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Chapter 4
Vector Spaces
4.8
REMARK
The solution
y 5 C1y1 1 C2 y2 1 . . . 1 Cn yn
is called the general solution of
the given differential equation.
213
In light of the preceding theorem, you can see the importance of being able to
determine whether a set of solutions is linearly independent. Before describing a way
of testing for linear independence, you are given the following preliminary definition.
REMARK
The Wronskian of a set of
functions is named after the
Polish mathematician Josef
Maria Wronski (17781853).
Ws y1, y2, . . . , yn d 5
y1
y19
.
.
.
y s1n21d
y2
y29
.
.
.
. . .
. . .
y s2n21d . . .
yn
yn9
.
.
.
y snn21d
|
|
| |
12x
21
0
11x
1
0
22x
21 5 0.
0
REMARK
This test does not apply to an
arbitrary set of functions. Each
of the functions y1, y2, . . . ,
and yn must be a solution of
the same linear homogeneous
differential equation of order n.
x2
2x
2
x3
3x 2 5 2x 3.
6x
The proof of this theorem for the case where n 5 2 is left as an exercise. (See Exercise 40.)
214
Chapter 4
Vector Spaces
1
cos x
sin x
W 5 0 2sin x
cos x
0 2cos x 2sin x
5 sin2 x 1 cos2 x 5 1
ex
W 5 ex
ex
So, the set H
e x,
xe x
sx 1 1de x
sx 1 2de x
xe x,
sx 1 1de x
sx 1 2de x 5 0
sx 1 3de x
sx 1 1d J is linearly dependent.
ex
He x, xe x, sx 1 1de xJ
is linearly dependent. Another way to determine the linear dependence of this set is to
observe that the third function is a linear combination of the first two. That is,
sx 1 1de x 5 e x 1 xe x.
Try showing that a different set, He x, xe x, x 2e xJ, forms a linearly independent set of
solutions of the differential equation
y999 2 3y0 1 3y9 2 y 5 0.
4.8
215
(x h) 2
2
(y k) 2
=1
(x h) 2
(h, k)
(y k) 2
=1
(h, k)
2
2
(x h) 2
(y k) 2
=1
(y k) 2
(x h) 2
=1
(h, k)
(h, k)
2
2
2
p>0
Focus
(h, k + p)
p>0
Vertex
(h , k )
Vertex
(h, k)
(x h) 2 = 4p(y k)
Focus
(h + p, k)
( y k ) 2 = 4 p (x h )
216
Chapter 4
Vector Spaces
sx 1 3d2 s y 2 1d2
1
5 1.
4
1
The graph of this equation is an ellipse with its center at sh, kd 5 s23, 1d. The major
axis is horizontal, and its length is 2a 5 4. The length of the minor axis is 2b 5 2.
The vertices of this ellipse occur at s25, 1d and s21, 1d, and the endpoints of the
minor axis occur at s23, 2d and s23, 0d, as shown in Figure 4.20(b).
y
a.
b.
(1, 1)
1
(1, 0)
(3, 2)
x
2
Focus 2
(3, 1)
( 5, 1)
( 1, 1)
( 3, 0)
1
2
1
x
(x + 3)2 (y 1)2
=1
+
1
4
(x 1)2 = 4(1)( y 1)
Figure 4.20
The equations of the conics in Example 5 have no xy-term. Consequently, the axes
of the graphs of these conics are parallel to the coordinate axes. For second-degree
equations that have an xy-term, the axes of the graphs of the corresponding conics are
not parallel to the coordinate axes. In such cases it is helpful to rotate the standard
axes to form a new x9-axis and y9-axis. The required rotation angle u (measured
counterclockwise) is cot 2u 5 sa 2 cdyb. With this rotation, the standard basis for R 2,
B 5 Hs1, 0d, s0, 1dJ
is rotated to form the new basis
B9 5 Hscos u, sin ud, s2sin u, cos udJ
as shown in Figure 4.21.
y'
( sin , cos )
(cos , sin )
(0, 1)
x'
(1, 0)
Figure 4.21
To find the coordinates of a point sx, yd relative to this new basis, you can use a
transition matrix, as demonstrated in Example 6.
4.8
217
target basis
SOLUTION
By Theorem 4.21 you have
fB9 Bg 5
3 sin u
cos u
original basis
2sin u
cos u
1
0
0
.
1
Because B is the standard basis for R2, P 21 is represented by sB9 d21. You can use the
formula given in Section 2.3 (page 66) for the inverse of a 2 3 2 matrix to find sB9 d21.
This results in
fI
cos u
2sin u
1 0
g5
0 1
P21
sin u
.
cos u
By letting sx9, y9d be the coordinates of sx, yd relative to B9, you can use the transition
matrix P 21 as follows.
32sin u
cos u
sin u
cos u
4 3y4 5 3y94
x
x9
The x9- and y9-coordinates are x9 5 x cos u 1 y sin u and y9 5 2x sin u 1 y cos u .
The last two equations in Example 6 give the x9y9-coordinates in terms of the
xy-coordinates. To perform a rotation of axes for a general second-degree equation, it is
helpful to express the xy-coordinates in terms of the x9y9-coordinates. To do this, solve
the last two equations in Example 6 for x and y to obtain
x 5 x9 cos u 2 y9 sin u
and
y 5 x9 sin u 1 y9 cos u.
Substituting these expressions for x and y into the given second-degree equation
produces a second-degree equation in x9 and y9 that has no x9y9-term.
Rotation of Axes
The general second-degree equation ax 2 1 bxy 1 cy 2 1 dx 1 ey 1 f 5 0 can
be written in the form
a9sx9 d2 1 c9s y9 d2 1 d9x9 1 e9y9 1 f 9 5 0
by rotating the coordinate axes counterclockwise through the angle u, where u
a2c
is defined by cot 2u 5
. The coefficients of the new equation are obtained
b
from the substitutions
x 5 x9 cos u 2 y9 sin u
and
y 5 x9 sin u 1 y9 cos u.
The proof of the above result is left to you. (See Exercise 82.)
LINEAR
ALGEBRA
APPLIED
218
Chapter 4
Vector Spaces
Example 7 demonstrates how to identify the graph of a second-degree equation by
rotating the coordinate axes.
a2c 525
5
5 0.
b
26
1
!2
and cos u 5
1
!2
By substituting
(x' + 3)2 (y' 1)2
=1
+
1
4
x 5 x9 cos u 2 y9 sin u 5
y
y'
(
5
2, 0)
sx9 2 y9d
and
x'
y 5 x9 sin u 1 y9 cos u 5
= 45x
1
!2
1
sx9 1 y9d
!2
Finally, by completing the square, you find the standard form of this equation to be
( 3 2, 2 2)
Figure 4.22
32514
and
32114.
1
sx9 2 y9 d
!2
y5
1
sx9 1 y9 d
!2
and