Antenna Fundamentals

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Antenna Fundamentals
1 Introduction
Antennas are device designed to radiate electromagnetic
energy efficiently in a prescribed manner.
It is the current distributions on the antennas that produce
the radiation. Usually these current distributions are
excited by transmission lines or waveguides.
Transmission line
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Antenna
1
Current distributions
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Antenna Parameters
2.1 Poynting Vector and Power Density

Instantaneous Poynting vector:
p E x, y , z , t H x, y , z , t
Re E x, y, z e jt Re H x, y, z e jt (W/m 2 )
Note: Time expressions:
E(x,y,z,t)
H(x,y,z,t)
2
Phasor expressions:
E(x,y,z)
H(x,y,z)
Average Poynting vector:

1
*
Pav Re E x, y, z H x, y, z (W/m )
2
Note that Poynting vector is a real vector. Its magnitude gives
the instantaneous or average power density of the
electromagnetic wave. Its direction gives the direction of the
power flow at that particular point.
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2.2 Power Intensity

U r Pav
2
Note that U is a function

of direction (,) only and
not distance (r).
W/sr
sr = steradian, unit for measuring the solid angle.

Solid angle is the ratio of that part of a spherical
surface area S subtended at the centre of a sphere to the
square of the radius of the sphere.
S
Spherical
S
2 sr
surface
r
The solid angle subtended

o
by a whole spherical
r
surface is therefore:
4r 2
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r
3
4 (sr)
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2.3 Radiated Power
1
*
Re[
] ds
Prad
P
ds
H
s av
2 s
(W)
ds r 2 sin dd n
Pav
Antenna
Note that the integration is over a closed surface with the

antenna inside and the surface is sufficiently far from the
antenna (far field conditions).
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Example 1
Find the total average radiated power of a Hertzian dipole.
Solution
1
1
Pav ReE H Re E H ar
2
2
2
E
1 E E
Re
ar
ar
2
2
2
kId sin 2
2
a
(W/m
)
r
2
2 4
r
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Prad
Pav ds
s
kId
2 4
2 2
Id
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sin 2
2
a
r
0 0 r 2 r sin d d ar
(W)
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Example 2
Find the total average radiated power of a half-wave dipole.
Solution
For a half-wave dipole:
e jkr cos 2 cos
E
, H
E j 60 I m
sin
r
2
E
Pav
ar
2
15 I
r
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2
m
2
cos[( / 2)cos ]
ar (W/m 2 )
sin
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Prad
Pav ds
s
15I
2 2
m
2
0 0
cos[( / 2)cos ]
ar r 2 sin d d ar
sin
2
cos
[( / 2)cos ]
2
30 I m
d
sin
0
(W)
The above remaining integral can be evaluated numerically

to give:
Prad 36.54 I m2
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(W)
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Hence for a /4 monopole over a ground plane with a

maximum current at its base = Im, the radiated power is
half that of a /2 dipole, i.e.,
Prad 18.27 I m2
(W)
Why?? Think about it!
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2.4 Radiation Pattern

A radiation pattern (or field pattern) is a graph that
describes the relative far field value, E or H, with
direction at a fixed distance from the antenna. A field
pattern includes an magnitude pattern |E| or |H| and a
phase pattern E or H.
A power pattern is a graph that describes the relative

(average) radiated power density |Pav| of the far-field
with direction at a fixed distance from the antenna.
By the reciprocity theorem, the radiation patterns of an
antenna in the transmitting mode is same as the those
for the antenna in the receiving mode.
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A radiation pattern shows only the relative values but

not the absolute values of the field or power quantity.
Hence the values are usually normalized (i.e., divided)
by the maximum value.
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For example, the radiation pattern of the Hertzian dipole

can be plotted using the following steps.
(1) Far field:
kId e
E j
sin ,
4 r
jkr
0 2
r fixed
(2) Far field magnitude:
kId
E
sin ,
4 r
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0 2
r fixed
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(3) Normalization:
kId
sin
E n 4 r
sin ,
kId
4 r
(4) Plot plane pattern (fix
example = 0)
0 2
r fixed
at a chosen value, for
|E|n with at = 0 & 180
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(5) Plot plane pattern (fix at a chosen value, for

example = 90)
|E|n with at = 90
See animation Field Behaviour

and Radiation Pattern
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2.5 Polarization
The polarization of an antenna in a given direction is
defined as the polarization of the plane wave transmitted
by the antenna in that direction. The polarization of a
plane wave is the figure the tip of the instantaneous
electric-field vector E traces out with time at a fixed
observation point. There are three types of typical
antenna polarizations: the linear, circular, and elliptical
polarizations, corresponding to the same three types of
typical plane wave polarizations.
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Ey
Ey
Ey
Ex
Eectric-field vector
Linearly polarized
Ex
Ex
Circularly polarized
Elliptically polarized
See animation Polarization of a Plane Wave - 2D View

See animation Polarization of a Plane Wave - 3D View
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2.5.1 Polarization of Plane Waves

(a) Linear polarization
A plane wave is linearly polarized at a fixed
observation point if the tip of the electric-field
vector at that point moves along the same
straight line at every instant of time.
(b) Circular Polarization
A plane wave is circularly polarized at a a fixed

vector at that point traces out a circle as a
function of time.
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Circular polarization can be either right-handed

or left-handed corresponding to the electric-field
vector rotating clockwise (right-handed) or anticlockwise (left-handed).
(c) Elliptical Polarization
A plane wave is elliptically polarized at a a fixed
vector at that point traces out an ellipse as a
function of time. Elliptically polarization can be
either right-handed or left-handed corresponding
to the electric-field vector rotating clockwise
(right-handed) or anti-clockwise (left-handed).
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For example, consider a plane wave:

Ex Ex 0e
E x E x y E y
x E x 0 e
jkz
y jE y 0 e
jkz
Ex0 and Ey0 are

both real numbers
jkz
E y jE y 0 e jkz
Note that the phase difference between Ex and Ey is 90.

The instantaneous expression for E is:
E z , t Re x E x 0 e jt jkz y jE y 0 e jt jkz
x E x 0 cost kz y E y 0 sin t kz
Let:
X Ex =Ex 0 cos t kz , Y E y E y 0 sin t kz

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Case 1: Exo 0 or E yo 0, then

X 0 or Y 0
Both are straight lines. Hence the wave is linearly
polarized.
Case 2: Exo E yo C , then
X 2 Y 2 C 2 cos 2 t kz sin 2 t kz C 2
X and Y describe a circle. Hence the wave is
circularly polarized.
Case 3: Exo E yo , then
2
2
X
Y
2
2
t
kz
cos
sin
t kz 1
2
2
Ex 0 E y 0
X and Y describe an ellipse. Hence the wave is
elliptically polarized.
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Example 3
A cross dipole is constructed by a vertical Hertzian dipole
along the z axis and a horizontal Hertzian dipole along the x
axis. If the horizontal Hertzian dipole is excited with a phase
difference of 90 with respect to the vertical Hertzian dipole,
what is the polarization of the total far-zone field in the
direction of =90, = 90?
z
Hertzian
dipoles
x
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Solutions
Vertical
Hertzian
dipole
y
x

jk0 r
0 k0 Id e
Ae jk0r sin
Far field E1 j
sin
4 r
0 k0 Id
where A j
4 r
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z
Horizontal
Hertzian
dipole
jk
r
0 k0 Id e 0

jk0 r
Far field E 2 j
cos
cos
cos
cos
Ae
jk0 r

sin
Ae
jk0 r
0 k0 Id e
sin
j
4 r
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If the horizontal dipole is excited with a phase difference of

90, then:
0
0
jk0 r
jk0 r
j 2
cos cos e
cos cos
E2 Ae
jAe
jk0 r
jk0 r
sin
sin
Ae
jAe
The far-field E of the cross dipole antenna is then:
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0
0
E E1 E 2 Ae jk0r sin jAe jk0r cos cos
0
jAe jk0r sin
Ae jk0r sin j cos cos
j sin
At the direction of =90, = 90, the far-field is:
0
E Ae jk0r 1 Ae jk0r a ja

j
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In time domain,
E Re Ee jt
Re Ae jt jkr a ja
A cos t kr a A cos t kr 2 a
E a E a
where,
E A cos t kr
E A cos t kr 2
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As,
E E A cos t kr A cos t kr 2
2
A cos t kr A sin t kr
2
A2 constant
The far-field of a cross-dipole with a phase difference of

90 in the excitations of the two dipole is circularly
polarized.
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2.5.2 Axial Ratio
The polarization state of an EM wave can also be

indicated by another two parameters: Axial Ratio
(AR) and the tilt angle (). AR is a common measure
for antenna polarization. It definition is:
OA
AR
,
OB
1 AR , or 0 dB AR dB
where OA and OB are the major and minor axes of

the polarization ellipse, respectively. The tilt angle
is the angle subtended by the major axis of the
polarization ellipse and the horizontal axis.
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= tilt angle
0 180
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For example:
AR = 1,
circular polarization
1 < AR < , elliptical polarization
AR = ,
linear polarization
AR can be measured experimentally!
Very often, we use the AR bandwidth and the AR
beamwidth to characterize the polarization of an antenna.
The AR bandwidth is the frequency bandwidth in which
the AR of an antenna changes less than 3 dB from its
minimum value. The AR beamwidth is the angle span
over which the AR of an antenna changes less than 3 dB
from its mimumum value.
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3 dB AR beamwidth
Radiation pattern
with a rotating
linear source
AR at in dB scale
Test antenna
(receiving)
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Fast-rotating dipole
antenna (transmitting)
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Axial ratio (dB)
3dB
AR bandwidth
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Frequency
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2.6 Input Impedance

The input impedance ZA of a transmitting antenna is the
ratio of the voltage to current at the terminals of the
antenna.
Z R jX
A
RA = input resistance
XA = input reactance
RA Rr RL
Rr = radiation resistance
RL = loss resistance
If we know the input impedance of a transmitting
antenna, the antenna can be viewed as an equivalent
circuit.
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Excitation source
Vg
Zg
Ig
Ig
a
b
Equivalent
circuit
Vg
Rr
Rg
RL
Xg
XA
Transmitting antenna
where
Z g Rg jX g
Ig = antenna
terminal
current
Zg = internal impedance of the excitation source

Rg = internal resistance of the excitation source
Xg = internal reactance of the excitation source
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The knowledge of ZA is required when connecting an

antenna to its driving circuit.
*
If Z A Z g , antenna is matched.
If Z A Z g ,
antenna is not matched and a

matching circuit is required.
The radiation resistance Rr can be calculated from the

power radiated Prad as:
1 2
Prad I g Rr
2
Power loss as heat in the antenna:
1 2
Ploss I g RL
2
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Power loss in the internal resistance of the excitation source:

1 2
Pinternal I g Rg
2
Maximum power transfer from the excitation source to the
antenna occurs if the antenna is matched. That is,
Z A Z g*
Rr RL Rg , X A X g
If the antenna is connected to the driving circuit via a
transmission line with a characteristic impedance Z0, then the
antenna should be matched to the characteristic impedance
of transmission line. That is,
Z A Z 0 , Rr RL Z 0 , X A 0
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The impedance looking into the terminals of a receiving

antenna is called internal impedance Zin. In general, Zin
ZA. However, when the antenna size is small compared to
the wavelength, Zin ZA. For dipole antennas, Zin ZA when
dipole length . The internal impedance is used to model
the equivalent circuit of a receiving antenna as the input
impedance is used to model the equivalent circuit of a
transmitting antenna (see later).
Students who want to know more on this topic can read the
following article:
C. C. Su, On the equivalent generator voltage and generator internal
impedance for receiving antennas, IEEE Transactions on Antennas
and Propagation, vol. 51(2), pp. 279-285, 2003.
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Example 4
Calculate the radiation resistance of a Hertzian dipole.
Solution
From example 1, the radiated power Prad of a Hertzian dipole
is:
2
Id
Prad
3
Therefore,
1 2
Id
Prad I Rr
2
3
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Rr 80

2
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Example 5
Calculate the radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole.
Solution
From example 2, the radiated power Prad of a half-wave
dipole is:
Prad 36.54 I m2
Therefore,
1 2
Prad I m Rr 36.54 I m2
2
Rr 73.1
This result is based on the assumption of an infinitely thin

dipole (wire diameter 0). For a finite thickness dipole,
the radiation resistance is generally greater than this value.
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Note that the input reactance XA of an antenna cannot be

found from the radiated power. It can be calculated by other
methods such as Moment Method or the Induced EMF
method. For an infinitely think half-wave dipole,
XA = 42.5
For an infinitely thin quarter-wave monopole over a large
ground plane,
XA = 21.3
Students who want to know more on this can read the
following book:
John D. Kraus, Antennas, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988,
Chapters 9 & 10.
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2.7 Reflection Coefficient
The reflection coefficient of a transmitting antenna is

defined by:
Z A Z0
Z A Z0
(dimensionless)
can be calculated (as above) or measured. The

magnitude of is from 0 to 1. When the transmitting
antenna is not macth, i.e., ZA Z0, there is a loss due to
reflection (return loss) of the wave at the antenna
terminals. When expressed in dB, is always a
negative number. Sometimes we use S11 to represent .
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2.8 Return Loss
The return loss of a transmitting antenna is defined by:

return loss 20log
(dB)
Possible values of return loss are from 0 dB to dB.

Return loss is always a positive number.
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2.9 VSWR
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) of a
transmitting antenna is defined by:
1
VSWR
1
(dimensionless)
Same as and the return loss, VSWR is also a common

parameter used to characterize the matching property of
a transmitting antenna. Possible values of VSWR are
from 1 to . VSWR=1 perfectly matched. VSWR =
completely unmatched.
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2.10 Impedance Bandwidth
or S11 (dB)
-10dB
fL
fC
fU
Impedance bandwidth
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Frequency
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fU f L
Impedance bandwith
100%
fC
Note that when = -10 dB,

1 1 0.3162
VSWR
=
1 1 0.3162
=1.93
2
Hence the impedance bandwidth can also be specified

by the frequency range within which VSWR 2.
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2.11 Directivity
The directivity D of an antenna is the ratio of the
radiation intensity U in a given direction (, ) to the
radiation intensity averaged over all directions U0.
U , U , 4 U ,
D ,
U0
Prad / 4
Prad
Maximum directivity D0 is the directivity in the

maximum radiation direction (0, 0).
U max 4 U max
D0
U0
Prad
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2.12 Gain
The gain or power gain of an antenna in a certain
direction (, ) is defined as:
4 U ,
radiation intensity
G ,
total input power / 4

Pin
where Pin is the input power to the antenna and is

related to the radiated power Prad as:
Pin Prad
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Here is the efficiency of the antenna. It accounts for

the various losses in the antenna, such as the reflection
loss, dielectric loss, conduction loss, and polarization
mismatch loss.
Taking the efficiency into account, the gain and the
directivity are related by:
G , D ,
Similar to the maximum directivity, a maximum gain
G0 can be defined and which is related to the
maximum directivity D0 by:
4 U max
G0
D0
Pin
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Example 6
Find the maximum gain and directivity of a Hertzian dipole.

Assume that the antenna is lossless with an efficiency equal
to 1.
Solution
kId sin 2
Pav
ar
2
2 4
r
Id
Prad
3
kId
2
U r Pav
sin
2 4
2
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kId
4
sin 2
4 U ,
3 2
2
4
D ,
sin
2
Prad
2
Id
3
1
3 2
G , D , sin
2
G0 90 D0 90
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Example 7
Find the maximum gain and directivity of a half-wave dipole.

Assume that the antenna is lossless with an efficiency equal
to 1.
Solution
15 I m2 cos[( / 2)cos ]
Pav
ar
2
r
sin
Prad 36.54 I m2
U r Pav
2
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15 I
2
m
52
(W)
cos[( / 2)cos ]
sin
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4 U ,
D ,
Prad
15 I
2
m
cos[( / 2)cos ]
sin
36.54 I m2
cos[( / 2)cos ]
1.64
sin
cos[( / 2)cos ]
G , D , 1.64
sin
G0 90 D0 90 1.64
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2.13 Effective Area
The effective aperture (area) of a receiving antenna

looking from a certain direction (,) is the ratio of the
average power PL delivered to a matched load to the
magnitude of the average power density Pavi of the
incident electromagnetic wave at the position of the
antenna multiplied by the normalized power pattern
|Pav(,)| of that antenna.
PL
Ae ,
Pavi Pav ,
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The effective area is related to the directivity as (see

Supplementary Notes):
2
Ae ,
D ,
4
A maximum effective area Aem can be defined when the
antenna is receiving in its maximum-directivity
direction. That is,
2
Aem
D0
4
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2.14 Open Circuit Voltage

A receiving antenna can be modelled as an equivalent
circuit as follows:
IL
Incident wave
IL
ZL
a
b
Equivalent
circuit
a
Voc
RL
Rin
XL
Xin
b
Receiving antenna
a is positive with
respect to b
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ZL = RL + jXL = load impedance

Zin = Rin + jXin = internal impedance
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The open-circuit voltage Voc is defined as the voltage

which appears at the terminals of a receiving antenna
when the antenna is excited by an incident wave and the
terminals are left open.
In order to produce a
where
1
Voc I Ei d
Im
positive Voc, I and Ei must

be in opposite senses.
I current distribution on the atnenna
when the antenna is excited at the terminal

I m current at the terminal
Ei incident electricfield
length of the wire antenna
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Proof of the Open-Circuit Voltage Expression

Reciprocity Theorem
Im
I1
V1
dV2
dI2
Case 2
Case 1
I1 dI 2
V1 dV2
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Putting
V1 I m Z A , dV2 Ei d
we have,
I1 Ei d
I1
dI 2 dV2
V1
ImZ A
1
I2
I1 Ei d
ImZ A
In vector form,
1
I2
I1 Ei d
ImZ A
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Putting I1 equal to I and note that I2 is the short-circuit

current at the terminal of the antenna. By Thevenins
theorem, the open-circuit voltage Voc at the antenna
terminal can then be express as:
1
Voc I 2 Z A I Ei d
Im
(For a more detailed explanation on the reciprocity

theorem, see Chapter 11, ref. [4].)
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Example 8
A plane wave of frequency 1 GHz, having a peak value of
the electric field intensity of E0 = 5V/m, is incident
normally (electric field lines parallel to the dipole, i.e.,
Ei = z E0) on a half-wave thin dipole antenna. Determine the
open-circuit voltage Voc induced on this antenna.
IL
a
Voc
ZL
ZA
IL I
a
ZL
b
Ei
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Solutions
(1) Current distribution of a half-wave dipole antenna:
I z I (z' ) (A), where
I m sin k h z' for z' 0

I (z' ) I m sin k h z'
I m sin k h z' for z' 0
k
, h
(2) Incident field:
Ei z
E0 z5 106
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V/m
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(3) Open-circuit voltage:
1
1
5 10
Voc I Ei d I Ei d
Im
Im
Im
/4
I z 'dz '
/4
5 10 I m 5 10
Im
C 3 108
where
0.3 m
9
f
10
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References:
1. David K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetic, AddisonWesley Pub. Co., New York, 1989.
2. John D. Kraus, Antennas, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
3. C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2005.
4. E. C. Jordan, Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems,
Prentice-Hall, ley, New York, 1998.
5. Fawwaz T. Ulaby, Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice-Hall Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1968.
6. Joseph A. Edminister, Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems
of Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1993.
7. Yung-kuo Lim (Editor), Problems and solutions on
electromagnetism, World Scientific, Singapore, 1993.
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2.1 Poynting Vector and Power Density

Average Poynting vector:

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2.2 Power Intensity

Note that U is a function

sr = steradian, unit for measuring the solid angle.

The solid angle subtended

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2.3 Radiated Power

Note that the integration is over a closed surface with the

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The above remaining integral can be evaluated numerically

Hence for a /4 monopole over a ground plane with a

Why?? Think about it!

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2.4 Radiation Pattern

A power pattern is a graph that describes the relative

A radiation pattern shows only the relative values but

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For example, the radiation pattern of the Hertzian dipole

(2) Far field magnitude:

at a chosen value, for

|E|n with at = 0 & 180

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(5) Plot plane pattern (fix at a chosen value, for

See animation Field Behaviour

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See animation Polarization of a Plane Wave - 2D View

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2.5.1 Polarization of Plane Waves

A plane wave is circularly polarized at a a fixed

Circular polarization can be either right-handed

For example, consider a plane wave:

Ex0 and Ey0 are

Note that the phase difference between Ex and Ey is 90.

X Ex =Ex 0 cos t kz , Y E y E y 0 sin t kz

Case 1: Exo 0 or E yo 0, then

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If the horizontal dipole is excited with a phase difference of

The far-field E of the cross dipole antenna is then:

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E E1 E 2 Ae jk0r sin jAe jk0r cos cos

Ae jk0r sin j cos cos

At the direction of =90, = 90, the far-field is:

The far-field of a cross-dipole with a phase difference of

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2.5.2 Axial Ratio

The polarization state of an EM wave can also be

where OA and OB are the major and minor axes of

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Axial ratio (dB)

2.6 Input Impedance

Zg = internal impedance of the excitation source

The knowledge of ZA is required when connecting an

antenna is not matched and a

The radiation resistance Rr can be calculated from the

Power loss in the internal resistance of the excitation source:

The impedance looking into the terminals of a receiving

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This result is based on the assumption of an infinitely thin