HEAT TRANSFER

The transfer of energy as heat occurs in practically every industrial process, e.g., heat of
reaction (Hrxn ), heat exchangers (T), distillation (Hvap), heat of dilution (Hdiln.), etc.
Heat is referred to as the energy, which is transferred by means of a temperature
difference, i.e., from a hot body to a cold body. It makes no sense to speak about the heat
in a system; heat (flow) only occurs when energy is transferred just as work only occurs
as a transfer of energy.
The temperature of a body determines the direction of flow of heat energy. According to
the KMT, temperature is a measure of the average KE of molecules in an object.
The Units of Heat:
The units of heat are calories (cal), Joules (J), and British thermal units (Btu).
The older unit of energy was the calorie (cal).
One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise 1 g of water by 1 C.
However, this varies with the temperature of the water.
1 International calorie (calIT)
= 4.1868 J (at 3.98 C --- at max. density of water)
1 thermochemical calorie (caltc) = 4.1840 J exact (from 14.5 C to 15.5 C)
1 20 calorie
= 4.18190 J
(from 19.5 C to 20.5 C)
1 mean calorie
= 4.19002 J
(average from 0 - 100 C)
1 dietary Calorie is actually a kilocalorie = 1000 cal
1 Btu = amount of heat required to raise 1 lb of water by 1 F
1 Btu = 252 cal
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watts = 2.685 106 J/h
Specific heat (capacity) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a 1 g of
a substance by 1 K. e.g. cH2O = 1 calg-1K-1 or 4.184 Jg-1K-1

1 Btu raises 1 lb water by 1 F.

1 cal raises 1 g water by 1 C

Convert 1 Btu to Joules (ans. = 1054)

THREE MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

HEAT TRANSFER

CONDUCTION:
Heat energy is transferred by molecular collisions of
vibrating molecules, without measurable displacement of
particles of the conducting medium.
Conduction is
analogous to fire fighters transferring water via a bucket
brigade, i.e., people (molecules) vibrate in place while H2O
(heat energy) is passed along. Conduction is the primary
method of heat transfer in solids, where molecules are close
together and collide as they vibrate in place. Among solids,
metals are the best thermal conductors (as well as electrical
conductors) since their electrons are free to move about and
transfer energy.
CONVECTION:

conduction

Convection is the transfer of heat from one point to another within a fluid, or between a
fluid and a solid or another fluid, by movement of molecules of the fluids involved. High
energy molecules are free to move in fluids and do so carrying thermal energy to other
locations. This is analogous to all fire fighters carrying pails of water rather than passing
them along.
Winds and ocean currents are examples of natural convection. The driving force for
natural convection is gravity or buoyancy, i.e., hot fluids are less dense than cold fluids so
hot fluids rise while cold fluids sink. Hot air and smoke rising up a chimney is due to
natural convection. Forced convection is transfer of heat by motion of a fluid that is
driven by mechanical means (pumps, fans, mixers, bubblers, etc.)
RADIATION:

radiation

HEAT TRANSFER

Radiation is the transfer of heat by absorption or emission of radiant energy, e.g., heat
lamps. Radiant energy is electromagnetic radiation and thus (like visible light) travels
through a vacuum and through some transparent materials.
Every object above Absolute zero is constantly emitting radiant energy to its surroundings
and also constantly absorbing it as radiant energy falls upon it. The absorbed rays are
converted into energy, usually internal energy and this is evidenced by a temperature rise.

HEAT TRANSFER

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, in order of increasing energy (decreasing
wavelength), includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.
No clear-cut separation exists between some of the bands so overlap of wavelengths, as
shown below, is reported in various literature sources.
Wavelength (m)
10

-14

10

-12

10

-10

Gamma rays

10

-8

10-6

10-4

Visible light

10-2

Microwaves

10 2

104

AM radio

Ultraviolet
X-rays

1022

1020

Infrared (heat)

1018

1016

1014

1012

TV and FM radio

1010

108

106

104

In many cases, heat transfer occurs by all convection, conduction and radiation
simultaneously.

A Dewar flask is a laboratory thermos. Like a thermos, it is a double

walled vessel. The outer and inner walls have mirrored surfaces and
are separated by an evacuated space. The two layers contact each
other only at the neck of the flask, which is sealed with a well
insulated cork or plastic lid.

Discuss the three methods of heat transfer with respect to a

Dewar flask.
Describe the means of heat transfer in a fireplace and a greenhouse.

HEAT TRANSFER

CONDUCTION THROUGH SINGLE WALLS:

q = amount of heat transferred (Btu)
Q = rate of heat transferred Q = q/t (Btu/hr)
A = area at right angles to heat flow (ft2)
x = thickness or length through which heat travels (ft)

T2

T1

T = temperature difference between 2 surfaces (F)

Q

q k A ( Th Tc )

t
x

k = thermal conductivity of solid (Btuft/ft2hF) or (Btuin/ft2hF) or (Jm/m2sK) or

(calcm/cm2sC)
When a steady state is reached, the rate of heat transfer (q/t) is constant across the entire
solid but the temperature is different at all points within the solid.

T/x is called the thermal gradient (C/cm) or (K/m) or (F/ft), etc.

Problem 1: Calculate (to 2 sig figs) the thermal gradient across a solid where T 1 = 1000,
T2 = 100 F, and the length of the piece is 2.0 ft.Ans: 450 F/ft
Problem 2: A plate glass window measures 8.0 m 4.0 m 1.2 cm thick. When the
outer surface is at -4 C and the inner at 0 C, how much heat is transferred in 1 hour?
(to 3 sig figs)
Ans: 30.4 MJ
or
7.26 Mcal or
28900 Btu
Problem 3: A furnace wall is constructed of firebrick, 15 cm thick. The temperature of
the inside wall is 700 C and the temperature of the outside wall is 80C. If the mean
thermal conductivity is 0.57 W/mK, calculate, to three sig figs, the rate of heat loss
through 1.0 m2 of wall surface. Ans: 2360 W

HEAT TRANSFER

DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER:

cold out

cold out

hot in

hot out

hot in

hot out

counter current

co-current
cold in

T
T2

cold in

T1

T
T2

T1

distance

distance

For heat transfer in double pipe heat exchangers, e.g., laboratory condensers, industrial
shell and tube heat exchangers the basic heat transfer equation is ...
Q = UAT where Q is the rate of heat transfer, e.g., J/s, Btu/h, etc.
A can be the inner surface area (Ai) or the outer surface area (Ao).
The surface area of a cylinder is given by ... A = 2rL = dL
(L = length)
( Do not confuse this with the cross-sectional area of a pipe ... A = d2/4 )
U = the overall heat transfer coefficient. U has units Btuh-1F-1ft-2 or Js-1C-1m-2, etc.
What T should be used? Since the temperature of both fluids is constantly changing
along the length of the pipes. The following equations apply ...
Q = WcCpcTc = WhCphTh = UATm
where W = m/t = mass flow rate (e.g., lb/h or g/s), C p = specific heat (e.g., Jg-1C-1)
and Tm = (Th - Tc)m = log mean temperature difference ...
Tm

T2 T1
T2
T1

ln

HEAT TRANSFER

(Th T c ) 2 (Th Tc )1 where 1 and 2 refer to ends of the heat

exchanger and h and c refer to the hot and
(Th Tc ) 2
cold temperatures respectively.
ln
(Th Tc )1

ln mean T fails if T = 0, since the formula yields either ln 0 or ln , both of which are
undefined. In such cases use a simple arithmetic mean to estimate average T.

HEAT TRANSFER

Problem 4: Aniline is to be cooled from 200f to 150F on the outside of a double pipe
heat exchanger that has a total outside area (of the inner pipe) of 70 ft2. For cooling a
stream of toluene amounting to 8600 lb/h at a temperature of 100F is fed to the inner
pipe. The exchanger consists of schedule 40, 1 inch pipe inside a schedule 40, 2 inch
pipe. The aniline flow rate is 10,000 lb/h
a)

If the flow is countercurrent what are:

i.

the toluene outlet temperature

ii.

the ln mean temperature difference

iii.

the overall heat transfer coefficient

b)

ans.

If the flow is co-current, what are:

i.

the toluene outlet temperature

ii.

the ln mean temperature difference

iii.

the overall heat transfer coefficient

i)

179F = toluene temp. out ii) Tm = 33.4 F

iii) U = 117 Btu/hft2F

i)

T = 161 F ii) Tm = undefined, Tavg = 50 F iii) U = 60.7 Btu/hft2F

Problem 5: Methanol flowing in the inner pipe of a countercurrent flow double pipe heat
exchanger is cooled by water flowing in the jacket. The methanol flows at a rate of 1000
lb/h and has a specific heat of 0.60 Btu/lbF. The water flows at the rate of 2.50 Imp
gal/min and has a specific heat of 1.0 Btu/lbF. The methanol is cooled from 169F to
85F. If the available cooling water has a temperature of 35F, calculate the exit
temperature of the water to 2 sig figs.
ans. = 69F
Problem 6: A double pipe heat exchanger with countercurrent flow is being used to cool
1800 lb/h of benzene from 250F to 115F. Benzene has a density of 52.0 lb/ft3 and a
specific heat of 0.544 Btu/lbF under the conditions of the process. If cooling water
enters the outer jacket of the exchanger at 39F and leaves at 84F, calculate (to 3 sig
figs) the rate of flow of water to the exchanger in Imp gal/min. ans. = 4.90 gal/min.

HEAT TRANSFER

Thermal Conductivity of some common materials

Copper
Aluminum
Iron
Concrete

W/mK
385
209
46
1.08

cal/cmsC
0.921
0.499
0.110
2.59 10-3

Btuin/ft2hF
2670
1460
320
7.5

Glass

1.00

2.40 10-3

6.96

Brick

0.65

1.55 10-3

4.5

Water

0.599

1.43 10

-3

4.15

Pine Wood

0.113

2.69 10

-4

0.78

Corkboard

0.043

1.03 10

-4

0.30

Fiberglass
Air

Substance

HEAT TRANSFER

0.038

9.1 10

-5

0.29

0.025

6.0 10-5

0.17