Section 5.

4 507 Geometric Topology

Section 5.4
5.4 Geometric Topology: Homeomorphisms:

Purpose of Section: To introduce some basic ideas of topology, including

homeomorphisms, topological equivalence, fixed point theorems, and Euler’s
formula.

Introduction

To a beginning student, trying to understand what is topology reminds

one of the ancient Jainism fable in which a wise monk asks six blind men
determine what an elephant looks like by feeling different parts of the great
beast’s body. The first man feels a leg and says the elephant is like a pillar,
the second man feels the tail says the elephant is like a rope, the third man
feels the trunk says the elephant is a rope, the fourth man feels an ear and
says it is like a hand fan, the fifth man feels the belly and says the elephant is
a wall, and the last man feels a tusk and says the elephant is like a pipe. The
wise monk then tells the blind men they are all correct. The story is intended
to illustrate a moral principle that regardless of one’s life experiences and
belief system, truth can be stated in different ways, and that people can live in
harmony.

Topology is the elephant of mathematics. Ask six mathematicians the

meaning of topology and you are apt to get six different answers. One might
say topology is the study of geometric figures that are unchanged by
stretching and bending, another answer might be it is the general study of
continuity, another might say it is the study of combinatorial properties graphs
and networks, another answer might be it is rubber sheet geometry, another
might it is the study of knots and braids, another might say it is study of
neighborhoods of open sets like we studied in Section 5.3, and if you read a
newspaper it is apt to say it’s the subject where you can’t tell the difference
between a donut and a coffee cup, or that you can’t comb hair on a tennis ball
without having a cowlick. And just like the elephant, all these descriptions of
topology are correct and speak to the point that there are several areas of
topology such as point-set topology, algebraic topology, geometric topology,
combinatorial topology, differential topology, knot theory, and so on.

Homeomorphism

Fundamental to the study of geometric topology is the concept of a

certain kind of equivalence relation called a homeomorphism. It is helpful to
think of a homemorphism in the kinship of two other geometric equivalence
Section 5.4 508 Hint of Topology

relations, the congruence and similarity relations from plane geometry. The
reader will recall that two geometric figures are congruent if they are the
same size and shape, and similar if they have the same shape but not the same
size. Homeomorphic figures carry this relation one step further. Roughly
speaking, two figures are homeomorphic if it is possible to deform one object
into the other by a continuous stretching, twisting, pulling, and bending. Thus,
a circle and square are homeomorphic, but not congruent or similar. Although
the figures in question can be subsets of the real line, we generally consider
figures in two- or three dimensions to gain a more pictorial perspective.

This discussion leads us to a more formal definition of a homeomorphism and

homeomorphic sets.
Section 5.4 509 Hint of Topology

Definition1 Let A, B be subsets of
n , n = 1, 2,... A homeomorphism f : A → B

Definition
is a one-to-one correspondence (bijection) between A and B (think geometric
figures) such that both f : A → B and its inverse f −1 : B → A are continuous
(i.e. f is bi-
bi-continuous).
continuous If there exists a homeomorphism from A to B , then
A and B are called homeomorphic (or topologically equivalent)
equivalent and we write
this as A ≈ B . Realize too that if f is a homeomorphism, so is its inverse f −1
.

Never give a topologist a cup of coffee, they might start chewing on it thinking it’s a
doughnut.

The fact that both f and its inverse f −1 are continuous, this translates
into the fact that any one of the two figures can be deformed into the other by
stretching and bending, without tearing.2 It is the tearing that violates
continuity, since nearby points are mapped into points that are not close
together. A few topologically equivalent and non-topologically equivalent
figures are as follows:

1. The open interval ( −1,1) and the real line are topologically equivalent. .
2. A circle, square, triangle, hexagon, are all topologically equivalent..
3. A circle is not homeomorphic to a figure 8.
4. A cube is homeomorphic to a sphere.
5. A torus (donut) is homeomorphic to a coffee cut.

Figure 1 shows a few homeomorphic and non-homeomorphic figures in three

dimensions.

1 n
Although this definition only considers subsets of Euclidean spaces
endowed with the usual
topology of open sets, the general definition of a homeomorphism allows more general sets and
topologies. For a more general definition, one can consult any text in topology.
2
One allows cutting of one surface if it is sewn back together.
Section 5.4 510 Hint of Topology

Topologically Equivalent Figures

Figure 1

Note: Continuous functions are to topology what linear transformations are to

vector spaces; maps that preserve the fundamental structure under
investigation. .

Example 1 (Homeomorphic
(Homeomorphic Images)
Images)

Show that the triangles A and B drawn in Figure 2 (which are not congruent
or similar) are homeomorphic.

Homeomorphic Images
Figure 2

Solution: Although the average person would argue that either triangle can
be deformed into the other by pulling and stretching, we do a little
mathematical pulling and stretching with a homeomorphism f : A → B defined
by
Section 5.4 511 Hint of Topology

 y
f ( x, y ) =  2 x, 
 2

with inverse f −1 : B → A , is given by

x 
f −1 ( x, y ) =  , 2 y 
2 

Since f is a bijection and both f and f −1 are continuous, f is a

homeomorphism. Hence, from the viewpoint of a topologist, we do not
“distinguish” between the two sets. However, the length of the sides and the
angles between lines are changed so they would not be considered as
topological properties.

Note: Figures that are topologically equivalent are of great interest, not only in
mathematics, but in physics and all natural sciences inasmuch they are the
deepest and most basic of all geometric properties, remaining the same under
the most drastic distortions in shape.

Example 2 ( ( 0,1) ≈
)

Show that the open interval ( −1,1) is homeomorphic to the real line
.

Solution

Intuitively, it seems like we could stretch the interval ( −1,1) out to the
entire real line
so there is reason to think they are homeomorphic. This is
in contrast to deforming ( −1,1) to two disjoint intervals ( 3, 5 ) ∪ ( 7, 9 ) , since that
would involve tearing, which is unacceptable3 in topology. In this problem, we
perform the desired stretching with the function

πx
f ( x ) = tan  , −1 < x < 1
 2 

which is a continuous bijection from ( −1,1) and
with continuous inverse

3
Does this give you a hint that if one set is “connected” then all homeomorphic images of the set
are also connected ? This is true.
Section 5.4 512 Hint of Topology

2
f −1 ( x ) = tan −1 ( x ) , − ∞ < x < ∞
π

which maps
back to ( −1,1) . This mapping is homeomorphism and so ( −1,1)

is homeomorphic to the real line, which we write as ( 0,1) ≈
. See Figure 3.

Homeomorphism from ( −1,1) to

Figure 3

Note too that the homeomorphism in Example in 2 can be extended as the

mapping F :
2 →
2 defined by

 πx  π y 
F ( x, y ) =  tan   ,tan  
  2   2 

which is a homeomorphism from the open square

S = {( x, y ) : −1 < x < 1, −1 < y < 1}

Section 5.4 513 Hint of Topology

to the plane
2 . Note: Intuitively, one can determine if two sets are
homeomorphic by visualizing how one set can be deformed to the other, and
analytically by displaying a homeomorphism f from one set to the other.

The Relation of “being Homeomorphic” is an Equivalence Relation.

In Section 3.3 we learned that an equivalence relation allow us to

partition a set into disjoint classes where members of a given class share
common properties. We now show that the relation of two sets4 “being
homeomorphic” is an equivalence relation, which enables us to categorize sets
into equivalent topological categories.

Theorem 1 Being homeomorpic is an equilvalence relation.

Proof: We must show the relation is reflexive, symmetric, and

transitive.

Reflexive: A set is homeomorphic with itself since the identity map

from any set to itself is a homeomorphism.

Symmetric: If A is homeomorphic to B , then there exists a

continuous, bijection f from A to B which has a continuous inverse.
But this implies the inverse f −1 is a homeomorphism from B to A ,
and hence B is homeomorphic to A . Thus, the relation of two sets
being homeomorphic is symmetric.

Transitive: If A is homeomorphic to B , then there exists a

homeomorphism f : A → B with continuous inverse f −1 . If
B is homeomorphic to C , then there exists a homeomorphism
g : B → C with continuous inverse g −1 . These two facts imply the
composition ( g  f )( x ) = g  f ( x ) is a continuous bijection from A

to C and that (f −1
)
 g −1 : C → A is a continuous bijection from C to
A . Hence A is homeomorpohic to C and so the relation of two
sets being homeomorphic is transitive.

4
In a more advanced treatment of topological equivalence, we would say the relation of
“being homeomorphic” is an equivalence relation on the class of all topological spaces.
Section 5.4 514 Hint of Topology

The fact the relation of homeomorphic is an equivalence relation, enables sets

to be partitioned into categories of equivalent sets. Sets within a given class
are called topologically equivalent,
equivalent and possess properties that remain
invariant under elastic motions of the figures. These topological properties
are the most basic of all geometric properties, and one might think that no
geometric property can be preserved under stretching and bending, but this is
not the case. As an example of a topological property, a circle divides the
plane into three disjoint sets, the points inside the circle, the circle itself, and
points outside the circle. This property is a topological property since no
amount of continuous deformation of the circle will violate this basic
topological fact. Figure 5 shows a circle drawn on a rubber sheet with a point
A outside the curve and a point B inside. If we deform the rubber sheet in
any way we please, the circle and the points A and B move about on the rubber
sheet, but A will always be on the outside the circle and B inside5.

Partitioning the Plane into Three Sets is a Topological Property of a Circle

Figure 5

Note: Of the three main areas of topology, point-set (general) topology,

geometric topology, and algebraic topology, geometric topology is the most
intuitive appealing to most people.

5
The property that “a point is outside a circle” is a topological property, but the property that “ A
is closer to the curve than B ” is not a topological property.
Section 5.4 515 Hint of Topology

Common Topological Properties

What are the topological properties of a disk? In other words, properties

possessed by a disk that are invariant under a continuous stretching and
deformation of the disk. For one thing, a disk is in one piece and will remain
so under any sort of stretching. Hence, the property of being in one one piece
is a topological property. If another figure is made up of two disjoint pieces,
then that figure would not be homeomorphic to a disk. Another topological
property of a disk is that it has just one boundary curve, which is in contrast
to an annulus (ring shape) which has two boundary curves. Can the reader
think of any more topological properties of a disc? This is the job of a
topologist; to find subtle properties unchanged under continuous deformations.

Topological properties represent the deep geometric properties, deeper

that simple congruence and similar relations of plane geometry. Recently,
biochemists have synthesized molecules whose characteristics come from
their topology, thus making the study of topology crucial in the synthesis of
new types of molecules which have desirable properties

Table 1 lists but a few topological properties for solid figures and
surfaces. The reader may not be familiar with many of them, but should
appreciate the fact topologists have categorized dozens of such properties.

Topological Properties of Sets in the Plane

path-wise connected
the number of path-wise components
the number of cut points of similar types
cardinality of a set
closed and bounded
connectness
Euler characteristic
number of sides of a surface
a curve being simply connected
number of boundaries

A Few Topological Properties

Table 1

A few non-topological properties of figures in the plane or solids in three

dimensions would be area, volume, perimeter, shape, etc. All of these
Section 5.4 516 Hint of Topology

properties are not invariant under continuous changes in the object. The
reader can think of many more.

Note: The fundamental insight of topology is that many problems ov a

geometry nature do not depend on the exact shape of the objects involved, but
rather on how the objects are put together. For instance, from a topological
point of view, a circle and square have many properties that are the same;
they are both one-dimensional and both separate the plane into two disjoint
parts, the part inside and the part outside. Euler’s original Konigsberg bridge
problem is pure topology; the result does not depend on distances, angles or
other irrelevant geometric facts, only how the bridges are connected.

geometry, such as angle, length, and so on, only on topological geometry.

Topology as Generalized Geometry

If a topologist is unable to tell the difference between a doughnut and

coffee cup, what can a topologist tell us about the world? A geometer can
distinguish between a triangle and a square, but a topologist can not. It isn’t
that a topologist can’t tell the difference, it’s simply that the topologist is
asking the perceptive question, are there properties, real world or
mathematical, where a more insightful understanding can be gained by
relaxing the criteria of what it means to be different? For instance, maybe
the exact geometry or shape of a DNA molecule is irrelevant, contrary to
current understanding, and that certain unknown patterns can be uncovered
using topological principles. Maybe homeomorphic molecules mean something
and non-homeomorphic molecules mean something vastly different, so it may
be important to classify molecules topologically according to their equivalence
class. Topology is unconcerned with the standard issues of Euclidean
geometry, such as length, area, volume, angle. Topology relaxes the rules of
geometry and seeks a broader understanding of the world.

Bolzano’s Intermediate Value Theorem

Many important results in mathematics are “topological” in nature. The

Intermediate Value Theorem from calculus is one such example.

Theorem 1 (Intermediate Value Theorem) Let  a, b  be a closed interval on

the real line and lef f :  a, b  →
be a real-valued continuous function. For
Section 5.4 517 Hint of Topology

any real number z between f ( a ) and f ( b ) inclusive, there exists at least

one number c ∈  a, b  such that f ( c ) = z .

Proof: It is a topological property that the image of an interval under a

continuous real-valued function is also an interval, and so we have that
f (  a, b  ) is an interval (on the y -axis). But f ( a ) and f ( b ) both belong to
f (  a, b  ) and since z is between f ( a ) and f ( b ) , we have z ∈ f (  a, b  ) ,
which means there is a c ∈  a, b  such that f ( c ) = z . ▇

From Intuitive to Counter-

Counter-Intuitive

Often theorems such as the intermediate value theorem seem so obvious

we don’t give them a second thought, but when couched in a different light,
they often become counter intuitive. Here is a use of the intermediate value
theorem that may come as a surprise to you:

At any point in time, there are always be two points at the

opposite sides of the earth which have the same temperature6.

To see this, take points on opposite sides (antipodal points) of the earth, say
the North and South Poles7, and assume that the temperature T ( 0 ) at the

( )
North Pole is higher than at the South Pole T 1800 , where the 0 and 180
denote the angle (in degrees) from the North Pole. Now draw a typical

6
Of course, the point is not always the same, it changes over time.
7
If the temperature at the poles are the same, then we automatically have matching temperatures
at opposite sides of the earth.
 Section 5.4 518 Hint of Topology

temperature curve N (θ ) as one moves along a path from the North Pole to
the South Pole, and a second temperature curve S (θ ) measured at the point
on earth exactly opposite a point on the first path. Typical temperature
graphs are shown in Figure 7.

Temperature on a Path and Antipodal Path from Pole to Pole

Figure 7

If we now take the difference f (θ ) = N (θ ) − S (θ ) between these curves

we see that f is a continuous function on  0,π  and f ( 0 ) > 0, f ( π ) < 0 . By
the intermediate value theorem, there must exists (at least) a point
0 ≤ θ ≤ 1800 such that f (θ ) = 0 or N (θ ) = S (θ ) which will be the point where
the temperature at opposite sides of the earth are the same.

Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem

One of the most useful results from topology is the Brouwer Fixed Point
Theorem, which states any continuous function f :  0,1 →  0,1 has a fixed
Theorem
point8, that is, a point x ∈  0,1 that satisfies f ( x ) = x . A visual interpretation

8
The Brouwer fixed point theorem is much more general than stated here. It states that every
continuous function f :B →B from a closed unit ball
Section 5.4 519 Hint of Topology

of this theorem states that such a continuous function will always cross the 45
degree line y = x at least once in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 as illustrated in Figure
8.

Visual Demonstration of the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem

Figure 8

Note: If you ask a topologist how far it is from Cleveland to Chicago or if you
should west or esst, they will only tell you the roads to travel on and how they
are connected. If you protest, the topologist will tell you to see an analyst.

Brouwer’s Famous Theorem and Coffee The Brouwer fixed point theorem has
a number of interesting real world demonstrations. Sprinkle some talcum
power on a cup of coffee and then set it in motion with a good stir. After a
while the coffee will come to rest, and a particle of talcum power that was
originally at z will now be at f ( z ) . Incredibly as it may seem there will be (at
least) one particle of talcum power that will end up in exactly the same place
where it started, that is for some point z in the cup, f ( z ) = z . This is an
example of the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem.


B = { x = ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) : x12 + x22 +  + xn2 ≤ 1} in
n into itself has at least one fixed point.
  
That is a point x ∈ B , where f ( x ) = x .
Section 5.4 520 Hint of Topology

Note: One can also allow a more restrictive form of a homeomorphism called a
diffeomorphism f , where f is not only a homeomorphism, but is smooth
(differentiable) with a smooth inverse. Change of variables from one coordinate
system to another, which transforms coordinate curves, are diffeomorphisms9.
The relation of two surfaces being diffeomorphic is an equivalence relation, and
an equivalence class of all diffeomorphic surfaces is called a manifold.
manifold The
n
study of “smooth” manifolds, surfaces in any dimension
which allow one to
perform “calculus” on them, is one of the most active areas of topology and has
important connections with physics.

Important Application of the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem

One might be tempted to think the differential equation

dy
= − y 3 + cos t, t ≥ 0
dt

has a periodic solution with period 2π due to the driving term cost and from
the observation
y ′ ≤ 0 when y = 1
y ′ ≥ 0 when y = −1

which means if the initial condition y ( 0 ) = y0 lies between 1 and − 1 , then so

will y ( t, y0 ) , t ≥ 0 . We now define a function F :  −1,1 →  −1,1 by

F ( y0 ) = y ( 2π , y0 )

Which maps the initial condition y0 into the solution y ( 2π , y0 ) of the

differential equation (with initial condition y0 ) at t = 2π . The mapping F can
be shown to be continuous and hence by the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem
( )
has a fixed point y0* , that is F y0* = y0* which means y ( 0 ) = y ( 2π ) , which in

turn means y ( 0 ) = y ( 2π ) = y ( 4π ) =  since the only term in the differential

equation that depends explicitly on t is cost , which is periodic in t with

9
The change of variables x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ from Cartesian to polar coordinates is a

“smooth” transformation from
2 to
2 except at the origin r = 0.

Section 5.4 521 Hint of Topology

period 2π . Hence, the differential equation has a periodic solution with

period 2π .
Section 5.4 522 Hint of Topology

Problems 5.4 Problems , Geometric Topology

1 (Letters of the Alphabet) Group the letters of the alphabet into groups, so
that the letters in the same group are topologically equivalent and letters in
different groups are not topologically equivalent.
A
B
C
D

F
G
H

J
K

L
M
N

P
Q
R
S
T
U

V
W

X
Y
Z
Ans:
A
,
R
B
C
,
G
,
I
,
J
,
L
,
M
,
N
,
S
,
U
,
V
,
W
,
Z
D
,
O
E
,
F
,
T
,
Y
,
H
P
,
Q
K
X
{ } , { } ,{ } ,{ },{ },{ },{ },{ , }
2.. (Topological Properties)
Properties) Which of the following figures are homeomorphic?
That is the topological property that separates figures into different equivalent
classes?

Ans: a), b) and d) are homeomorphic. The property of two figures in the
plane having a given number of holes is a topological property. Figure c) is
not homeomorphic to the others since it has 3 holes and the others 2.
However, just because the other figures all have 2 holes doesn’t make them
Section 5.4 523 Hint of Topology

automatically homeomorphic (although in this case they are) since there might
be other topological properties not shared by the figures. The problem of
classifying an object, say a sphere, by having certain topological properties is
a major problem in topology.

3. (Cutting and Pasting) The circle and trefoil knot (simplest knot) shown
below are homeomorphic since one can cut the knot and tie it back together in
the shape of a circle, all the while preserving the homeomorphism. How does
this process obey the definition of a homeomorphism?

Ans: The process is a bijection and nearby points are mapped into nearby
points, which is the criterion for a homeomorphism.

4.. ( Mobius
 Strip)
Strip Construct a Mobius
 strip from a strip of paper and answer
the following questions by experimentation.

a) The surface of a Mobius

 strip is not orientable.
b) The surface of a sphere is orientable (draw circles on a basketball).
c) Another topological property of a surface is the number of sides of a
surface. Verify that a Mobius
 strip is not homeomophic to a loop of
paper without the half twist at the ends.10

5. (Topological Puzzle) Mary has just graduated from the police academy
and has handcuffed two robbers after robbing a bank. Unfortunately, she has
interlocked the chains of the prisoner’s handcuffs as illustrated in the
following figure. To make matters worse, Mary has lost the keys to the
handcuffs. Can you tell Mary how to separate the prisoners without having to
cut the chains or cutting off the arms of the prisoners?

10

Interesting experiments can be carried out the a Mobius strip and its many variants,
such as making more than one half-twist, cutting the strips lengthwise down the middle a
different number of times.
 Section 5.4 524 Hint of Topology

Ans: This is a problem that’s more fun to solve than read a solution. It is
possible.

6. (Experimenting with the Mobius

 Band) Take a piece of paper about a foot
long and an inch wide. First, bring the ends of the paper together to make a
loop but then give one of the ends a half twist and tape the ends together. You
now have a band with a half twist in it, called a Mobius
 band11. You are now
ready to carry out the following experiments:

a) Take a red pencil and color around the edge of the Mobius
 band. Continue
until you arrive back at the starting point. How many edges are there, the
one you colored and the one you … . Surprise.

b) Now lets color the sides. Starting at any point draw a line down the
middle of the band until you arrive back at the starting point. How many
sides are there to the strip? Double surprise.

c) Things just get curiouser and couriouser with the Mobius

 band. Now take
a pair of scissors and cut the band lengthwise down the middle. What do
you think will happen?

d) Now create a second Mobius

 band but this time instead of cutting the
band down the middle, cut it so your scissors are about 1/3 the way from
one of the edges. The results now are even more surprising.

Ans: It would be unfair to the reader to give away the results.

7. (The Doughnut and Coffee Homeomorphism) The story goes that one
should never give a topologist a cup of coffee else the topologist will begin to
chew on the cup thinking that it is a doughnut. While it is true that a doughnut
(torus) and coffee cup are homeomorphic images, can you find three other

11

Mobius bands are not that uncommon in the real world. Often in industrial
settings conveyor belts are given a half twist so each side of the belt wears
evenly.
Section 5.4 525 Hint of Topology

figures in three dimensions that are not homeomoprhic to the doughnut or

coffee cup? What are some topological properties of these objects that are
different from those of the doughnut or coffee cut?

Ans: A Mobius
 band is not homeomorphic to a doughnut or coffee cup since it
has two sides and the doughnut and coffee cup have only one, and the number
of sides is a topological property of a surface. Two other non-homeomorphic
figures would be a doughnut with two holes and a doughnut with three holes,
all of which are non-homeomorphic since the number of holes in a doughnut is
a topological property of a solid figure.

8. (Topology
Topology All Around Us)
Us) Examine some common objects topologically.
For example, a book, a glove, a CD, a pair of glasses, a rubber band, a chair,
etc.