thus increased production. Most ESP's are
installed at the end of the completion string and can only be replaced by pulling the completion
string. The ESP consists of an downhole high voltage electric AC motor connected to a multistage centrifugal pump and with a power cable clamped to the outside of the completion string
from the downhole motor to the surface. Each stage consists of a rotating impeller and a
stationary diffuser. The pumps are normally run at a fixed speed and have thus poor flexibility.
The rotational speed can however be regulated by installing a variable frequency drive (VFD).
The rotational speed is 3500 rpm at 60 Hz and 2915 rpm at 50 Hz. The frequency can be
regulated both higher and lower than these examples. ESP's are commonly used for
undersaturated oil wells and wells with high water cut. Standard pumps can handle fluids with
gas-oil-ratios (GOR) lower than 100scf/stb (standard cubic feet/stock tank barrels), but this ratio
can be increased to about 1000 scf/stb combined with downhole separation of free gas at the
pump inlet. The gas separator will remove the free gas from the produced fluid and vent this
gas to the A-annulus. Common problems are:

High motor temperature


Free gas in the fluid

Sand production

Scale on impellers

Bending of the pump

The ESP systems are however becoming more reliable due to adequate well flow cooling of the
electrical motor, high temperature motor winding insulation, gas separator, measures to prevent
sand production (solids <200ppm required) and installing the pump in a straight section of the
casing. Correct dimensioning of the ESP and good installation practice is also of high importance
for a reliable ESP. It is also recommended to slightly change the position of the ESP upon
replacement to minimize casing corrosion due to excessive heat from the eddy currents
surrounding the motor.

TYPES

Different ESP systems follow:

Cable deployed ESP


Coiled tubing deployed ESP

Tubing deployed ESP

The tubing deployed ESP installed at the end of the completion string can be installed directly in
series with the completion string or with a Y coupling to make an intervention bypass. Tubing
deployed ESP's uses the traditional well barriers. The coiled tubing deployed and cable deployed
ESP's are suspended at the end of either the coiled tubing or power cable. This makes these ESP's
retrievable without pulling the completion string. The replacement costs are reduced compared to
the tubing deployed ESP, but the investment costs for additional topside equipment may be
higher (coiled tubing reel, etc). The power cable for coiled tubing deployed ESP's is located
inside the tube. Thus, both coiled tubing- and cable deployed ESP's may causes high tension in
the power cable. The coiled tubing solution also require a special barriers system due to the
cable. The coiled tubing and cable deployed solutions are normally used in problem wells where
gas lift can not be applied.

COMPARISON
A short comparison between ESP's and GLV's follow:
Compare

ESP

Requireme
Electric power available
nts

GLV
Lift gas and compressor
available

Limitations

< 200 ppm solids and handling


of free gas

Costs

Medium - depends on replacement


frequency

Low - GLV's are wireline


retrievable

Excellent - depends on large motor


and casing size

Excellent - unloading GLV's may


be required

Regulation

Fair - improved with frequency


converter

Good - max gas rate limited by


critical flow

Reliability

Fair - depends on operational


conditions

Lift
capacity

Testing

Simple

< 70 hole deviation for wireline

Good - quality is improving


Simple - annulus bleed off

STANDARDS
A brief description of main content, requirements and acceptance criteria in standards for
ESP's follow:
API RP 11S4: Recommended Practice for Sizing and Selection of Electric
Submersible Pump Installations

Third edition is current version.


API RP 11S: Recommended Practice for the Operation, Maintenance and
Troubleshooting of Electric Submersible Pump Installations

Third edition is current version.


API RP 11S3: Recommended Practice for Electrical Submersible Pump Installations

Second edition is current version.


API RP 11S1: Recommended Practice for Electrical Submersible Pump Teardown Report

Third edition is curent.


API RP 11S2: Recommended Practice for Electric Submersible Pump Testing

Second edition is current.

SAND CONTROL EQUIPMENT


WHAT IS SAND CONTROL EQUIPMENT
The sand control equipment is installed to prevent formation sand particles to be produced into
the well bore when producing oil or gas. The sand control equipment is installed as close to the
producing formation zone in the well bore as possible.

TYPES

Sand control is mainly facilitated by mechanical equipment and becomes thus part of the well
completion string in the form of tubular filters or screens. Sand control is also installed in the
form of a gravel pack (gravel particles) which is pumped down hole and placed in the annulus
between the gravel pack screen and the well bore wall (open hole) or the perforated liner (cased
hole). Chemical methods for sand control are also used sometimes, but this does not involve any
equipment installation. An introduction to these methods follows:

Chemical Sand Consolidation


Gravel Pack

Sand screen

Other possible sand control methods are selective and oriented perforating for sand control
purposes specifically and fracture-packing (frack-packing or proppant fracturing). Fracturepacking is a particular type of the gravel pack where the gravel pack (proppant) is also
squeezed through the perforations and into the formation to create fracturing as a stimulation
method in addition to gravel packing the perforations for the required sand control. These
methods are not described any further in this database.
There are no specific NORSOK or ISO standard currently regarding gravel pack completions
and equipment. A new ISO standard for sand screens is under development and is planned to be
issued in 2009 as ISO 17824.

ABBREVIATIONS
Common shortenings related to sand control are:
CIV
EGP
FIV
GP
GPP
HEC
HRWP
ICD:
IGP
KOIV
VES

Completion Isolation Valve


External Gravel Pack (Open hole completion)
Formation Isolation Valve
Gravel Pack
Gravel Pack Packer
Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose
High Rate Water Pack
Inflow Control Device
Internal Gravel Pack (Cased hole completion)
Knock-Out Isolation Valve
Visco-Elastic Surfactant

ADJUSTABLE UNION

WHAT IS AN ADJUSTABLE UNION


The adjustable union is a tubular sub that allows adjustments to be made to its overall length
while maintaining a hydraulic seal.

APPLICATION
The adjustable union is used in well completions that require a more precise spacing of
completion string equipment than what can be achieved using regular pup joints.
Typical applications are dual string completions, ESP completions and completions with tension
risers as part of string make-up with the tubing hanger. The adjustable union is thus very often
located in the well completion directly below the tubing hanger.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the adjustable union are:

Adjustable spacer sub

BLAST JOINT
WHAT IS A BLAST JOINT
The blast joint is a heavy walled tubular sub treated on the outside with a hard alloy coating to
become more resistant to wear.

Figure 1: Blast joint

APPLICATIONS
Blast joints ARE MOST COMMONLY USED INSTEAD of regular tubing to span across
perforated intervals. In addition to being heavier and more tolerable to abrasive wear than normal
tubular subs, the exterior of a blast joint is treated to better resist the jetting flow that may exist
close to perforations.

CASING PACKER
WHAT IS A CASING PACKER

The casing packer is a variant of the production packer set within the well casing, but without a
particular well barrier function.

APPLICATIONS
Casing packers are typically used during the lower completion installation where the purpose is
to anchor the lower completion string to the casing and to isolate off casing or openhole sections
in a well to allow zone treatment and production inflow via sand screens suspended below or inbetween. It also aid in centralising the lower completion string relative to the well bore during
gravel packing operations. It is also common to run special casing packers on top of liners (liner
packer) with the liner hanger that provides the primary anchoring of the liner to the casing.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the casing packer are:

Gravel pack packer


Permanent sump packer

Liner packer

CIRCULATION VALVE
WHAT IS A CIRCULATION VALVE
A circulation valve is a tubular valve with radial holes or slots that can be opened or closed.
Some valves have a one-shot function while other can be opened and closed several times. The
circulation valve is most often designed with a sliding sleeve where a sleeve is rotated or
moved up and down to open and close. The valve is typically operated with slickline or wireline
tools.

APPLICATION

The circulation valve is used to allow for selective tubing-to-annulus communication. The typical
applications are pressure equalization, gravel packing or production zone control.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the circulation valve are:

Sliding sleeve (SSL)


Closing sleeve (CSL)

CROSSOVER JOINT
WHAT IS A CROSSOVER JOINT
The crossover joint is a tubular sub that has different size, thread direction (box-box, pin-pin,
box-pin or pin-box) or thread types on the ends. The crossover joint enables two components
with different thread direction, type or size to be connected.

APPLICATIONS
It is most often used to change the diameter of the completion string or to enable the use of
tubular with different thread types. The crossover is often referred to as a coupling in cases
where the purpose of use is to change the thread direction in a completion string.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the crossover are:

Coupling (CPLG)
X-over (XO)

DEBRIS SUB
WHAT IS A DEBRIS SUB

The debris sub is a tubular sub with holes or slots that holds a sacrificial internal diverter unit
which typically is a cone. The purpose of the debris sub is to prevent debris from entering and
affecting components in the tubing string below by diverting this into the annulus. The diverter
unit is made frangible and destroyed, often mechanically, before the well is opened for
production.

APPLICATION
The typical application is in conjunction with use of tubing conveyed perforating guns (TCP) to
prevent debris from settling on the TCP firing head during run in hole. The drop bar used to fire
the guns here typically breaks the frangible diverter unit before reaching the firing head and
opens up the tubing as the well is being perforated.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the debris-circulating sub are:

Debris-circulating sub

Ported debris sub

DISAPPEARING PLUG
WHAT IS A DISAPPEARING PLUG
The disappearing plug is a tubular sub that includes a special plug used to temporarily isolate and
seal off pressure from the tubing below.

APPLICATION
The disappearing plug is typically used when differential pressure to the tubing string is required
for actuating a device, such as setting a hydraulic packer. Thereafter, the plug is fired or
activated, typically by pressure cycling, so that it pulverises or is chemically dissolved into the
well fluids.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the disappearing plug are:

Dissolving plug
Tubing disappearing plug (TDP)

EXTERNAL CASING PACKER (ECP)


WHAT IS AN EXTERNAL CASING PACKER
The external casing packer is located in the the completion string to provide formation zone
isolation in an open hole wellbore. The packer is thus designed to seals against the reservoir
formation walls. The external casing packer is typically a low differential pressure packer
without anchoring devices.

APPLICATIONS

Isolation of zones in an open hole wellbore

TYPES
Common types are:

Inflatable packers
Swell packers

The inflatable packer is a reinforced rubber tube that is inflated from the inside by e.g. cement.
The swell packer has a rubber element causing natural swelling in the well environment.

Synonyms
Common names for the external casing packer are:

Open hole packer


Swell packer

Inflatable packer

FLOW COUPLING
WHAT IS A FLOW COUPLING
The flow coupling is a heavy tubular sub.

Figure 1: Flow coupling

APPLICATIONS
Flow couplings are located in the completion string adjacent to completion equipment that
changes the string inner diameter and is cause for erosional turbulence. The purpose of the flow
coupling is to protect such completion equipment by re-locating the erosional turbulence to the
thicker wall of the flow coupling.

FLUID LOSS CONTROL VALVE (FLCV)


WHAT IS A FLUID LOSS CONTROL VALVE
The fluid loss control valve is a wellbore isolation valve located in the top of the production liner
or lower completion string.

APPLICATION
The valve is used to isolate the formation or lower completion during upper completion or
intervention activities. The valve help avoid the need for kill weight fluids and reduce risk of
contamination of the well sand control system when the wellbore above is cleaned and circulated
to completion fluids. The valve is typically re-opened to enable production through pressure
cycling or by activation of some type of shear- or breakout mechanism.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the fluid loss control valve are:

Flow- or fluid loss control valve (FLCV)


Flow- or fluid loss mechanism

Fullbore isolation valve (FBIV)

Knock-out isolation valve (KOIV)

Liner top isolation valve (LTIV)

Formation isolation valve

Formation saver valve

Reservoir control valve (RCV)

INDICATING COUPLING
WHAT IS AN INDICATING COUPLING
Indicating couplings are tubular subs part of the lower completion string used in conjunction
with gravel packing operations

APPLICATION
THE INDICATING COUPLING IS USED TO position, orient and manipulate wash-pipe tools.
It typically includes use of internal profiles in different configurations allowing wash-pipe tools
to move to defined positions accordingly when landed with weight, pushed or pulled through.

LANDING NIPPLE
WHAT IS A LANDING NIPPLE
The landing nipple is a short tubular sub with a special internal profile.

APPLICATIONS
Landing nipples are used in the completion string to restrict or place components at predefined
depths, such as flow-control devices, memory gauges, bridge plugs, etc.

TYPES
There are two main types of landing nipples available. The selective landing nipples that include
a locating profile together with a recess profile for accepting locking dogs, and the no-go
nipples that only has the locating profile. Both nipple types commonly include polished internal
areas for accepting seal mandrels at inserted components.

Figure 1: No-go type landing nipple

Figure 2: Selective type landing nipple

The no-go nipple often only function as a barrier against components being run or dropped
below a certain depth, and thereby prevent damages to the equipment below. Sealing devices
installed can only maintain a pressure differential acting from above since there is no means of
locking a sealing device in place. The nipple for WRSCSSV is a special type selective landing
nipple that also includes hydraulic control line connection for installation and control of a
WRSCSSV.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the landing nipple are:

Seating nipple

ORIENTING SWIVEL JOINT


WHAT IS AN ORIENTING SWIVEL JOINT
The orienting swivel joint is a tubular sub that allows relative rotation between the upper and the
lower part under axial stress while maintaining a hydraulic seal.

APPLICATION
The orienting swivel joint is typically used in well completions that have a special need for
relative rotation of the string to allow for make-up or more commonly to provide a more precise
rotational orientation of the tubing hanger due to cable terminations. The orienting swivel joint is
thus very often located in the completion string close to the tubing hanger.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the orienting swivel joint are:

Rotational alignment sub

O-RING SEAL SUB


WHAT IS AN O-RING SEAL SUB
An O-ring seal sub is a short tubular sub with an internal locating profile and recess profile(s)
that includes a concentric rubber seal element(s).

APPLICATION
The O-ring seal sub may typically be located in the lower completion string and used during
gravel packing operations where it provides a temporary hydraulic seal accepting a polished
stinger run as part of the wash-pipe.

PBR SEAL ASSEMBLY


WHAT IS A PBR SEAL ASSEMBLY
The PBR seal assembly consists of two main parts. The first main part is the polished bore
receptacle (PBR) which is a heavy tubular sub that has a polished surface. The second main part
is the seal assembly that has seal stacks and an upper end stop. The PBR accepts the seal
assembly and forms a dynamic hydraulic seal. The PBR seal assembly is used both as a part of
the completion string and the casing string.
Note that the term receptacle is used to indicate that the assembly is made up of especially
matching male and female parts.

APPLICATIONS
The polished bore receptacle with the seal assembly has several applications.
The first application of the PBR seal assembly is to enable relative movement between two fixed
strings like the completion string and the production casing. The PBR seal assembly will reduce
stresses due to thermal expansion or contraction in these strings. The forces generated by thermal
expansion or contraction can be significant. Expansion joints within the completion string
prevent severe forces being transmitted to components such as tubing, production packers and
tubing hangers. The length of the PBR stroke is determined by analysis of the tubing string

movement during various well scenarios such as stimulation, production, well start-up and shutin.
The second application of the PBR seal assembly is as a separation tool for easy removal of the
production casing or completion string. When used as a separation tool, the casing or tubing
string and seal assembly are removed from the well leaving the polished bore receptacle behind
in the well. Common means of separation is through a shear ring/sleeve mechanism.
The third application of the PBR seal assembly is to run a PBR on the top of the production liner
(called liner top PBR) and the seal assembly at the bottom of the completion string. The seal
assembly will then be used as an alternative to the production packer. The advantage is a
completion string with maximum inner diameter. This is often called a monobore completion.

TYPES
There are two main types of completion PBR seal assemblies:

Conventional
Overshot

The conventional PBR seal assembly has the female part located at the bottom of the
subassembly. This type is most common and allows the seal stack to be changed upon pulling the
string. The overshot PBR seal assembly has female part located at the top of the subassembly.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the seal assembly are:

Seal stem

Common names for the polished bore receptacle (PBR) are:

Seal bore receptacle


Honed bore receptacle

Common names for the PBR seal assembly are:

Expansion joint

PERFORATED PUP JOINT


WHAT IS A PERFORATED PUP JOINT
A perforated pup joint is a tubular sub with radial holes or slots.

Figure 1: Perforated pup joint

APPLICATION
Perforated pup-joints are most commonly used to stabilise and secure flow in the production
tubing by allowing commingled flow into the production tubing from different locations in a
production interval.

PUMP-OUT SUB
WHAT IS A PUMP-OUT SUB
The pump-out sub is a tubular sub with an obstruction that is used to temporarily isolate and seal
off pressure from the tubing below.

APPLICATION
The pump-out sub is typically used when differential pressure to the tubing string is required for
actuating a device, such as setting a hydraulic packer. Thereafter, an even higher tubing pressure
is applied to pump-out the obstruction, normally a dropped ball or a pre-installed plug, to reopen the tubing.

TYPES
The first type includes a concentric ring holding an expendable ball seat. This is called an
expandable seating sub. The second type includes a plug that is connected in an internal recess
profile by shear pins. This is called pump open plug.

Figure 1: Pump-open plug

Figure 2: Expendable seating sub

Note that the term knock-out normally is used instead of pump-out for a similar device
intended with mechanically forced breakout of the obstruction instead of hydraulic.

Synonyms
Common names for the pump-out sub are:

Pump-open plug
Pump-out plug

Expendable seating sub

Knock-out sub

Knock-out plug

PUP JOINT
WHAT IS A PUP JOINT
A pup joint is a tubing sub that comes in many different lengths as opposed to regular tubing
joints that have about 30ft or 10m lengths.

Figure 1: Pup joint

APPLICATIONS
The primary use of pup-joints in a completion string is to allow for different spacing and depth
location of completion equipment in a well. Also, most completion equipment subassemblies like
downhole safety valves, production packers, side-pocket mandrels, etc. come with pup joints on
both ends to facilitate conventional pipe handling and make-up of the, often more delicate,
subassembly to the completion string.

SAFETY JOINT
WHAT IS A SAFETY JOINT
The safety joint is a tubular sub that can be separated in two halves by tubing manipulation.

APPLICATION
The safety joint provides a means for emergency recovery of the tubing string above should it
become necessary to abandon the equipment in tubing below. A safety joint is most commonly
used between the gravel pack packer and the sand screens to provide a means of retrieving the
production string if the screen section becomes sanded in and stuck.

TYPES
The two main types are

Rotational safety joint


Shear type safety joints

The rotational safety joint is separated in two by tubing rotation. The shear type safety joint is
separated by straight tubing pull shear.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the safety joint are:

Shear-out safety joint


Rotational safety joint

Safety safety joint

Shear-out joint

Shear sub

Quick connect tool

SEAL BORE
WHAT IS A SEAL BORE
The seal bore is a tubular sub that provides an internal honed/polished surface for accepting a
seal mandrel to form a hydraulic seal.

APPLICATION
Seal bore subs are most often part of the lower completion string and used in conjunction with
gravel packing operations where they are used to mate with seal mandrels on the wash-pipe.

SYNONYMS
Common names for the seal bore are:

Honed bore
Polished bore

TUBING ANCHOR
What is a tubing anchor?

The tubing anchor is a particular type of seal assembly that includes an anchoring mechanism.
The tubing anchor is typically made up of four main components. That is the locator, the anchor
latch, the seal mandrel and the wireline entry guide. The seal mandrel is also called seal stack,
'seal stem' or seal nipple.

Figure 1: Tubing anchor


The term seal assembly generally covers an assembly with seals that interacts with another
component that has a polished surface to form a hydraulic seal. In this case the seal assembly
interacts with a polished bore at the top of the production packer.

APPLICATION
The tubing anchor is used to anchor or fix the tubing string to a packer. The tubing anchor is
typically releasable by tubing rotation, which allows for the tubing to be retrieved leaving the
packer in the well.

SYNONYMS
Common names for a seal assembly are:

Anchor seal assembly


Anchor tubing seal assembly

Locator seal assembly

Tubing anchor

Locator tubing seal assembly

Latch tubing seal assembly

Seal stinger

WIRELINE ENTRY GUIDE (WLEG)


WHAT IS A WIRELINE ENTRY GUIDE
The wireline entry guide is a short tubular sub located at the end of a tubing string.

APPLICATION
The wireline entry guide is used to make pulling out slickline or wireline tools easier. The
WLEG has a guiding surface profile that better allows tools to re-enter the tubing without being
caught on the side of the tubing. Depending on the specific design, an entry guide may also
sometimes be referred to as a mule shoe.

SINGLE STRING
WHAT IS SINGLE STRING
Single string means that one completion string is installed into the wellbore.

DUAL STRING

WHAT IS DUAL STRING


Dual string means that two completion strings are installed into the wellbore. These will
normally be somewhat different, depending on the objectives for installing a dual string
completion.

MONOBORE
WHAT IS MONOBORE
Monobore means the entire completion string including the reservoir section has the same or
almost the same inside diameter. One example is use of a polished bore receptical (PBR)
between the upper completion string and the liner instead of a production packer. Another
example is to run a screen completion into an open hole reservoir section and thus maintaining
the same tubing ID through the entire completion string.

STRAIGHT BORE
WHAT IS STRAIGHT BORE
Straight bore means the same inside diameter of the completion string all the way from the
tubing hanger to the exit of the completion string after the production packer. The inside
diameter of the wellbore below the completion string exit is not equal to the inside completion
string diameter (see monobore).

TAPERED BORE
WHAT IS TAPERED BORE
Tapered bore means the inside diameter of the completion string may change between the tubing
hanger and the exit of the completion string after the production packer. Examples are:

Large bore completion with less dimension of safety valve


Large bore completion with less dimension of tubing hanger

Large bore completion with less dimension of lower completion string

LOWER COMPLETION INSTALLATION


WHAT IS LOWER COMPLETION INSTALLATION
Lower completion installation is all activities to be performed to have the lower completion
string installed after the drilling process. The lower completion string generally refers to the sand
control equipment installed in a well.

How
The drilling process has been completed with both the production casing and liner installed. The
BOP is still installed at the top of the wellhead. The installation process below is an example
description for basic understanding of the process. A real process description is more detailed
and specific for different completion configurations. All oil companies also have their own inhouse best practices. The process of installing a lower completion string for a subsea well with
cased and perforated casing design combined with screen and gravel pack is described shortly
below:
Step 1: Clean and drift the hole

The first step after the drilling process is to clean and drift the well. The first part of the cleaning
process is to remove any cement that may be on the casing wall. This job is typically performed
with a jet nozzle, bit or a mill/broach. The second part of the cleaning process is to
displace drilling mud, solids and other debris from the well. This is achieved by lowering the
drill string to the bottom of the well. The drill string will typical have outside scrapers to provide
mechanically cleaning of the casing or liner at the production packer setting depth. A fluid mixed
with miscellaneous pills are then circulated through the drill string and out at the bottom at
maximum allowable flow rate. The return will flow up the annulus between the drill string and
the liner/production casing. The drillstring may also be moved up and down and slowly
rotated to maximize the cleaning effect. A casing drifting run will then be performed with a
gauge ring to verify a minimum diameter of the casing/liner. This will typical be a wireline

operation. A junk basket is applied together with the drifting tool to collect junk that has not be
circulated out of the hole. The hole cleaning is finalized by flushing seawater through the system
until the returns are clear.
Step 2: Displace well to completion fluid

The seawater is displaced out with a viscous pill followed by a high density completion brine or
special 'drill-in fluid'.
Step 3: Perforate the reservoir zone

Reservoir zones which are cased and cemented have to be perforated to allow production or
injection. The perforating process involves detonating several explosive shape charges that
shoots holes through the casing, cement and into the formation. Different gun types are:

Wireline conveyed perforating (WCP) gun


Tubing conveyed perforating (TCP) guns

In addition of selecting the gun type, the following topics must be clarified:

Perforating interval
Perforating depth

Perforating orientation

Well depth control

Well fluid

Well clean-up

Well overbalance/underbalance

Underbalanced perforation is preferred since the reservoir fluid inflow will help flush out gun
debris and crushed formation that may later restrict flow and thus increase the productivity. The
wireline conveyed perforating (WCP) guns can be run directly into the production casing or
through the completion string. A major disadvantage of being run directly into the production
casing is that the well must be in overbalance during perforation. Running the WCP gun through
the tubing, the first shot can be in underbalance.
The tubing conveyed perforating (TCP) guns are run in hole on a tubing string (completion
string, work string or coiled tubing) allowing much longer lengths to be installed and installation
in deviated wells. The tubing string also accommodate a packer between the tubing string and the
production casing/liner, allowing underbalanced perforation. These advantages make TCP

guns to a preferred solution. TCP guns are also used in this example. The TCP can not be run on
the completion string due to the selected sand control solution (gravel screen combined
with gravel pack). The guns are therefore run in hole with a dedicated workstring and packer to
support the perforating process. The desired underbalanced is established (typically 35 to 70 bar)
before the guns are detonated. The well is then flowed naturally to remove debris from the
perforations, followed by reverse circulation with heavy completion fluid. This is repeated until
the returns are clean. The entire TCP assembly is then released and pulled out of hole.
Step 4: Install lower completion string

The lower completion string is made up and run in hole to desired depth. The gravel pack packer
is set to anchor and seal the string to the casing.
Step 5: Install gravel pack service tool string

The gravel pack service tool string is used to place the gravel into the screen annulus. This unit is
run in hole and landed inside the upper part of the lower completion string. The gravel pack
service tool may also be installed to the lower completion at the drill floor and run in hole
together with the lower completion string.
Step 6: Place gravel

Gravel pack can be used for both 'open hole' and 'cased and perforated' casing designs. In this
example, gravel pack is used for a cased and perforated casing design. Gravel slurry is pumped
down via the landing string and an opened circulation port in the completion into the
annulus between the cased hole and the screens. Returns are taken via the screens and the service
tool diverted out of hole outside the landing string. The perforating hole size is normally larger in
gravel packed completions compared to non-gravel pack completions, and the gravel should
ideally be forced into the penetrations to keep the formation sand in place. The operation is
called a frac pack when the gravel pack slurry injection pressure deliberately exceeds the
formation fracture pressure and gravel is placed into the formation cracks created. The
indications on the completed gravel pack job is seen as a pressure increase on the gravel pack
service tool landing string referred to as 'screen out' pressure.
Step 7: Retrieve the gravel pack service tool string

The gravel pack service tool string is released and pulled out of the hole after the gravel is
placed. As part of this step the circulation port and the formation isolation valve (FIV) is shifted
to closed position. The FIV will isolate and protect the gravel pack from contamination and help
avoid use of heavy completion fluids when the upper well completion is installed.

FINAL STATE
The figure below illustrates the state of the well after the above process of running the lower
completion has been performed.

Figure 1: State of the well after performance of the above lower completion running process

ABBREVIATIONS
Relevant abbreviations are:
FIV

- Formation isolation valve

TCP

- Tubing conveyed perforating


(gun)

WCP

- Wireline conveyed
perforating (gun)

UPPER COMPLETION INSTALLATION


WHAT IS UPPER COMPLETION INSTALLATION
Upper completion installation is all activities to be performed to have the upper completion
string installed after installation of the lower completion string.

HOW
The installation process below is an example description for basic understanding of the process
of installing the upper completion string at the top of a lower completion string consisting of
a screen and gravel pack. The upper completion is further installed in a subsea well, which later
will have installed a vertical subsea Xmas tree. The upper completion string is installed through
the BOP, which have been located at the top of the wellhead since the drilling and casing
process.
The upper completion string consists of several tubular components assembled at the drill floor.
The completion string will gradually increase in length as new components are "made up" to
the previous component, followed by incremental lowering into the well. New components are
transported from the pipe deck to the catwalk by the gantry crane and further to the drill floor by
use of the catwalk itself. On the drill floor, the components are picked up by
the topdrive and moved up and into position on top of the existing part of the completion
string. The new component is then connected to the completion string with specified make-up
torque by using the hydraulic casing tong. The slips in the spider will hold the completion string
suspended in position during the component make-up sequence and also allow control lines to
be run on the outside the completion string without being damaged. The spider is a
special exchangeable adapter piece to the rotary table, allowing a range of tubular diameters to

be made up and run through the drill floor. The rotary table allow for rotation of the spider and
suspended string independent of the top drive. The top drive in the derrick is used to manipulate
the completion string up and down. The topdrive is also the main unit for rotation of the
completion string. This topside arrangement is illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 1: Topside arrangement for installing the completion string


Large diameter equipment like the BOP or Xmas tree is stored at the cellar deck below the drill
floor and run through the moon pool. All completion string components are inspected on the pipe
deck to verify that the equipment corresponds to specifications and that there is no missing
items or handling damages. A back-up assembly is always available in case of nonconfonformances. The upper completion string in this example consists of the following main
components, commonly referred to as "assemblies":

Tubing hanger assembly


Downhole safety valve assembly

Annulus safety valve assembly

Side pocket mandrel/GLV assembly

PBR seal assembly

Production packer assembly

Seal stem assembly without seals

Tubing- and pup joints are installed between the above assemblies. The major steps of the
assembling and running process for this upper completion string are:
Step 1: Preparations

The BOP is tested and the wellbore has been circulated clean and displaced to completion fluid
Step 2: Install the seal assembly without seals and tailpipe

The seal stem assembly is connected to a tubing or pup joint and this start of the so-called
completion tailpipe. This assembly is lowered into the well by the top drive and hung off in the
spider slips. More tubing or pup joints are installed, and the tailpipe is run in hole until the
desired spacing to the production packer is reach. The number of tubing- and pup joints used in
between assemblies are determined by the desired depth of the same assemblies when the
completion string is finally landed. The seal stem assembly is in this case installed to mate
with a PBR at top of the lower completion to provide an effective conduit for fluid transport and
thru-tubing access. It is further provided without seals to allow for thermal pressure build-up
relief of the annulus found outside the tailpipe.

Step 3: Install the production packer

The production packer assembly is picked up and connected to the completed tailpipe string
and run in hole. More tubing and pup joints are installed and run in hole until the desired spacing
to the PBR assembly seal is obtained.
Step 4: Install the PBR seal assembly

The PBR seal assembly is installed above the production packer to reduce stresses on the
completion string caused by thermal expansion of the completion string during heating of the
well (production). The forces generated by thermal expansion of the completion string are in this
case found to high to be handled by the completion string, the production packer and the tubing
hanger. Additional tubing and pup joints are connected to the completion string, and the
completion string is further run in hole to reach the desired spacing and thus depth of the
SPM/GLV assembly which is next to be installed. The PBR seal assembly is locked by shear pins
to prevent axial movements when run in hole.
Step 5: Install the side pocket mandrel (SPM) for gas lift valve (GLV)

The side pocket mandrel with pre-installed gas lift valve is installed into the completion string.
All the completion string assemblies are delivered to the rig with pup joints on each end to allow
for standard pipe handling and to suit the tubing thread type being run. All the
assembly connections have been preloaded with required torque at the suppliers workshop.
The side pocket mandrel, the gas lift valve and the tubing joints can be pressure tested by setting
a temporary plug (wireline operation) in the completion string below. The test plug is pulled after
the test. New tubing and pup joints are made up to the completion string and the completion
string is lowered into the well to obtain the depth where the annulus safety valve will be located
in the well.
Stap 6: Install the annulus safety valve (ASV)

The annulus safety valve (ASV) is installed to the completion string and the control line is
connected to the ASV. Hydraulic pressure is applied on the control line to test the control line
connection for any leakage before the completion string is run further in hole. Control line
pressure will be maintained throughout the running of the remaining completion items to verify
integrity of line and allow better circulation in the annulus as the completion fluid is being
displaced out of the wellbore by the completion string. The control line is clamped to the
completion string as the completion string is being run in hole. New tubing joints are connected
to the completion string and the completion string is lowered into the well to reach the desired
spacing to the downhole safety valve.

Step 7: Install the downhole safety valve (DHSV)

A tubing retrievable surface controlled subsurface safety valve (TRSCSSV) is installed to the
completion string. The control line is connected to the TRSCSSV. Hydraulic pressure is applied
on the control line to test the control line connection for any leakage before the completion string
is run in hole. Control line pressure will be maintained throughout the running of the remaining
completion items keeping the flapper and tubing open. From now on there are two hydraulic
control lines being clamped to the outside of the completion string as the completion string is
being run in hole. New tubing joints are connected to the completion string and the completion
string is lowered into the well to achieve the desired spacing to the tubing hanger assembly.
Step 8: Correlate the string depth

The completion string is run in hole until the seal stem assembly positively enters its desired
position withing the PBR top of the lower completion, and from there the necessary
corrections are made to the completion string length by removing or adding joints before make
up of the tubing hanger assembly.
Step 9: Install the tubing hanger

The tubing hanger is installed as the last assembly of the completion string. The control lines are
cut and wrapped around the pup joint below the tubing hanger prior to be terminated to the
tubing hanger. The extra length to provide some contingency if the line is damaged during makeup or landing of the hanger.
Step 10: Install the tubing hanger running orientation tool (THROT)

The tubing hanger running orientation tool is connected to the top of the tubing hanger. The
upper part of the running tool has an orientation joint so that the tubing hanger is oriented
correctly relative to the wellhead and Xmas tree. Vertical subsea trees are run in hole with a
workover riser (WOR) consisting of two parallel pipes for tubing and A-annulus. The THROT
have an umbilical attached that allow support of various electric and hydraulic functions required
such as seal pressure testing and DHSV and the ASV control. The THROT is also named as
THRT
Step 11: Run completion string on workover riser (WOR) and set the
tubing hanger

The tubing hanger running orientation tool (THROT) is run on the workover riser (WOR)
through the marine riser. The tubing hanger is oriented, landed and locked in the wellhead
landing shoulder by slacking off landing string weight. An overpull test is performed to verify

the tubing hanger locking mechanism and a pressure test perfomed to verify the tubing hanger
seals.
Step 12: Set temporary bridge plug and the production packer

A temporary bridge plug is set in the completion string below the production packer (wireline
operation) and the packer is set by increasing the completion string pressure above the plug
(hydraulic set packer) to a specified level and duration. The completion string is now anchored
and sealed at both the production packer and the tubing hanger.
Step 13: Set the annulus safety valve

The annulus safety valve packer and anchor is set by further increasing the completion string
pressure (hydraulic set packer) to a specified level and duration.
Step 14: Test the completion string and downhole safety valve

The completion string is tested to maximum expected tubing pressure (METP) and the downhole
safety valve is inflow tested by closing and bleeding off pressure above the valve until required
valve differential pressure is achieved. This is a high pressure test of the downhole safety valve.
A low pressure test of the downhole safety valve is performed after the Xmas tree is
installed. This test also includes a high pressure test of the downhole safety valve control line.
Step 15: Test the A-annulus, production packer and the annulus safety
valve

The entire A-annulus is pressurized to required pressure with the valve unit in the annulus safety
valve in open position. This pressure will act on the production casing, the production packer
from above, the tubing hanger from below and the completion string from the outside. The Aannulus production casing test pressure will be equal to the maximum expected tubing pressure
(METP). After the A-annulus is tested, the valve unit in the annulus safety valve is closed, and
the annulus above the annulus safety valve is bled off to make required annulus safety valve
differential test pressure. This is a high pressure test of the annulus safety valve. A low pressure
test of the annulus safety valve is performed after the Xmas tree is installed. This test also
includes a high pressure test of the annulus safety valve control line.
The production- and ASV packer will be tested to its respective maximum expected differential
pressure (MEDP). The loads on the completion string can be reduced by manipulating
the completion string pressure. In this case, a gas lift valve with a shear function is used to
prevent leakage from the annulus to the completion string through the gas lift valve during the
annulus test. An alternative is to run the completion string with a dummy instead of a GLV in the
side pocket mandrel. An advantage with the shear valve is that this valve will open in the

case where there is fluid trapped between the production packer and the annulus safety valve.
When this fluid is heated up and expands it may cause a pressure build-up that can collapse
the completion string. Another advantage is no additional wireline operation for pulling the
dummy followed by installation of the gas lift valve.
Cutting the shear pins in the gas lift valve is done by manipulating the annulus and completion
string pressures to create sufficient differential pressure across the GLV. Once sheared, the gas
lift valve will function as an ordinary gas lift valve.
Step 16: Install plugs in tubing hanger

Back-pressure valve (BPV) plugs are run on wireline through the production and annulus bore of
the workover riser and set in respective bore nipple profiles in the tubing hanger, followed by a
pressure test. The plugs will help maintain a two barrier situation after pulling the BOP.
Step 17: Pull tubing hanger running orientation tool (THROT) and
workover riser

The tubing hanger running orientation tool (THROT) is disconnected from the tubing hanger and
pulled by pulling the workover riser.
Step 18: Pull BOP and marine riser, install protective cover on wellhead

Unlatch the BOP connector at the wellhead and move off location to reduce dropped object
risk. Start pulling the BOP on the marine riser through the drill floor. The BOP is landed on railbeams that straddle the moon pool where it is disconnected from the marine riser and skidded to
its storage location on the cellar deck. The wellhead area is washed and a protective
cover installed.
The system is now ready for the Xmas tree installation, which is described as a separate
operation. Note that the above process is a description of the basics for a selected well
design. The process will be different for other well designs. Real operation descriptions will also
be more specific and related to specific manufacturers. Different oil companies will also
have their own in-house best practices.

FINAL STATE
The figure below illustrates the state of the well after the above process of running the
upper completion has been performed.

ABBREVIATIONS
Relevant abbreviations are:
ASV

- Annulus safety valve

BOP

- BlowOut Preventer

BPV

- Back-Pressure Valve

DHSV - Downhole safety valve


FIV

- Formation isolation valve

GLV

- Gas lift valve

MEDP

- Maximum expected differential


pressure

METP

- Maximum expected tubing


pressure

SPM

- Side pocket mandrel

THRO - Tubing hanger running


T
orientation tool
WOR - Workover riser

GAS INJECTION WELLS


WHAT IS A GAS INJECTION WELL
Gas injection wells are used to re-inject gas into the reservoir for the purpose of disposal or for
production support. Typically the gas will contain water vapour, even where the water is dried,
which is likely to condence during certain operating or shut down periods.

GAS PRODUCING WELLS


WHAT IS A GAS PRODUCING WELL

Any well with a gas to liquid ratio (GLR) greater than 5000 standard cubic feet per barrel (890
Sm3/Sm3) should be considered as a gas production well.

OIL PRODUCING WELLS


WHAT IS AN OIL PRODUCING WELL
Any well with a gas to liquid ratio (GLR) equal to or less then 5000 standard cubic feet per
barrel (890 Sm3/Sm3) should be considered as an oil production well. These wells will typically
produce crude oil, NGL, gas and water. The ratio between gas and oil is called the gas oil ratio
(GOR). The percentage of water in the producing medium is called water cut (WC). The water
cut can be very high in some oil producing wells.

SIMULTANEOUS WATER AND GAS


INJECTION WELLS (SWAG)
WHAT IS A SWAG WELL
SWAG wells are used for simultaneous injection of water and gas into the reservoir.

WATER ALTERNATE GAS INJECTION


WELLS (WAG)
WHAT IS A WAG WELL

WAG wells are used to inject water or gas into the reservoir. The wells will be manifolded to
accept gas or water at a given time. The particular selection will depend upon the current
reservoir requirements as described by the reservoir engineer.

WATER INJECTION WELLS


WHAT IS A WATER INJECTION WELL
Water injection wells are use to inject water into the reservoir for disposal, voidage replacement
or production support. The corrosivity of the water will depend upon its source and processing
before injection.

WATER PRODUCING WELLS


WHAT IS A WATER PRODUCING WELL
These wells are drilled to supply water for processing facilities or for re-injection into critical
sections of the hydrocarbon reservoir. The produced fluid will typically contain no hydrocarbons.

ARTIFICIAL LIFT
WHAT IS ARTIFICIAL LIFT
Artificial lift is an approach to support the production in wells where the reservoir pressure is too
low to be able to facilitate a natural self-driven production over time. The produced fluid (mainly
oil) needs to be lifted artificially. Detailed reasons for artificial lift are:

Corrective action for reduced reservoir pressure over time


Produce wells with heavy oil

Delay water production

Increase the production rate

Able to starts some wells after shut-in

Another method to support the production in the wells is to use separate gas or water injection
wells within a field. This is not defined as artificial lift.

TYPES
Various methods for artificial lift in oil production wells exist, either by gas lift or by different
types of down hole pumps:

Gas lift valve (GLV)


Electric submersible pump (ESP)

Hydraulic submersible pump (HSP)

Hydraulic piston pump (HPP)

Hydraulic jet pump (HJP)

Progressing cavity pump (PCP)

Sucker rod pumps (SRP)

Steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) for heavy oil recovery

Gas lift valves have gas injected down hole through the annulus to a gas lift valve installed in a
side pocket mandrel at the required calculated setting depth. From here the gas is then injected
into the production flow in the completion string. The oil is then mixed with the gas, the density
is reduced and the mixture is being produced to the surface where the gas has to be separated
from the oil. The gas is then re-injected for the required gas lift function.
Downhole pumps are used to pump the oil up to the surface. These pumps are normally installed
as part of the completion string, but they are also run on coiled tubing inside the completion
string. Dual completions is also used sometimes when installing down hole pumps in order to be
able to run wireline tools past the location of the pump.

TUBING STRESS ANALYSIS


WHAT IS A TUBING STRESS ANALYSIS
The completion string will be exposed to stresses during the installation and during other well
scenarios that may occur natural or accidental during the operational lifetime of the well. The
tubing stress analysis will analyse all relevant scenarios and related stresses in the entire
completion string. These stresses must be known to make a safe and reliable completion string
and will provide input to material yield and dimensions for e.g. the tubing, the downhole safety
valve and the production packer. The following loads have the potential for making stresses in
the completion string:
Pressure

- Ballooning due to inside pressure makes tension stresses

Pressure

- Reverse ballooning due to outside pressure makes


compression stresses

Pressure

- Piston effects due to end pressure makes compression


stresses and buckling

Temperature
Temperature

- Increasing temperature makes compression stresses


- Reducing temperature makes tension stresses

Weight

- Makes tension stresses and depends on buoyancy and


inclination

Pick-up

- Makes tension stresses

Set down

- Makes compression stresses

Torque

- Makes shear stresses

Bending

- Make axial stresses and depends on dogleg and buckling

Fluid flow

- Friction makes compression stresses

The stress level is highly dependent on the strings ability to move. Most stresses are made only if
the string is anchored and temperature changes will normally give the highest effect. Stresses
made by torque and bending are independent of free moving string or not. Tubing stresses are
calculated by experts using software programs like WellCat. The basic formulas are described in
papers and completion manuals.

CALCULATION
The following calculation process is suggested:
Step 1: Clarify worst case scenarios

Typical completion string scenarios that may occur during the entire lifetime of the well must be
evaluated. That could be cold shut-in, cold pump-in etc. Examples follow:

Completion string scenarios

Loads related to each scenario must be clarified. Typical plots to be worked out for different
scenarios are:

Temperature plots vs. well depth (initial- and final condition)


Pressure plots vs. well depth (initial- and final condition)

How fast the tubing temperature is dropping when temperature is changed

Step 2: Make stress calculation

Service loads lines are plotted in the von Mises equivalent (VEM) yield stress envelope to
illustrate combined stresses over the entire length of the tubing.

Figure 1: Presentation of combined loads in VME envelope with limitations


Step 3: Make limitations

There are several limitations that must be clarified before making any decisions:
Safety factor

The tubing string has separate safety factors to the yield stress. These factors are company and
well dependent, but have normally the highest factor for axial tension due to the potential for e.g.
overpull during string manipulation. Components in the completion string normally have other
(and less) safety factors than the tubing.
Anisotropy

Most corrosion resistant alloys have different mechanical properties in different directions. This
is especially true for cold worked alloys, but also for alloys being hardened by e.g. quenching
and tempering due to different cooling times for e.g. heavy wall tubulars. The axial yield stress
is available for most metals, also as a function of the diameter for heavy wall tubulars, but not
always the tangential and radial yield stresses for e.g. cold worked alloys. Cold worked alloys
may also have diffrent yield strength and compressive strength. The opposed to anisotropy is
isotropy, which means homogeneity in all directions. The material is then said to be isotropic.
Reduced yield stress

The yield stress will be reduced at increasing temperature. This effect may be especially high for
cold worked alloys that have been given high yield strength by increasing the number of
dislocations in the material. The process is called annealing and is the same process as is used
during tubular manufacturing.
Instability

The third and forth quadrant of the von Mises envelope (external pressure) may have a reduced
pressure limit compared to the von Mises stresses due to instability factors in the tubing.
Step 4: Make decisions

The above process will result in the following decisions:

Tubing size (outside diameter)


Tubing material

Tubing weight (wall thickness)

Tubing threads

PBR or not

The above process will also provide input to the vendors of completion string components like
the downhole safety valve and the production packer. Make sure all components in the
completion string are available for the stresses before the tubing design is fixed. Use of a
polished bore receptacle (PBR) will allow completion string movement and thus
reduced stresses, but this is not a preferred solution due to limited PBR reliability.

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