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Machining processes work on the principle that the tool is harder than
the work piece. Some materials, are too hard or too brittle to be
machined by conventional methods. The use of very hard nickel-based and titanium
alloys by the aircraft engine industry, for example, has stimulated nonconventional
machining methods.
Single Point Machining
used for producing cylindrical parts with the cutting tool feeding parallel to the axis of
the work piece and at a distance that will remove the outer surface of the work.
3.Facing: when the feed motion of the tool is given radial that is normal to the axis of
4.Shaping: is a machining operation for generating flat surfaces by means of single point
cutting tool. Work-piece is kept stationary and cutting tool is given a reciprocating
motion.
5.Planing: Work-piece is reciprocated and the cutting tool is imparted the feed motion.
Multi-Point Machining
Reaming is also defined as a machining operation in which a rotary tool takes a light cut
to improve the accuracy of a round hole and to reduce the roughness of the whole
Honing is generally used to produce surface finishes in the range of .80 to .20µm.
tools.
pushed or pulled over an external flat surface of a stationary work-piece to remove metal
by axial cutting.
Applications:
1.For the production of die cavities where the shape permits and where several similar
2.It is used in the mass production machining of various surfaces such as cylindrical,
semi-cylindrical surfaces.
10.Sawing: is a process of cutting a work piece with power band saw, hacksaw and
circular saw.
11.Tapping: is a machining operation in which internal & the helical cutting motion of
FINISHING PROCESSES
12.Cylindrical grinding: is defined as the grinding of round parts between centers. This
process is performed either by traversing the surface to be ground. In this process, work-
bore of a part.
cutting, open wheels to remove material. The sub-segments are defined by wheel type
grinding wheel by a rest and regulating wheel. It is the grinding of the outside diameters
It is used in the grinding of long thin parts without having to use steady rests for support,
16.Honing: is a finishing process in which metal is removed with the help of slow
moving (rotating & reciprocating) abrasive sticks which are kept pressed against the
surface to be finished.
17.Lapping: is a finishing process for obtaining very high accuracy in size which
includes small removal of material with the help of abrasive particles which cut under the
18.Buffing: This process consists in applying a very fine abrasive with a rotating wheel.
Buffing is used to give a much higher, lustrous, reflective finish that cannot be obtained
by polishing.
surfaces.
21.Ultrasonic machining: Metal removal is effected with the help of abrasive grains
which are made to impinge repeatedly upon the work-piece surface by a tool oscillating
variant is Rotary ultrasonic machining where a metal bonded diamond tool is rotated and
vibrated (ultrasonically) simultaneously. The advantage of this process is that long holes
up to 400 mm can be drilled unlike conventional ultrasonic machining where the depth of
the hole is limited to 20 mm (because of taper formation and reduction in MRR). E.g.
22.Water jet machining: uses a high velocity stream of water as a cutting tool. This
process is limited to the cutting of non-metallic materials when the jet stream consists
Applications:
23.Abrasive water jet machining: Material is removed by the erosive action of high
velocity abrasive particles impinging on the work-piece.
Applications:
1.Cutting of tool-steel.
2.Cutting of Inconel.
24.Electric discharge machining: Electro erosion is a process of material removal based
electrode tool (usually cathode) and the work (anode). The tool is made as same as that
discharges.
When tool wear is greater than the work piece wear than tool acts as anode and work
piece acts as cathode. Work piece gets hold on to the spindle and tool into the
e.g.: Drilling of micro hole, thread cutting, helical profile milling, for drilling fine deep
holes.
25.Electron beam machining: A high velocity electron beam is made to impinge on the
surface of the work –piece. In this process, a stream of electrons strike the object and
26.Electric discharge wire cutting: An endless wire acts as an electrode, which removes
the metal. The wire materials used are brass with zinc coated, brass with brass coated,
copper.
Oxidation occurs when a metallic work-piece passes an electric current in the presence of
an electrolyte.
turbine components.
Advantages:
dissolution in an electrolytic cell in which the work piece is the anode and tool is the
Applications:
29.Plasma arc machining: is a process used to perform straight cuts of tough materials
at high speed. When a gas is superheated, it breaks into free electrons and positively
called plasma.
Deformation Processes
30.Hot working: Plastic deformation of metals above recrystallisation temperature.
opening in die-blocks.
34.Blanking: A process of cutting or shearing a blank from a sheet or strip material.
36.Swaging: is a forging operation in which two halves of a die open and close rapidly
37.Rotary swaging: This is a cold forming process for reducing cross sections on metal
bar and tube, using dies made up of two or more segments. The work piece on which the
cross section is to be reduced is moved into or placed between the segments. The dies are
rotated around the work piece and apply radial forces in rapid succession. These
movements with controlled kinematics results in high specific forming forces being
38.Upset forging: is used to force the end of a heated bar into a desired shape.
39.Upsetting: is a process of increasing the cross-section of a bar and reducing its length.
40.Liqud bulge forming: is a cold press working technique in which a tubular blank is
deformed in a die by pressurizing liquid within the blank. The liquid used in this process
Application:
It is done on parts such as bi-cycle frame joints and rear axle transmission housings,bi-
operations on relatively low strength sheets. This operation is most suitable for tubular
shapes. This operation requires special tooling. Write applications and include fig
42.Peen Forming: This Process involves production of shallow contours on large sheets.
43.Deep drawing: work-piece between blank-holder and die is subjected to pure radial
drawing whereas portion of the work-piece around the punch corners and die are
44.Explosive Forming: This operation involves very large sheets with relatively
complex shapes, although usually axi symmetric. It requires long cycle times. It is
45.Rubber Forming: This process involves the drawing and embossing of simple or
46.Lancing: Cutting in a single line across a part of metal strip to allow bending or
forming in progressive die operation while the part remains attached to the strip.
47.Bulging: is a process employed to expand a tubular or cylindrical part.
49.Hemming: is a process in which sheet edges are turned over to provide smooth and
stiff edge.
50.Flattening: A process in which metal strip is bent over 18 degree and then pressed.
It is also defined as the operation of straightening a sheet metal, which is a curved one.
Applications:
It is used in composite fan blades, hull panels for boats, protective and anti
glare films.
Applications:
Slugging wrenches are designed for use with hammers where impact or
shock loading is required for loosening of frozen and rusty nuts and bolts. Slugging
previously roll formed sections. This process involves the production of large parts with
shallow contours. This process is suitable for low quantity production. It also involves
high tooling and equipment costs.
** Deep drawing is an extension of forming. It stretches the sheet metal into shape
instead of bending it. Deep drawn shapes are either cylinders or squares and can be cut
and one, which requires a high capital outlay. With rigid PVC production
PVC. Only about 25 of the 150 PVC calenders now operating are used for rigid
production.
Applications:
56.Tube Piercing: is an operation used for the production of seamless tubes. It is the
operation of production of hole in a sheet metal by the punch and the die. The material
57.Rubber Pad Forming: In this process, metal blank is positioned on top of the
forming die and is shaped as the pad descends. This process is best for parts that are
Hydraulic portal presses are used in which they have wire wound frames and can form
58.Thermit welding: In this welding process, a mixture of iron oxide and aluminum iron
59.Flash Welding: is a process of joining together the end of sheets in which the parts
are brought together into light contact, a voltage high to cause arcing between the ends.
61.Projection welding: In this process, the current flow and heating are localized to a
63.Plasma arc welding: In this process, ionization of gas takes place and plasma is
formed.
64.Metallic arc welding: In this process, metal electrode serves to carry the arc to act as
the form filler rod, which deposits molten metal into the joint.
65.Carbon arc welding: In this process, metal electrode serves to carry the carbon arc to
act as the form filler rod, which deposits molten metal into the joint. It is used for
66.Submerged arc welding: It is a process used in straight line joining of metals and is a
67.Flux cored arc welding: In this process, flux is carried inside electrode, which
68.Eletro-slag welding: Heavy sections can be joined in a single run by placing the
vertical gap.
frequency vibratory energy for welding. When two pieces of metal are clamped together
under moderately low pressure and ultrasonic energy is transmitted into them for a brief
interval, a metallurgical bond is produced without the use of welding current. This
of the contacting surfaces and the mechanical and physical properties of the solid beneath
the surface.
71.Stud welding: The stud acts as an electrode and is held in a hand tool at right angles
to the plate.
72.Atomic Hydrogen welding: This process involves the possibility of obtaining atomic
hydrogen by means of an electric arc between two tungsten electrodes in the atmosphere
73.Friction stir welding: is a metal joining technique, which has tremendous potential to
join low melting point materials such as aluminum, copper and its alloys. This process
can be applied for the fabrication of long butt and lap joints with excellent quality.
Friction heating takes place at the tool-work pieces junction, which is a function of
coefficient of friction between tool and work pieces at the junction, diameter of the tool
Applications:
This process is used in the fabrication of external fuel tanks of rockets, large light alloy
75.Slitting:It is a process of cutting wide coils into coils of smaller width. It is also an
mill.
79.Cold rolling: In this process, the steel is first hot rolled near the finished size and then
pickled in acid to remove the scale. It is then passed through a four high mill, which
surfaces by the use of solid dies. Die threading is a process for cutting threads by the use
of dies. Thread Rolling is a process through which threads are formed by rolling.
82.Counter-sinking:In this process, a conical reamer like tool is used to cut a tapered
between the work piece and an acid electrolyte that flows through a manifold and nozzle
shaped glass tubes. The voltage must range from 600 to 900v,drives a current through an
electrolyte system. The acid is pumped from one tank after travelling through the
machine, overflows into a separate tank, which is electrically insulated from the first.
Thus current is prevented from making complete circuits around the system. The
disadvantage is that periodically one tank must be emptied and other refilled.
85.Roll forging: is a forging method for reducing the diameter of a bar and in the process
making it longer.
87.Roller Burnishing: is a method of working a metal surface to improve its finish and
dimensional accuracy and can provide some degree of work hardening. Using this
process, hole diameter can be increased by .013 to .051mm.This process is used for metal
POWDER METALLURGY
90.Impregnation: Bearings and parts, which are made deliberately porous for self-
lubrication, are impregnated with oil. This is carried out under vaccum to assist the
parts by the plating process, which avoids the problem of electrolyte absorption.
surface scale and tarnishing. This operation is done on rolled shapes, wires sheets.
high velocity.
94.Die-forging:In this process, the material is formed between the two dies having
95.Cold drawing: The process consists of descaling hot rolled bar and after suitable
preparation reducing the cross section of the bar by pulling through a die of smaller
dimension.
96.Brazing: This process is used for steel components, which are invariably joined by
means of a fusible alloy or metal called spelter. The common brazing metals used are:
copper which melts at 1080°C,tobinbronze which melts at 885°C and silver solder which
97.Soldering: In this process, a liquid film of metal is interposed between the two
packages .Excellent mechanical properties due to the small grain size associated with
99.Sweating: This is the soft soldering process used when large areas require joining, for
100.Slotting: is a cutting operation during which the punch does not cut on all the sides.
It is mainly a milling operation. It can also be said as a operation used for producing
rectangle holes. Slotting cutters are used to produce slots. A slotter is a shaper in which
the job is kept on the worktable and slots are produced on it.
101.Shearing: is a process which uses shear forces of sufficient magnitude to rupture the
metal in the plane of shear. This operation occurs between a punch and a die. As the
clearance between the punch and the die is very small, the deformation takes place in a
localized area and the metal adjacent to the cutting edges of the punch and the die
102.Stripping:It is a process, which involves ejecting or slugging the part from the die,
so that the punch is set to travel a little further for pushing the part out of the opening.
Applications:
burned out without leaving any residue after which molten metal is poured into the mould
cavity and is allowed to cool slowly to atmospheric temperature when the investment is
105.Die-casting:It is a process of pouring molten metal under high pressure into mould.
permanent mould.
108.Gravity casting: is a casting that is produced by pouring molten metal into the
mould.
109.Centrifuge casting: In this process, filling the separate mould cavities with molten
Application:
It is used for producing large diameter water pipes having high sound
density structure.
110.Plaster casting: If the sand casting process is changed, so that Plaster of Paris is
substituted for sand as the moulding material, that process is said to be plaster casting.
Applications:
Plaster casting is used in the manufacturing of plaster glass, fibrous plaster sheets.
111.Coining: is a sizing operation performed in dies. It is done on surfaces that are
Applications:
required to squeeze a metal which is made to flow in a cold state within the cavity of the
113.Curling: is the operation of forming the edges of a component into a roll or a curl by
bending the sheet metal in order to strengthen the edges and to provide smoothness to its
surface.
114.Plunging: is the operation of bending a sheet metal to the desired shape for
115.Angle Bending: is the operation of bending a sheet metal to the sharp angle.
operation.
117.Tumbling: produces a slight peening on the surface of the parts. It takes place in
revolving drum.
compression, forming it to the shape desired and elongating it so that the ring grows in
119.Injection moulding:In this process, thermo plastic material is fed as a powder into a
hopper when a piston through a heated orifice into a mould forces it.
softened with heat. The resin and filler are mixed together on heated rolls to continue
cure until the desired characteristics of the moulding powder are attained. Asbestos may
be used where special resistance to heat is required.Moulds are usually filled and presses
operated by hand.
particles.
sand moulds are replaced by thin rigid shells of uniform wall thickness.
122.Reaction moulding: is a process in which chemical reaction occur during the mould
process.
Applications:
123.Green sand moulding:In this process, the sand is mixed with water suitable
proportions of bonding agents and this mixture in the undried state is used for the making
of the moulds.
Application:
125.Fettling: is a process, which involves the removal of adherent sand, cores, gates, and
flash from the rough castings as received from the sand. Castings made from alloy of
high melting point such as steel require more cleaning. It is an operation performed after
casting.
trepanning with a comparatively small hole and the wall of this hollow billet is pressed
end of long component between a bar inserted through the bore and a specially shaped
tool which bears on a narrow strip only along the whole length. The displacement of the
alone is used.
127.Spring winding: is the process of making a coiled spring by passing a wire around a
128.Counter boring: is the operation of enlarging a hole through a certain distance from
130.Worm rolling: is the creation of the spiral groove by the penetration of properly
designed and hardened steel dies into a properly prepared cylindrical blank.
131.Spun pipe casting: Large quantities of iron pipes are produced by spin casting in
centrifugal force serving to hold the metal against the sides of the mould.
technology whereby coating materials including metal, alloy, or ceramic are melted within
a vacuum and then deposited on a component or part requiring the surface properties
inherent in the coating. A strong mechanical vapor bond, uniform microstructure, and
relatively high deposition rates make it an attractive and versatile coating process. Since
Gear Ausforming
gear-rolling dies made of hot hardness tool steel are used to precision roll finish gears.
The process involves contour austenization of casehardened gear teeth and quenching
134. Spray metal forming (S/F): is a rapid solidification metal-forming process that
involves the conversion of a molten metal stream into a spray of droplets by inert gas
atomization. The droplets cool rapidly in flight and while in a semi-solid condition, are
resulting preform has very fine grain size and evenly distributed second-phase
precipitates. These desired characteristics, made possible through the spray metal
forming process, provide for a better alloy microstructure that results in superior
mechanical properties.
135.Brush Plating: is the technique by which electro- deposits are made from
electrolytes held in some absorbent material attached to a portable electrode. The main
advantage of this process is that it has the ability to deposit metal over small controlled
areas.
136.Die sinking: In this process, two half dies are required, each containing a half cavity
of the spanner. These dies are made from blocks of medium carbon steel. The cavities
137.Cropping: It is not possible to obtain the exact size of the blank required to fill the
cavity completely and to ensure absolute filling the blank must possess a greater volume
than the finished spanner. The gutter provides an outlet for this excess metal, known as
flash. Thus on removal from the dies the spanner will be surrounded with this flash and a
138.Seaming:If during rolling, the work-metal flows up the flanks of the die-threads
faster than it does at the center of the thread form, the displaced metal may fold together
to form a seam as the metal fills the full crest of thread form.
chemical etching. This process either thins the parts in specific areas or removes metal
Application:
140.Chemical Blanking: This process involves the etching of very thin metal parts in
spray chambers. Chemical Blanking etchants are mild compared to chemical milling.
141.Cold Heading: is a process, which uses forces greater than a metal’s elastic limit to
142.Multi Die Cold forming process: In this process, assemblies of two or more pieces
energy to mechanical energy. A capacitor bank delivers a pulse of high current across
two electrodes, which are positioned at a short distance apart while submerged in a fluid
(water or oil). The electric arc discharge rapidly vaporizes the surrounding fluid creating
commercial metalworking. It is used for joining and assembly of concentric parts. Electro
Applications:
Compression crimp sealing and assembly of axi-symmetric components
145. Draw-Bending: In this process, both bending die and clamping die rotate and pull
or draw the work-piece. This process is particularly used for light gauge tubular stock.
146. Explosive Forming or HERF (High Energy Rate Forming): can be utilized to
form a wide variety of metals, from aluminium to high strength alloys. In this process the
punch is replaced by an explosive charge.The charge used is very small, but is capable
of exerting tremendous forces on the work piece. In Explosive Forming chemical energy
from the explosives is used to generate shock waves through a medium (mostly water),
which are directed to deform the work piece at very high velocities Work piece is placed
on the die and blank holder placed above. A vacuum is then created in the die cavity.
The explosive charge is placed in position over the centre of the work piece. The
incorporates two rams-One for controlling the upward drawing motion of the punch and
the other for regulating the oil pressure trapped inside the dome of the press.
148.Electro polishing: The process is reverse of electroplating. The job is made the
anode. The cathode, which may be copper, lead or stainless steel, serve merely to conduct
the current to the solution.
Electro polishing process is being employed for super finishing and for the removal of
stressed surfaces.
149.Painting: Painting is generally carried out for protecting the metal and also to make
it aesthetically acceptable. Enamel, Epoxy & Etch primer type of paints are used.
151.Bearingizing: In this process, metal surfaces are finished by a combined rolling and
peening action. Hardened rollers rotating around and bearing on cams and falls rapidly
delivering as many as 200000 blows per minute. This action produces smooth surface.
153. Chromating: This process is used for temporary protection of parts that may require
further machining after some time.
Chromating of Aluminium and its alloys give a conversion coating (of yellow colour) of
excellent corrosion resistance with low electrical resistivity. The conductivity of this
coating is also extremely high.
154. Spin forming: used for forming axially symmetrical parts over a mandrel. A power
driven rigid tool deforms and shapes the material.
Cheaper base materials can be used, and costly alloying additions reduced.
through the resin impregnation path, it is drawn through a shaping die to form a desired
Cross-section. Curing takes place before the lamination can depart from the cross section.
HSS, HSS-CO, WC and ceramic tools are coated to increase tool life and
allowable cutting speeds. Coatings act as a chemical and thermal barrier between tool
and work piece .They increase the wear resistance of tool and prevent chemical
reactions between tool and work piece material, reduce built up edge formation
, decrease friction between the tool and chip and prevent deformation of cutting edge
• Coating Thickness
• Hardness
• Chemical compatibility
• Thermal stability
Coating Methods:
The two most common coating processes are Chemical Vapor Deposition and
Physical Vapor Deposition. Both are used for single and multilayer coatings.
coatings are typically between 7&8µm thick.CVD coatings are harder and provide
longer tool life.CVD techniques reduce the range of substrate materials to which these
A thin brittle glassy layer is formed at the interface between the coating and
substrate(Eta Phase).It is due to high temperature used in the CVD process. It also
to coat the inner surface of a hole by PVD. This coating is better suited for precision
HSS,HSS-CO. It is the only method for coating brazed tools. Thin PVD coatings are
used for milling applications because they provide greater shock resistance. PVD
coating layers provide a fine grained micro-structure with better wear resistance and
toughness.
• Composition
• Gas Pressure
• Substrate temperature
• Coating time
• Bias
• Cleanliness
General purpose PVD coating that increases hardness and has a high oxidation
temperature. This coating works high, while cutting or forming with HSS tooling.
• Titanium Carbo-Nitride (TiCN)
The addition of carbon adds more hardness and better surface lubricity. This coating
A formed layer of aluminum oxide gives this tool better life in high heat applications.
This coating is primarily selected for carbide tooling where little to no coolant is
being used. AlTiN offers a higher surface hardness than that of TiAlN, along with
world of HSM.
The anti-seizure properties of this coating makes it preferred in situations where BUE
is common. HSS or carbide cutting and forming tools will be seen with this almost
invisible coating.
• Diamond
A CVD process that offers the highest performance available in non-ferrous materials.
Ideal for cutting graphite, MMC (Metal Matrix Composites), high silicon aluminium
and many other abrasive materials (Note: True diamond coatings should not be used
while machining steels. More heat is generated while cutting steels and thus causes
chemical reactions that break down the bonds that hold this coating to the tool).
Coatings for hard milling, tapping and drilling all vary and are application-specific.
Also available are multi-layer coatings that chip to the next layer instead of the
tooling substrate, providing a further increase in tool life.
TiAlN coated end mills. Photos courtesy of OSG Tap & Die.
Oxidation Temperature:
hardened tool steel are used to precision roll finish gears. The process involves
dimensions, and then quenching to martensite. Ausform finishing integrates the heat
treatment and the hard finishing processes into a single in-line automated
there are those shops that are looking for a "universal" insert grade that will
effectively handle a wide variety of applications, even if it means tolerating less than
maximum metal removal rates in certain cases. The advantages are reduced tooling
goal for cutting tool manufacturers, although considerable R&D efforts are still being
On the other side, there are those shops that strive to find the perfect match between
the insert and the application, a match-up that will give them the highest possible
metal removal rates, best surface finish, longest tool life, maximum
As a matter of fact, most shops are caught somewhere in the middle of these two
But if you look at recent developments emerging from cutting tool manufacturers, the
trend is decidedly toward the optimized insert. With today's understanding of the
certain vendors are able to deliver an extremely productive solution for a very specific
set of machining conditions. And they should be able to provide highly reliable
Knowing something about the complex interactions of the critical components that
unite to produce an optimized cutting system will help you understand why this
systematized approach can be so effective. It will also help explain how vendors can
guide you to the best insert with more confidence and certainty than ever before.
See Figure A quick glance at any manufacturer's catalog will clearly demonstrate that
the potential combinations of these elements run into the millions finding a way to
make sense out of such a variety of choices is the major challenge facing both cutting
tool producers and cutting tool consumers in the coming years. Material-based color
codes and selection procedures built on them are a step in the right direction, but only
a first step.
As insert systems become more and more application specific, new selection
paradigms must be created to guide consumer choices. Regardless of the shape these
may take, they must necessarily be grounded in a thorough understanding of the
individual role of each of the seven elements, and of their interactions while in the
cut.
• The Substrate
In a coated insert, the substrate is the "foundation" for the cutting system, but it never
actually comes into contact with the work piece. This fact permits cutting tool
manufacturers to tailor substrate properties over a much broader range than was
Nearly all substrates are made from tungsten carbide (WC), which is still the only
material available with the combination of hardness and toughness required to handle
a broad range of cutting applications. Other materials such as ceramics and cermets
but these are rarely used with coatings. The first substrates were simply traditional,
straight WC grades that were coated to improve their performance. Some of these
in which the cobalt content of a layer near the surface is significantly enhanced while
the formation of cubic carbides is prevented. This provides substantially more edge
strength than a straight grade substrate and is widely applied in inserts intended for
materials. A more recent development is the family of "fine grain" substrates in which
the size of individual WC grains is controlled. These are primarily used in insert
systems designed for machining very tough materials such as aerospace and high
temperature alloys. Finally, substrate performance can be "enhanced" by selectively
adding other types of carbide to the straight WC mixture. The most common "alloys"
(TaC), vanadium carbide (VC) and niobium carbide (NbC), or some mixture of them.
Each of these additional carbide materials produces specific properties that are useful
Substrate requirements vary from one work piece material to another. Take steel as an
example. Because of the continuous chip formation and the heat generated at the
cutting tip, an insert requires a lot more deformation resistance as well as wear and
crater resistance than a substrate required for, say, gray cast iron. That's because the
cast iron does not generate as much heat, and the chips are more naturally broken
anyway.
Some of the cubic carbides, such as the TiC, TaC, NbC and VC, would be
critical additions to a substrate designed for steel, but not as critical for gray cast iron.
For a gummy material like stainless steel, wear or crater resistance isn't as critical as
cobalt and has a finer grain better for stainless steels and high temperature alloys.
Coatings
tool industry today. These are differentiated primarily by the temperature at which
they operate. This is important because the coating temperature directly impacts
The most common coating technology is chemical vapor deposition, or CVD, which
deposition, or PVD, which operates at the other end of the temperature spectrum in
Between these two extremes are two other emerging coating processes that promise to
PCVD, is well accepted in Europe and is being explored in North America. PCVD
operates in the 600°C range. Finally, medium temperature chemical vapor deposition,
range.
The key factor to bear in mind is that the properties of both the coating and the
substrate is changed by the application process. The same coating applied to the
same substrate by different processes may in fact provide very different performance
in the cut.
Different coatings are required for different materials. For example, it is critical to
have a smooth coating—one that is more than simply wear- or crater-resistant—for
hard-to-machine stainless steels and high temperature alloys. A smooth, thick coating
is required when running steel and cast iron, too, because of the heat and wear. The
PVD coating process produces a very smooth surface, while CVD coatings can be
polished to achieve a smoother surface finish. Coating thickness is critical for steel
and cast iron because of the higher speeds at which they run. For high speeds, an
oxide coating in combination with TiCN and proper thickness makes an ideal
combination. On the other hand, coating thickness is not as critical as smoothness for
With today's sophisticated insert shapes, the term "chip breaker" no longer
describes the contribution of this element to the insert systems. "Top form geometry"
is a more precise term for the very complex shape seen on the cutting surface of a
modern insert.
While chip control is still a major function, the top form geometry also serves to
reduce cutting forces. Lower forces mean less heat, deformation and friction which
enhance tool life and often improve work piece size control and finish. Perhaps the
best example of this is the use of "chip breakers" on milling inserts. Generally
speaking, milling chips tend to break themselves, but the other benefits of well-
engineered top form geometry are easily seen in reduced horsepower requirements
and better parts. Many of today's high speed milling applications on relatively low
horsepower machines would not be possible without effective top form geometries on
the inserts.
Matching the chip breaker to the application is very important.
as high temperature alloys and stainless steels. A very fine geometry is necessary to
take
very light cuts and controls the chips in these types of materials.
Many shops think they don't need a chip breaker for certain materials, such as gray
cast iron and nodular cast iron, because the chips break on their own. These shops
typically use flat top geometry for these materials because they have a lot of edge
strength. However, we often recommend using a top form geometry for cast iron and
nodular iron to reduce the cutting forces and minimize edge build-up.
Edge Preparation
In the past, most manufacturers offered only one or two standard edge
preparations, or "hones," for any particular insert size and geometry. Today,
An insert system intended for high speed finishing of steel has very different edge
preparation requirements than one to be used for roughing, even though both may
Ceramic and cermet materials also require edge preparation in the form of a "T-Land"
geometry. Testing shows that very subtle variations in the width and angle of the "T-
As a general rule, a heavier hone is necessary for continuous turning and milling of
most steels and irons. Stainless steels and high temperature alloys, on the other hand,
require a small hone or an up-sharp insert because of the build-up generated.
Similarly, aluminum requires an up-sharp insert, also because of build-up. For cases
involving a severe interrupted cut such as occurs in milling, a heavier hone or a "T-
Land" is necessary.
Selecting a style with the greatest included angle will provide the strongest possible
insert for the application. In general, a large nose radius provides better surface finish.
These geometric factors, in conjunction with the tool holder, determine the effective
lead angle, which impacts cutting force and the resultant heat and wear that shorten
tool life.
performance. The tool holder and the cutting fluid should also
axial rake, which have the same effects found in turning applications.
Choice of cutting fluids is one of the most overlooked factors in the performance of
any metal cutting application. Recent testing has shown that the
choice of cutting fluid can have a substantial influence on both insert life and cutting
instructions regarding tool holder selection and cutting fluids because the systems
Laboratory testing and field experience have clearly demonstrated that the very subtle
interaction of the seven elements of an insert cutting system can have an extremely
Selection of insert
Insert shape: In general, inserts with larger included angles should be preferred to
Negative rake inserts, which are usable on both sides, are more cost-effective than
Cutting Edge Length: The size of an indexable insert is governed by the maximum
Corner Radius: The insert corner radius determines the strength of the cutting point,
the maximum admissible feed and the surface finish of the work piece.
problem by developing various selection systems to guide users to the right insert for
an application. A good selection system brings order and logic to insert use and
makes the growing range of insert choices a powerful resource for manufacturers.
This system breaks work piece materials into three general color categories:
The blue category contains carbon and alloy steels; the yellow category includes
stainless steels, titanium, and high temperature alloys; and gray and ductile irons,
aluminum and non-ferrous materials are listed in the red category. The system then
breaks down each general category into more specific groups of similar materials. For
a new application, the user needs to do the following steps to develop a successful
application.
P - Steel
M - Stainless steel
K - Cast iron
N - Aluminium
S - Super Alloys
H - Hardened Steel
•
Tooling System
of tooling systems that can be shared by multiple machines. Modular tooling provides
system connections can provide precision equivalent to H8/H9 ISO tolerance class.
preloaded into another may produce a damping effect that inhibits vibration because
their segmented design tends to damp or break up harmonic vibrations induced during
machining. Modular tooling system tends to lose accuracy with extended use due dirt
Radial and angular errors caused by the machine spindle itself can be corrected by an
Hydraulic tool holders can be equipped with similar adjustment bolts on the face to
1.Slim-Fit is the most affordable shrink-fit solution available and you can
perform tool changes in only seconds.
4.Slim-Fit holder is easy on your spindle because it is made from 8620 steel. Taper
6.Shrink-fit collet is made of H13 steel for the rigidity of shrink-fit "in the cut".
Slim-Fit Toolholders
Integral tool holders are used in dedicated machines and transfer lines, which
produce components that will not change. Application for integral tool holders
include tools that recur in several tooling setups such as face mill arbors and end mill
When run out is very critical and is used for tooling packages.
Integral tooling is not versatile because it can be used only for specific applications.
tooling structure interface are the manufacturing tolerances, static and dynamic
runout, radial axial positioning accuracy and repeatability, connection rigidity, force
transmission capacity, momentum torque characteristics, clamping forces, balance
A curvic coupling interface (consisting of a set of mirror image flat precision helical
gears permanently attached to the spindle and to tool holder) is mounted directly to
the spindle shaft through a bolt on tool connection and it provides good radial and
natural frequency than a flat joint. The stiffness of the tool holder interface is a
function of the contact pressure applied by tightening of the flange bolts and the axial
force. The axial force and contact pressure acting on contact surfaces can be
F=5.n.t/D,P=F/A
The torque that the HSK coupling can carry is relatively low since it is carried
by a single key and the friction generated between the taper and face contact areas.
The key element of the design is dual surface location of the tool holder when it is
engaged in the receiving member of the spindle. The holder is located radially by
the fit of the tool holder’s 1:10 ratio tapered shank O.D. with the receiver’s matching
taper inside diameter. the holder's flange comes face to face with the spindle nose's
front flange for positive axial location. This positive seating of the flanges sets the
HSK system apart from the CAT/SK/BT products, which locate on the 7:24
and unlocking forces. It has a ball track clamping mechanism with locking balls and
uses large flange contact. High clamping forces are produced with input draw bar
forces and by pushing the draw bar, it releases the ball lock mechanism and thus the
tool-holder.
The Sandvik Coromant Capto system uses 1/20 tapered in-polygon
connection. It provides self centering and self aligning properties and high torque
stiffness due to the harmonic tri-polygon shape.
It provides better bending stiffness than HSK or KM interface. It also
transmits high torque (capto interface) and provides superior performance in turning
applications.
The Komet ABS-C system provides simultaneous fit using a draw bar that
pulls the cylindrical shank inside the spindle for centering purposes and supports it by
a flat-flange. It is based on a 7/24 taper and it require different spindle design.
Curvic coupling interface has slightly lower bending stiffness and provides
higher clamping. Due to high axial forces, friction in flange/face contact is very high.
The monoflex used with standard spindle uses 2 conical slotted ring type springs on
both ends of 7/24 taper shank. These springs are axially preloaded to app 1500 to
2800 N depending on taper size and mounted to a pre-determined position.The RB
design is also used in standard spindles. In this design the taper slides in relation to
cylindrical stem of tool holder to which it is axially connected by stiff Belleville
springs.
The TCL design has been used as an enhancer to increase the draw bar force
and produce face contact with a standard CAT-V tool-holder. It has a wedge
mechanism built into the taper body of tool holder.
The most recent system design, the WSU-1 system developed, uses numerous
contact points that are generated by precision balls defining a tapered surface which is
in connection with a tapered spindle hole.
The run out of this tool holder is less, since there is no clearance between tool
holder and spindle hole. The tool holder (WSU-2) has standard taper 7/24 taper and a
machined groove at back. The co-axial groove contains one or more rows of
precision balls which protrude out of groove. The balls deform during the process of
inserting the tool-holder.
TYPES OF COLLET
Single angle collet and double angle collets are the two types of collet.Single included
angle have a lower included angle which results in higher grip power. Collets are
designed with several thin elastic deformation areas. Double angle collet systems are
used when maximum rigidity and close tolerances are not required.
ER Collets achieve greater grip strength and higher precision than do double
angle collets. To use, first insert the collet into the chuck nut by squeezing the collet
and pressing its face into the chuck nut collar ring until the collet collar is fully
seated. Then load the collet into the chuck, insert a
WORK MATERIAL
ISO GROUP MATERIAL
P C=0.25-0.55% 0.25-0.55%C
STEEL UNALLOYED C=0.55-0.80% STRUCTURED
STEEL STEELS
EN19A,EN24
15CDV6
ASTM A 182
M
STAINLESS STEEL NON-HARDENED
STAINLESS STEEL BARS/FORGED PH-HARDENED
FERRITIC/MARTENSITIC HARDENED
MATERIAL COMPOSITION
INTRODUCTION
E DM EQUIPMENTS
The moment spark occurs , sufficient pressure is developed between work and
tool . The repetitive sparks release their energy in the form of local heat , as result
of which , local temperature of the order of 10,000º C is reached at the spot hit
by electrons . At such a high pressure and temperature some metal is melted
and eroded . Some of it is vaporized away by dielectric medium ( liquid )
circulated around it forming a crater on the work piece . In this, a true replica of
the tool surface is produced on the work piece .
SPARK GENERATOR
Tool-electrode
(-ve)
Voltage
d.c Capacitor Gap filled dielectric
Vc
Voltage
Workpiece-electrode
Source
(+ve)
Value of V ( voltage gradient set up between the tool and the work piece )
depends upon gap between tool and work material and the dielectric media .
Capacitor
Voltage ,V
Breakdown
Voltage Vc
Time
DIELECTRIC FLUID
FUNCTIONS
Liquid hydro carbon products such as paraffin or light transformer oils and
more recently de-ionized water are mainly used as the electric fluids in
EDM . The oils should have a high viscosity and density . These oils have
the proper effects of concentrating the discharge energy but they might
have a difficulty in flushing the discharge products .
OF
PROPERTIES
ood e
g g charg
vin
Ha cal dis y ost
ctri enc
wc
ele effici
Lo
Adequate Viscosity
Minimum odour
DIELECTRIC
int
Po
sh ion
F la idat
d ox y
Hi
gh Goo ilit
stab
TOOL MATERIAL
The tool (electrode ) material is the main part of the EDM process ,
which is connected to the DC power source and is immersed , in the die-
electric fluid . Metals with a high melting point and good electrical
conductivity are usually chosen as tool materials for EDM . They should be
cheap and readily shaped by conventional methods . Copper and Graphite
are two main types tool material used in EDM . Brass is also used as the
electrode material . It was inexpensive and easily available .
Graphite like most metals does not melt but sublimation at around 3350 °c ,
Which is near to the temperature of the spark . This is the reason why graphite
shows less wear than copper , as there is less thermal damage . Graphite also has
superior fabrication capabilities. During the grinding of copper too the wheel shows a lot
of wear. Usually wheels with “ open’’ grain have to be used when flat grinding
copper . One of the most negative aspects of machining graphite was that of black
dust is not exactly toxic , it can came some respiratory problems and allergic
reactions . When powered graphite used for the electrodes is synthetic and very
abrasive . That is the reason why carbide tipped tools with coating are used .
Raw material cost is another consideration . A premium grade of graphite is
on average three time more expensive than copper . Logic would tell us to go in
for the
cheaper material . But seldom is this done as the complexities and the difficulties
faced during fabrication quickly offset this advantage .
ELECTRODE WEAR
Electrode
Corner Wear
Shape
After Cut
End Wear
Original Electrode Shape
1000
µin Ra
Surface roughness,
500
250 [ 6.3 µ m]
100
50
25
0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0
[ 16.4 cm3/hr]
Material removal rate, in3 /hr
The material being cut will effect the MRR . Experiments indicate that the
MRR varies inversely as the melting point of the metal .
The approximate value i.e ,
CAD / CAM are acronyms that stand for separate but closely related
disciplines . Both have a common goal of using the huge memory space , fast
processing capacity of user friendly graphics to automate and tie together the
other wise cumber some and separate production tasks . Thus the cost and the
production time are reduced .
CAD or Computer aided design is a concept, which on composes any use of
computer to enhance or aid in the design process. It is used to define some kind of
geometry for the part. Features like calculation, analysis review and modeling make
them valuable aids to the designers, one of the best assets of CAD is that the models
developed in CAD, can be used as a basis for performing functions in CAM.
CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) is the business end of CAD, Where all
the Physical work is done on the factory floor to produce the parts designed by CAD.
The two
widely applications of CAM are in robotics and CNC. CAM helps users do away with
tedious manual programming.
CAD/CAM used together represents a goal of automation phase of development,
viz, the elimination of the wall between design and manufacturing. The true CAD/CAM
system offers instant a continuous communication between design and manufacturing
system. These communicators are electronic rather than by paper.
Computer integrated manufacturing is aimed at tying these separate areas of
automation together into a smoothly running efficient enterprise. It is an umbrella
technology concerned with the overall sharing of data and flow of information and work
through the Company. The integration of the CIM and EDM process has progressed
much slower than the integration with other conventional manufacturing process. Howe
ever EDM is well suited to CIM because
1. The level of automation currently used on the EDM units.
2. The relatively Low production rate of EDM as Compared to other Conventional
manufacturing process
3. The availability of advanced software in the areas of CAD, CAPP and production.
4. A growing shortage of highly skilled EDM operators. The project is an attempt to
incorporate the EDM process in the CIM environment.
SURFACE FINISH
APPLICATION OF E D M
1. This process is used for shaping alloy steel and tungsten carbide , used for
4. This process very useful for making holes of nozzles, other hole shapes,
5. It is also used for production work for special applications where the oil
ADVANTAGES
1. Any complicated shape that can be made on the tool can be reproduced on the
work piece.
2. The process can be applied to all electrically conducting metals and alloys
irrespective of their melting point , hardness , toughness or brittleness.
3. Highly complicated shapes can be made by fabricating the tool with split
sectioned shapes by welding, tracing or by applying quick setting conductive
expoxy.
4. Time of machining is less than conventional machining process.
5. EDM can be employed for extremely hardened work piece. Hence the distortion
of the work piece arising out of the heat treatment process can be eliminated.
6. No mechanical stress is present in the process. It is due to the fact that the
physical contact between the tool and the work piece is eliminated.
7. Creating type of surface finish automatically creates accommodation for
lubricants causing the die life to improve.
8. Hard and corrosion resistant surfaces , essentially needed for die making can be
developed.
9. Operator strain can be so less if to combine with conventional machining.
DISADVANTAGES
Workpiece
width
of
machined
slot
Wire-electrode
after EDM
Used
wire
Guide spool
Pulley
The purpose of the servo control mechanism is to keep the inter-electrode gap
with in a small range of variations of a desired setting during machining. As noted earlier
gap size control is vital to the WEDM process. A large gaps leads to an open circuit
without discharge, while a small gap leads to arcing or short circuit. Typical values of a
gap range from 0.010 to 0.050 mm. The gap size depends on the voltage, the current
and the dielectric media. To maintain a proper gap size, the tool feed rate should equal
to the material removal rate in the feed direction. This is not easy to implement because
the removal rate is not a constant and it varies with the changes in the gap condition,
such as machining area and flushing condition.
Therefore, a constant tool feed is rate cannot be used. To overcome this
difficulty, a servo controller is used to change the tool feed rate according to the gap
condition.
• Good flushability
• Low melting point.
• Low energy requirement to melt a vaporize.
According to the component of the wire electrode, there are basically two
different types of wire, Single component wires and Multi- component wires.
Single Component Wire.
The conventional wire type used in WEDM is a
single component metal. Such as Copper, Brass,
Molybdenum e.t.c.
Multi – Component Wires
Brass has proven to be a very reliable wire type for WEDM, because its good
Compromise between strength / toughness, conductivity, and flushability. However
single component wires are still limited by a compromise among properties. Multi-
component composite wires have been used to addressed each requirement
independently. Zinc coated wires have considerably better flushability than uncoated
Brass.
Specific properties of the workpiece material also influence the process. These
properties include how well the metal is polished, its magnetic condition and how the
material was removed from the heat treatment process, when it was produced. One must
also consider expansion and contraction according to the temperature of the material. A
low melting point in the material increases the MRR, and improper heat treatment of the
metal results in distortion and breakage of the mould.
CRITERIA FOR USING WEDM
Listed below are ten areas where Wire EDM offers a distinct advantage for CNC
production machine shops. This is not an exclusive list; it is simply intended to give
ideas and insights into the wide range of possibilities offered by Wire EDM.
2.Complex Geometries:-
Wire EDM is especially beneficial when shapes such as Splines, gears and
long thin slots are required. In the majority of these cases you have an excellent
wire EDM candidate
3.Stacking Plates:-
If your part can be wire cut from plate, multiple plates of specified material can be
stacked and welded together to get multiple parts from one wire pass. For example:- A
complex spline shaped geometry is required from 6mm thick Hastelloy. Hastelloy Plates
6mm thick can be stacked upto 250mm high to produce 40 pieces from just one wire
pass.
4.Raching of Parts: -
This application can be used when only a particular portion of your work piece
needs a complex geometry wire cut into or through it.
5.Raw materials:-
The ability to use raw materials in the condition it comes in from the mill saves
time and money. Bar stock, Plates and Round Stock can all be used with very limited
manpower to prepare it for the Wire EDM process. For example:- A 500 Piece order of
Components for an aerospace application has been determined to be an excellent
candidate for the stacked plate method. Preparation for the job Consists of blanchard
grinding plates to finished thickness. The plates are welded together, one wire EDM start
hole is drilled and the job is ready.
6.Hardness:-
The ability of wire cutting hardened or unhardened material is one of the many
benefits of wire EDM technology. Wire cutting can be done to parts with finished
dimensions before or after hear treating. The hardness of the part does not affect our
speed or ability in wire cutting material.
7.Burr Free:-
Wire EDM eliminates secondary deburring operations therefore creating a cost
savings even before it leaves the designer’s hands.
8.EDM Delivery:-
Production Wire EDM delivery is extremely fast since little or no tooling and
fixturing is required in most cases.
9. CNC 5 Axis Wire Cutting Capability:-
10. Flexibility: -
Since Programs are easily adjusted, proto types or single parts are especially
suited for Wire EDM machining. A part is manufactured very easily since no hard
tooling is involved, so changes are equally simple and fast for the same reasons.
In today’s stringent economy, manufactures are forced to look for alternatives to
lower production costs, shorten delivery time and improve quality and with advance
EDM, wire EDM delivery will be extremely fast. At advantage EDM Inc., We see an
increasing number of CNC productions Machine Shops are finding that Wire EDM is a
viable alternative. And due to the large overhead involved in supporting Wire EDM, a
number of these manufactures are turning to Wire EDM job Shops.