DNA and RNA Study Guide

I.

II.

Katrina Le B3

The Structure of DNA

A. Nucleotides
1. The small units, or
monomers, that make up DNA
B. DNA Backbone
1. Sugar phosphate backbone
2. Phosphate groups and
deoxyribose
C. Covalent and Hydrogen Bonds
1. Covalent bonds are present in
the backbone
2. Hydrogen bonds hold the
bases together
D. The Double Helix
1. Double helix model: two
strands of DNA wind around each other like a twisted
ladder
DNA Replication
A. Importance
1. Replication: the process by
which DNA is copied during the cell cycle
2. Your cells die and DNA must
be copied first to produce more cells
3. Assures that every cell has a
complete set of identical genetic information
4. DNA is copied once in each
round of the cell cycle
B. Direction
1. 5 to 3
C. Enzymes
1. Gyrase-uncoils
2. Helicase-unwinds helix
3. DNA polymerase- bond new
nucleotides together
4. Ligase- fills in the gaps
5. Topoisomerase- regulates
winding
D. Okazaki fragments
1. Newly synthesized DNA
fragments that are formed on the lagging template
E. Chargaff's Rules
1. A=T, C=G
F. Process

V.

occur during meiosis

B. Gene mutations
1. Point mutation: a mutation in
which one nucleotide is substituted for another
2. Frameshift mutation: involves
the insertion or deletion of a nucleotide in the DNA
sequence, more fatal usually
C. Chromosomal mutations
1. Translocation: a piece of one
chromosome moves to a nonhomologous
chromosome, often reciprocal
2. Gene duplication: two copies
3. Iversion: middle section
inserted wrong way around
4. Deletion: one deleted
D. Impact on Phenotype
1. No longer working
2. Hybrid gene
3. More or less active
4. Proteins function destroyed
5. Keeping a protein from being
produced or produced all the time
6. Many do not affect phenotype
7. Some substitutions have no
effect, especially in the third nucleotide of a codon
8. Little effect if it has about the
same size or polarity as the original amino acid or far
from the active site
9. Offspring may not develop
properly
E. Mutagens
1. Agents in the environment
that can change DNA
2. Speed up replication errors
3. Natural (UV rays)
4. Industrial chemicals
History of Our Understanding of DNA
A. Griffith
1. 1928
2. Used heat killed S form
pneumonia and R pneumonia
3. S material transferred to R
4. Turned R into disease-causing

III.

1. Enzymes begin to unzip

2. One by one, free nucleotides
pair with bases exposed
a) Smooth,
continuous strand is leading
b) Discontinuou
s is lagging
3. Two identical molecules of
DNA, process is semiconservative
Protein Synthesis
A. RNA vs. DNA
1.
RNA

S bacteria
5. Called this the transforming
principle
B. Avery

DNA

R
ib
os
e
su
ga
r

D
eo
x
yr
ib
os
e

U
ra
ci
l
ba
se

S
in
gl
est
ra
n
d

T
h
y
m
in
e
ba
se

D
o
u
bl
es
tr
an
de
d

B. Transcription
1. The process of copying a
sequence of DNA to produce a complementary strand
of RNA
2. Catalyzed by RNA
polymerases: enzymes that bond nucleotides together
3. In nucleus
4. Makes 3 types of RNA:
mRNA, rRNA, tRNA

VI.

1. Performed tests with R and S

bacteria to decide whether its DNA or protein that was
genetic material
2. Protein-breaking proteins- R
still became S
3. Failed when adding DNAbreaking enzymes
4. 1944- presented data
C. Hershey and Chase
1. Conclusive evidence for DNA
as the genetic material in 1952
2. Bacteriophage: takes over a
bacteriums genetic machinery and directs it to make
more viruses
3. Grew phages with isotonic
sulfur or phosphorous
4. Bacteria infected with phages
with radioactive sulfur atoms in protein, non
radioactive
5. With DNA and radioactive
phosphorous, radioactivity present
D. Watson and Crick
1. Developed an accurate model
of DNAs three-dimensional structure
2. Used modeling
3. Pyrimidines (thymine and
cytosine, single ringed) pair with purines (adenine and
guanine, double ringed)
4. Double helix
E. Rosalind Franklin
1. With Maurice Wilkins
2. X-ray crystallography
3. X surrounded by circle
4. A helix consisting of two
strands
Introns and Exons
A. Introns
1. Transcribed but then removed
from mature RNA
2. Noncoding

5. Uses only segment of the

DNA
C. Types of RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): an
intermediate message that is translated to form a
protein
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):
forms part of ribosomes, a cells protein factories
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA): brings
amino acids from the cytoplasm to a ribosome to help
make the growing protein
D. Process of Transcription
1. A large transcription complex
made of RNA polymerase and other proteins
recognizes the start of a gene and begins to unwind the
segment of DNA
2. RNA nucleotides form
complementary base pairs with the DNA template
(G=C, A=U). The growing RNA strands hang freely
as it is transcribed and the DNA helix zips back
together
3. The completed RNA strand
separates from the DNA template, and the
transcription complex falls apart.
E. Translation
1. The process that converts an
mRNA message into a polypeptide
2. Uses codons: three-nucleotide
sequences that code for amino acids
3. Stop codons: signal the end of
the amino acid chain
4. Start codons: signal the start
of translation and the amino acid methionine
5. Always starts with
methionine (AUG)
6. Reading frame: the order
when codons are read, without spaces, as a series of
three non overlapping nucleotides
7. From first- arginine, tyrosine,
and two serines
8. From second- aspartic acid,
threonine, and valine
9. Cells need tRNA to carry
free-floating amino acids from the cytoplasm to

B. Exons
1. Code for mature RNA,
VII.

VIII.

present in product
Operons
A. Operon
1. A unit of linked genes that
regulate genes for protein synthesis
2. Controls transcription
B. Promoter
1. Starts transcription
2. Doorknob
C. Operator
1. Short region of DNA
2. Lies in region of promoter
3. Interacts with regulatory
protein that controls transcription of the operon
4. Keyhole
Replication vs. Transcription vs. Translation
A.
Replicat
ion

N
u
c
l
e
u
s

D
N
A
R
e
p
l
i
c
a

Transcri
ption

G
1
/
G
2

N
u
c
l
e
u
s

m
R
N
A

Translat
ion

G
1
/
G
2

C
y
t
o
p
l
a
s
m

P
r
o
t
e
i
n
/
a
m
i

ribosome

IV.

10. Happens in cytoplasm

11. tRNA has L shape
12. Anticodon: a set of three
nucleotides that is complementary to mRNA codon
F. Process of Translation
1. The exposed codon in the first
site attracts a complementary tRNA bearing an amino
acid. The tRNA anticodon pairs with the mRNA
codon, bringing it very close to the other tRNA
molecule
2. The ribosome forms a peptide
bond between the two amino acids and breaks the
bond between the first tRNA and its amino acid
3. The ribosome pulls the
mRNA strand the length of one codon. The first tRNA
is shifted to the exit site, where it leaves the ribosome
and returns to the cytoplasm to recharge. The first site
is again empty, exposing the next mRNA codon. The
ribosome continues to translate the mRNA strand until
it reaches a stop codon. Then it releases the new
protein and disassembles.
Mutations
A. Mutation
1. A change in an organisms
DNA
2. Mutations in single genes
happen during replication
3. Mutations happening with
entire chromosomes

n
o
a
c
i
d
s