BIO 210

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

I

LECTURE OUTLINE

Prepared by

David T. Corey, Ph.D.

Science Department
Midlands Technical College
P.O. Box 2408
Columbia, SC 29202

All rights reserved by David T. Corey, 2001

 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY I
LECTURE OUTLINE

BIO 210

David T. Corey
Midlands Technical College
Science Department, Beltline Campus
P.O. Box 2408
Columbia, SC 29202

Copyright © 2001

All rights reserved. No part of this outline may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transcribed, in any form or by any means - electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without prior written
permission of David T. Corey.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

2
 Subject Page

The Human Body: An Orientation 5

Chemistry Comes Alive 12

Cells: The Living Units 20

Tissues: The Living Frabric 28

The Integumentary System 33

Bone & Bone Tissue 38

Joints 42

Muscles & Muscle Tissue 45

The Muscular System 49

Fundamentals of the Nervous System & 52

Nervous Tissue

The Central Nervous System 59

The Peripheral Nervous System & Reflex 65

Activity

The Autonomic Nervous System 68

Neural Integration 71

The Special Senses 75

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 THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION

Anatomy
- is the study of the shape and structure of the human body and the
relationship between body parts.

4
Physiology
- is the study of the functions of the body parts. How the body parts
work & carry out their life-sustaining activities.

Anatomy & Physiology are two major branches within the field of Biology.

Biology
- is the study of all forms of life.

BRANCHES OF ANATOMY
1). Gross Anatomy
- study of large observable structures without the use of magnification.
- Morphology - the study of shape.

Three major Divisions

a. Regional Anatomy:

b. Systemic Anatomy:

c. Surface Anatomy:

2). Microscopic Anatomy

- study of small observable structures with the use of magnification.

Two subdivisions
A. Cytology:
- the study of the structure, function, and development of cells
that make up the different body parts.

B. Histology:
- the study of tissues and organs making up the entire body of
an organism.

3). Developmental Anatomy

- studies the growth and development of an organism during its life
time.
- Embryology - study of an organism from fertilization to birth.

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4). Comparative Anatomy
- Compares the body parts and functions between organisms.

Highly Specialized Branches of Anatomy

1). Pathological Anatomy:

2). Radiographic Anatomy:

3). Molecular Biology:

Specialized Areas of Physiology

1). Renal Physiology:

2). Neurophysiology:

3). Cardiac Physiology:

MAINTENANCE OF LIFE

What are life functions?

- a series of highly organized and related activities which allow living

things to live, grow, and maintain themselves.

What are the vital life functions?

- maintenance of boundaries
- movement
(contractibility)
- responsiveness or irritability
- ingestion
- digestion
- transport
- respiration
- synthesis

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 - assimilation
- growth
- secretion
- excretion
- reproduction

SURVIVAL NEEDS
- food - nutrients
- water
- oxygen
- temperature
- pressure

THE HIERARCHY OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

1). Atoms OR Ions

2). Molecules and compounds
3). Cells containing cell organelles
4). Tissues
5). Organs
6). Organ Systems
7). Organisms (Organismal level)
8). Populations
9). Communities
10). Ecosystems
11). Biosphere

BODY PROCESSES

Metabolism
- functional activities of cells
ie. growth, repair, energy release, food use, secretions

- sum of all chemical reactions within the cell

- consists of two processes

1. Anabolism
- building up of complex materials from simpler ones

7
 2. Catabolism
- breaking down of complex materials into simpler ones with the
release of energy

Homeostasis
- The maintenance of a rather stable internal environment
- Human survival depends on maintaining and/or restoration of
homeostasis!!
- Control: control center =

receptor =

effector =

- Negative Feedback Mechanisms:

- Positive Feedback Mechanisms:

- Homeostatic Imbalance:

ANATOMIC TERMINOLOGY

Anatomical position
- standing erect, face forward, arms at the side, and palms forward.
A. REGIONAL TERMS
1. Axial part:

2. Appendicular part:

B. BODY PLANES & SECTIONS

1. Frontal (coronal):

2. Sagittal (median):

- midsagittal:

- parasagittal:

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 3. Transverse (Horizontal)
- divides body into superior & inferior

- cross section:

- oblique plane:

C. LOCATION, POSITION, OR DIRECTIONAL TERMS (Table 1.1,

p. 18)

1. Anterior (ventral)
2. Posterior (Dorsal)
3. Cranial
4. Caudal
5. Superior vs inferior
6. Medial (mesial) vs lateral
7. Proximal vs distal
8. Superficial vs deep
9. External vs internal

D. SPECIFIC BODY AREAS

- Know all the terms on p. 12, Fig. 1.7

E. BODY CAVITIES & MEMBRANES

1. Dorsal Cavity
- cranial cavity:

- spinal (vertebral) cavity:

2. Ventral Cavity
a. Thoracic cavity
- pleural cavities (lungs)
- pericardial cavity (heart)
- mediastinum

b. Abdominopelvic cavity
- abdominal cavity: below the ribs
- pelvic cavity

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 3. Serous Membranes:

- parietal:

- visceral:

4. Mucous Membranes:

E. OTHER BODY CAVITIES

1. Orbital: eyes, optic muscles, optic nerves, tear ducts
2. Nasal: nose
3. Buccal (oral): teeth and tongue
4. Middle ear

D. ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS (9)

1. Upper
- Right & Left Hypochondriac
- Middle: Epigastric

2. Middle
- Right & Left Lumbar
- Middle: Umbilical
3. Lower
- Right & Left Iliac (Inquinal)
- Middle: Hypogastric (Pubic)

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 CHEMISTRY COMES ALIVE

WHY study chemistry in an Anatomy & Physiology Class?

Chemistry
- is the study of the structure of matter, the composition of
substances, their properties, their chemical reactions, and
synthesis.

- examples of chemical reactions: digestion of food

formation of urine
manufacture of proteins

Matter
- anything that has weight and occupies space.

- composed of chemical elements.

- gases, liquids, solids

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 Matter can be divided into two categories
1. Biotic: living material such as plants and animals
2. Abiotic: None living material such as rocks and rain

Chemical Elements
- are substances that can not be broken down by chemical means
into simpler substances.

Biochemistry
- the study of chemical reactions of living things

Atom
- the smallest piece of an element and is invisible to the human eye

- composed of subatomic particles

1. protons: + electric charge, found in the nucleus
2. neutrons: no electric charge, found in the nucleus
3. electrons: - electric charge, found around the nucleus in orbital
rings.

Atomic number:

- No. of protons = No. of electrons in an atom, therefore atoms are

electrically neutral.

What if the number of protons does not equal the number of electrons?

You have a charged atom called an ion.

Isotopes: same number of protons, but the number of neutrons is

differention

Radioisotopes: exhibit atomic decay which is called radioactivity

- unstable and decay to more stable forms by emitting alpha,

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 beta, or gamma rays

- can be used for diagnosis

- all types damage living tissue

Atomic symbol:

ELEMENTS

- 92 naturally occurring elements

1. 26 are found in the human body
2. 18 are trace elements

THE SIX MOST IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY

ARE:
1). Oxygen (O): 65%
2). Carbon (C): 18.5%
3). Hydrogen (H): 9.5%
4). Nitrogen (N): 3.2%
5). Calcium (Ca): 1.5%
6). Phosphorus (P): 1.0%

Molecule:

COMPOUNDS:

- elements combined together in a definite proportion by weight

examples: Water = H20

Table Salt = NaCl
Hydrochloric acid = HCl
Sodium bicarbonate = NaCHO3
Glucose = C 6H12O6
Carbon dioxide = CO2
Carbon monoxide = CO

13
What is a molecular formula?

MIXTURES

- composed of two or more components physically intermixed

together
Three basic types:
1). Solutions:

a. solvent:

b. solutes:

2). Colloids:

3). Suspensions:

COMPOUNDS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO GROUPS

1). INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

- Backbone consists of a metal (examples Al, Au, Ag, Pb)

- usually do not contain both Carbon & Hydrogen at the same
time
- tend to have relatively few atoms
- found in living organisms
- tend to have ionic bonds

EXAMPLES: Water
Acids and Bases
Salts
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen

2). ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

- Most contain both Carbon and Hydrogen at the same time.
(examples of organic cpds without both C & H: graphite,
diamonds)
- tend to have many atoms
- tend to be larger than inorganic compounds

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 - tend to have covalent bonds
- more than a million known organic compounds

EXAMPLES: Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

WATER
- most abundant and important inorganic compound found in living
material
- 60 to 80% of volume

ACIDS
- a substance that when dissolved in water, will ionize into
positively charged hydronium ions (H3O+) or Hydrogen ions (H+)
and negatively charged ions of some other element

EXAMPLE: HCL + H2O è H3O+ + Cl-

BASES
- a substance that when dissolved in water, ionizes into negatively
charged hydroxide (OH-) ions and positively charged ions of a
metal.

EXAMPLE: NaOH è Na+ + OH-

NEUTRALIZATION
- when an acid and a base are combined, they form a salt and water

HCL + NaOH è NaCl + H2O

Electrolytes:

pH
- is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of a solution.
- pH scale - ranges from 0 to 14

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 - 7.0 is neutral
- > 7.0 is basic
- < 7.0 is acidic

EXAMPLES: Human tears pH = 7.3 Acidic or basic?

Human blood pH = 7.4 Acidic or basic?
Human urine pH = 6.0 Acidic or basic?
Water pH = 7.0 Acidic or basic
BUFFERS
- help a living organism to maintain a constant pH value which
contributes to homeostasis.

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

A. CARBOHYDRATES
- Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- Primary source of nutrient energy for cells (Glucose)
- some structure
- Sugars

DIVIDED INTO THREE GROUPS

1). Monosaccharides
- sugars which can not be broken down any further
- single or simple sugars

EXAMPLES: Glucose - blood sugar

Fructose - fruits & honey
Galactose - Agar
2). Disaccharides
- Double sugar

Examples: Sucrose - table sugar

Maltose - malt sugar
Lactose - milk sugar

Dehydration - synthesis of a large molecule from small ones by

the loss of a water molecule.

Hydrolysis - a large molecule is broken down into smaller

molecules by the addition of water.

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 3). Polysaccharides
- large complex molecules made up of hundreds to thousands of
glucose molecules (or other simple sugar) bonded together in
one long chainlike molecule.

EXAMPLES: Starch - made in plant cells (storage form of

Glucose)
Cellulose - gives support to plant cells
Glycogen - storage form of Glucose in animals

B. LIPIDS
- contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
- also called fats
DIVIDED INTO THREE MAJOR GROUPS
1). FATS & OILS (Neutral Fats; triglycerides)
- made up of glycerol and fatty acids
- also called triglycerides - high energy storage, most abundant
type

2). PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- found in cell membranes, the brain and nervous tissue

3). STEROIDS
- contain cholesterol

Is all cholesterol bad?

- essential in the structure of a semipermeable cell membrane

- Vitamin D
- Hormones

C. PROTEINS
- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and usually sulfur and
phosphorus
- important in outer coat of viruses
- binding and structural components of all living things
- made up of amino acids:
amine:

organic acid group:

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 - enzymes are specialized proteins
control chemical reactions by acting as catalysts
affects rate and speed of chemical reactions
used over and over
very specific

cofactor:

coenzyme:

D. NUCLEIC ACIDS
- Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus

TWO TYPES
1). DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid - carries the genetic information

2). RNA = ribonucleic acid - help in synthesizing proteins

Three types
a. mRNA
b. tRNA
c. rRNA

E. ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)

ATP synthesis is an all-important cellular function because it provides a

form of chemical energy that is usable by all body cells!

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 CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS

The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living things.

Extracellular fluid: interstitial fluid, derived from blood, bathes cells

- consists of: amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, hormones,
neurotransmitters, salts, waste products

Shape of cells is vaiable!

Cell length: few micrometers to well over a meter
- muscles
- nerves

Trillions in the human body!

PLASMA MEMBRANE (Cell membrane)

- surrounds the cell
- separates the cell's cytoplasm from the external environment and
from neighboring cells.
- "selectively, semi-, or differentially permeable"
- made-up of protein and lipids
- double layer of phospholipid molecules with proteins and cholesterol
dispersed in it

Why are proteins important?

hydrophobic end = "tail": hydrocarbon fatty acid chains

Hydrophilic end = "head": polar phosphorus-containing end

Microvilli
- cilia, increase membrane surface area
- functional "mechanical stiffener"

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Types of Junctions (3)
1). Tight junctions: protein's membranes adjacent to each other fuse
together like a zipper, impermeable junction
ex. epithelial cells lining digestive tract and adjacent blood vessels
2). Desmosomes: anchoring, adhesion, coupling along sides of
abutting cells

3). Gap junctions: allow direct passage of chemical substances

between adjacent cells

Cytoplasm
- cellular material found between the nucleus and the plasma membrane.
- site for most cellular activities
- protein synthesis
- anaerobic respiration

3 Major Elements
1). Cytosol: viscous, semitransparent fluid
- mostly water (70 to 90%)
- proteins, lipids, minerals, salts and carbohydrates

2). Cell organelles:

3). Inclusions:

Protoplasm
- Includes both the cytoplasm and the nucleus

THE NUCLEUS

Nucleus
- controlls the activities of the cell
- facilitate cell division = Mitosis
- DNA and proteins
- semi-fluid medium called nucleoplasm

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Nucleolus (Nucleoli)
- located within the nucleus, none membrane bound
- produce ribosomes which will eventualy be released into the
cytoplasm
- usually 1 or 2 per cell, but may have more
- RNA

Nuclear membrane
- surround nucleus - double layer with openings

Chromatin
- granular, threadlike material composed of DNA and histone proteins

CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
Ribosomes
- Consists of protein and RNA
- sites of protein synthesis

Centrosome
- enclose the centrioles

Centrioles
- two cylindrical organelles perpendicular to each other
- form spindle fibers during cell division - used to move and
organize the chromosomes.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
- provides passageway for transport
- site for many chemical reactions
- provides some internal support

Two types of ER
1). Rough:

2). Smooth:

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Mitochondria
- site of aerobic respiration
- ATP production
- "Power-house"
- Double membrane
cristae:

matrix:

- self replicate: contain both DNA & RNA. Fission:

Golgi apparatus
- flatten membranous sacs
- stores and packages secretions for discharge from the cell
- form the lysosomes

Lysosomes
- contain powerful digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases)
- digest worn out cell organelles and foreign matter (Intracellular
digestion)
- Autolysis:

Cilia/flagellum

Cytoskeletal Elements
1). Microfilaments:

2). Microtubules:

MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS PLASMA MEMBRANE

Passive transport: Does not require energy input from the cell
1). Diffusion:

2). Facilitated Diffusion:

3). Osmosis:

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 a. Isotonic:

b. Hypertonic:
- more solutes outside cell, ie. cells lose water by osmosis
and shrink

c. Hypotonic:
- less solutes outside cell, ie. cells take in water and swell,
may lysis

4). Filtration:

Active transport: process in which molecules move across a cell

membrane from an area of lower concentration to an area of greater
concentration (against a concentration gradient).

- Requires energy (ATP) from the cell

TYPES
1). Carrier molecule:

2). Endocytosis (2)

a. Phagocytosis:

b. Pinocytosis:

3). Exocytosis:
DISORDERS OF CELL STRUCTURE

Tumor (Neoplasms):

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 Divided into two groups
1). Benign:

2). Malignant (Cancer):

Metastases
- movement of a malignant tumor

THE CELL CYCLE

- process of producing new cells by division of existing cells includes:
Interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis

Two distinct processes of cell division:

1). Mitosis:

2). Cytokinesis:

STEPS IN THE CELL CYCLE

1). Interphase

- metabolic activities of the cell to maintain homeostasis

- replication of DNA
- growth in all 3 subphases
- protein synthesis

3 Subphases
1). G1:

2). S:
3). G2:

2). MITOSIS

When does a cell divide?

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 A. Prophase

- centrioles move toward the poles

- nuclear membrane dissappears
- Chromosomes become visiable
- spindle fibers form

B. Metaphase

- chromosomes line up by their centromere along the equatorial

plane
- spindle fibers

C. Anaphase

- Chromosomes separate into chromatids by shortening of the

spindle fibers
- Chromatids pulled toward the poles

D. Telophase

- Chromatids have reached the poles and begin to uncoil

- nuclear membrane reappears
- spindle breaks down and disappears

3). CYTOKINESIS

- division of the cytoplasm which results in two daughter cells

identical to the original cell
- begins in late anaphase, but not visible until Telophase
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Gene:

Transcription:

25
Translation:

3 Forms of RNA

1). mRNA:

2). rRNA:

3). tRNA:

TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC

What is a tissue?

FOUR MAIN TYPES OF TISSUES

1). Epithelial
2). Connective
3). Muscle
a. skeletal

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 b. cardiac
c. smooth
4). Nervous

What is an organ?

What is an organ system?

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
A. Functions
1.) protection:

2). secretions:

3). regulate passage:

4). cover:

5). filtration:

6). absorption:

7). excretion:

B. TWO MAJOR GROUPS OF EPITHELIUM

1). Covering & lining epithelium:

2). Glandular epithelium:

- secretions:

2 Types
a. Endocrine glands: ductless
- hormones

b. Exocrine glands: duct

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 - vary diverse

Types of Exocrine glands

1). Goblet cells:

2). Merocrine gland:

3). Holocrine gland:

4). Apocrine gland:

C. CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIUM
1). Very little extracellular material, cells packed tightly together

2). Always has one free surface - apical surface

- basal surface connected to a nonliving adhesive material
called the basal lamina

- basal lamina connected to the nonliving reticular lamina of the

connective tissue

- basal lamina + recticular lamina = basement membrane

3). Contains no blood vessels - avascularity

- nourished by substances diffusing from blood vessels in
underlying connective tissue

4). Undergo rapid cell division

D. Classification (All are polyhedral in shape)

1). Number of cell layers

a. simple:

b. stratified:

c. pseudostratified:

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 2). Shape of cells
a. squamous:

b. cuboidal:

c. columnar:

2). Covering and lining

a. ciliated vs nonciliated

b. keratinized or nonkeratinized

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
A. Functions
1). Support and Connect (Binding):

2). Protection:

3). Storage:

4). Insulation:

B. Characteristics of Connective Tissue

1). Derived from Mesenchyme
2). Degrees of vascularity
3). Few cells surrounded by a nonliving intercellular matrix
a. Ground substance:

b. Fibers:

Three types
1. Collagen
2. Elastic
3. Reticular

c. Cell:

4). Not exposed to external environment

29
C. Types of Connective Tissue
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
1). Adipose:

2). Loose (Areolar):

3). Dense fibrous:

Types of Dense fibrous Connective Tissue

a. Regular:
b. Irregular:
c. Elastic:

4). Supportive:
Types of Supportive Connective Tissue
a. Osseous (Bone):

b. Cartilage:
1. Hyaline:

2. Fibrocartilage:
3. Elastic:
5). Vascular:

Types of Vascular Connective Tissue

a. Blood:

b. Lymph:

MUSCLE TISSUE
A. Skeletal
- striated and voluntary
- multinucleated

B. Cardiac
- striated and involuntary
- 1 or 2 nuclei

C. Smooth

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 - nonstriated and involuntary
- uninucleated

NERVOUS TISSUE
A. Function
- Irritability: ability to respond to environmental changes
- Conductivity: ability to carry a nerve impulse

B. Composition
1). neurons:

2). Neuroglial cells:

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Major components:
1). Skin: tough and pliable
- also called: integument, cutaneous membrane, epidermis

2). Derivatives: Hair, nails, glands (sweat & oil)

Functions:
1). Covers
- 1.5 to 2 m2 surface area
- ~ 9 lbs
- 1.5 to 4 mm thickness

2). Protection
- ultraviolet radiation
- protective covering: abrasion
dehydration, injury, germ invasion
- chemical barrier
What is a germ? What is a pathogen?

31
 3). Helps in regulating body temperature
- heat loss
- evaporation: perspiration

4). Excretion
- organic wastes, salts, water

5). Sensory perception

- receptors
temperature (heat & cold), pain, pressure, touch
- free nerve endings

6). Temporary storage

- fats, glucose, water, salts
- blood

7). Absorption
- certain drugs
8). Synthesis of Vitamin D
- Bone formation, calcium metabolism, teeth

TWO BASIC LAYERS OF SKIN

A). EPIDERMIS: 35 to 45 days
- outermost covering which is composed of epithelial cells and
lacks blood vessels

- epithelial cells: stratified squamous epithelial cells

keratinized or nonkeratinized: depends on location

keratinized =

nonkeratinized =

Keratinocytes: keratin - fibrous proteins, hard, nonliving which

makes the epidermis waterproof

Five layers of the epidermis

1). Stratum corneum - outermost layer, 20 to 30 cell layers thick,
~ 75% of total epidermal thickness

32
 - first line of defense
- outward thickening = callus
- inward thickening = corn

2). Stratum lucidum: absent in thin skin areas of the body

3). Stratum granulosum: keratinization begins, cells begin to die

4). Stratum spinosum: some cell division

5). Stratum basale - inner most layer, most of the cell division

Stratum spinosum and stratum basale = stratum germinativum

Melanocytes
- cells responsible for skin pigmentation
- found in the stratum basale
- produce melanin
yellow to brown to black color
amount and color determines skin color
Three pigments involved in skin color:
1). Melanin:

2). Carotene: yellow to orange

3). Hemoglobin: crimson

Freckles
- patches of melanocytes in the skin

Albinism
- absence of pigments

Sun Tan
- increase production of melanin for protection from ultraviolet
radiation

How long does it last?

B). DERMIS (corium) "ANIMAL HIDE"

- thick inner layer, and thickness varies:

33
 soles of feet and palms of hand = thick
shoulders and back = thinner, but thicker than abdomen and
thorax

- contains: elastic fibers

nerve endings
arrector pili muscle
receptors: touch, temperature, pain, pressure
blood vessels
lymphatic vessels

(oil and sweat glands, finger nails, and hair follicles are
derived of the epidermis not the dermis!)
Two Layers of Dermis
1). Papillary:

Finger prints
- results from the dermal papillae
ridges in the skin

2). Reticular: ~ 80% of the dermis

Burns
1). First degree:

2). Second degree:

3). Third degree:

4). Fourth degree:

C. SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER (Hypodermal layer or superficial fascia)

- NOT a true layer of the integumentary system
- loose connective tissue and adipose

34
 - about 50% of the bodies stored fat; shock absorber, insulate
- site of injections: hypodermic
- attaches integument to muscles or underlying organs

ACCESSARY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN

1). Hair: 3 layers
- outer = cuticle: single layer of flat keratinized cells, overlap
- middle = cortex: elongated, keratinized, nonliving cells, contains
hair pigment
- inner = medulla: may also contain pigment

Parts
= root: implanted in the skin in an inpocketing called the
hair follicle
= shaft: extends out from the epidermis, shape determines if hair
is straight or curly

- color = melanocytes at base of hair follicle

- Goose bumps: Arrector pili muscles contract

2). Nails: epidermis is hard and keratinized to a greater degree

- protection

3). Sweat glands: regulate body temperature

= sudoriferous glands
- water, salts, organic waste
~ 2.5 million

Two Types
a). Eccrine:

b). Apocrine:

A). Ceruminous glands = wax glands: secretes cerumen

- found in the ear canals "earwax"

35
 B). Mammary glands = specialized sweat glands modified to secrete
milk

4). Sebaceous glands "Oil"

- are simple alveolar glands which secretes sebum:
lubricates the skin, keeping it soft and pliable
- inhibits bacterial growth
- reduces evaporative water loss
Vernix caseosa:

BONES AND BONE TISSUE & SKELETAL SYSTEM

Major Functions:
1). Support:

2). Shape and Form:

3). Protection:

4). Movement and anchorage of muscles:

5). Storage of minerals and fats:

- Ca, P, K, Na, Sulfur (S), Magnesium (Mg), Copper (Cu)

6). Hemopoiesis (Hematopoiesis):

TWO BASIC TYPES OF OSSEOUS TISSUE

1). Spongy:
- Trabeculae: form network of spaces

2). Compact:

TYPES OF BONE
1). Long:

2). Flat:

36
3). Irregular:

4). Short:

STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE

1). Diaphysis
2). Epiphyses
3). Periosteum
4). Endosteum
5). Medullary cavity
6). Yellow marrow
7). Red marrow
8). Spongy bone
9). Compact bone
10). Articular cartilage
11). Epiphyseal plate (line, disc)
12). Sharpey's fibers

COMPACT BONE CELL STRUCTURE

1). Bone cell = osteocyte
2). Canaliculi
3). Haversian canal (osteonic canal)
4). Lacuna
5). Lamella
6). Volkmann's canal (Perforating)
7). Osteon (Haversian system)

SPONGY BONE
- No osteon
- Trabaculae with irregularly arranged lamellae
- osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi

BONE FORMATION
1). Osteoblasts =

2). Osteoclast =

37
 OSSIFICATION (OSTEOGENESIS)
1). Formation of the bony skeleton
2). Bone growth
3). Remodeling and repair: injuries, additional bone strength needed
Formation: Bone tissue begins to develop around week 6
A. Intramembranous ossification
1. Most skull bones and clavicles - flat
2. Bone replaces fibrous connective tissue membranes
3. Steps
a. Formation of bone matrix within the fibrous membrane
b. Formation of woven bone and the periosteum
c. Formation of compact bone plates

B. Endochondral ossification
1. Begins third month of development
2. Hyaline cartilage
3. Most skeletal bones

C. Bone Growth
1. Growth in length of long bones
a. Females to about age 18
b. Males to about age 20-21
2. Appositional Growth
- increase in thickness (diameter)
3. Hormones
a. Growth hormone - anterior pituitary gland
b. Thyroxine - thyroid gland
c. Testosterone
d. Estrogen
e. Calcitonin - thyroid gland

f. Parathyroid hormone - parathyroid glands

PARTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

COMPONENTS: Bone, Cartilage, Joints, Ligaments

38
How many bones?

~ 20% of the body mass

Divided into two main parts:

1). Axial:
- forms the long axis of the body
- central support
- protects internal organs
- skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum, hyoid bone

2). Appendicular: bones of the upper and lower extremities and the
girgles that attach them to the axial skeleton

- pectoral girdle:

- pelvic girdle:

SOME COMMON DISORDERS

1). Fracture:

2). Dislocation:

3). Sprain:

4). Strain:

5). Arthritis:

Rheumatoid -

Osteoarthritis -

6). Curvature of the spine:

Scoliosis -

Kyphosis -

39
 Lordosis -
JOINTS

Joints or articulations:

Functions of joints
1).

2).

CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

A. FUNCTIONAL: Based on the amount of movement allowed

at the joint

3 Types of Functional Joints

1). Diarthroses = freely movable joints
- most of our joints
- examples: knee, elbow

2). Amphiarthroses = partially movable joints

- example: attachment of the ribs to the spine

3). Synarthroses = immovable joints

- example: adult skull (sutures)

- frontanel: soft spot on baby's head, i.e. no bone

B. STRUCTURAL JOINTS:

40
 Three types of Structural Joints
1). fibrous:

a. sutures -

b. syndesmoses -

c. gomphoses - fibrous joint between a tooth and its bony

alveolar socket

2). cartilaginous:

a. synchondroses - sites of bone growth, hyaline cartilage unites

bones

b. symphyses -

- designed for strength with fexibility

3). synovial -

- all joints of the limbs, most joints of the body

General Structure of Synovial Joints

a. Articular cartilage:

b. Joint Cavity:

c. Articular capsule:

d. Synovial fluid:

e. Reinforcing ligaments:

Bursa: a sac in which fluid is secreted, reduces friction between a tendon and
a bone.

41
 Types of Synovial Joints
a. Plane joints:

b. Hinge joints:

c. Pivot joints:

d. Saddle joints:

e. Ball-and-socket joint:

MUSCLES & MUSCLE TISSUE

MAJOR COMPONENTS
1). Muscles: skeletal, cardiac, smooth

42
2). Tendons:

3). Aponeurosis:

4). Raphe:

MAJOR FUNCTIONS
1). Movement

2). Maintain posture

3). Joint stability

2). Heat production

Muscles account for ~ 40% of the body mass

- ~ 36% in females
- ~ 42% in males
Differences due to testosterone effects on skeletal muscle in males

CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLES
1). Contractibility:

2). Extensibility:

3). Elasticity:

4). Irritability (Excitability):

Skeletal muscle
- attached to bone or to skin
- striated, voluntary, multinucleated cells
- single, very long, cylindrical fibers
- speed of contraction slow to fast

43
 Skeletal Muscle Structure

Tendon
Fascia
Epimysium
Perimysium
Fascicle
Endomysium
Myofibrils
Filaments: actin (Thin filaments) & myosin (Thick filaments)
Sarcomere
Z - line
Sliding Filament Mechanism
Crossbridges
Transverse tubules (T-tubules)
A band
I band
H zone
M line
Motor unit
Neuromuscular junction
Synaptic cleft
Synaptic vesicles
Acetylcholine
Power stroke
Threshold stimulus
All-or-None response
Rigor mortis
Muscle fatigue
Oxygen debt
Myoglobin
Hemoglobin

Creatine phosphate (CP)

CP + ADP → Creatine + ATP

Lactic acid

TERMS:
1). Antagonist -

44
2). Prime mover -

3). Synergist -

4). Fixators -

Three periods in a muscle contraction:

1). Latent period:

2). Period of contraction:

3). Period of relaxation:

Isometric contractions:

Isotonic contractions:

Change in skeletal muscle due to exercise

1). Atrophy:

2). Hypertrophy:
3). Sarcoplasm:

4). Muscle efficiency:

5). Muscle strength:

45
 Smooth muscle
Location
- muscle in the walls of hollow organs
- intrinsic eye muscles

Characteristics
- small and spindle shaped, often arranged in sheets
- single, involuntary, fusiform, uninucleated muscle
- no striations and no sarcomeres
- speed of contraction slow and do not tire easily
- rhythmic contractions
- lack elaborate connective tissue coverings
- contract for extended periods at low energy cost and without fatigue

peristalsis:

- circular layer:

- longitudinal layer:

Cardiac muscle
Location: found only in the heart

Characteristics: branching chains of uninucleated or binucleated cells,

striated with intercalated discs, involuntary, slow rate of rhythmic
contractions

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

TERMINOLOGY
1). Insertion -

2). Origin -

3). Flexor -

46
4). Extensor -

5). Adductor -

6). Abductor -

8). Levator -

9). Depressor -

10). Dilator -

Sites for intramuscular injections

1). Deltoid
2). Gluteus maximus

Principal Skeletal Muscles

A. Axial muscle group

- head, neck, face and trunk muscles
B. Appendicular muscle group
- extremity muscles

C. 656 muscles in the human body

- 327 are antagonistic muscles
- unpaired muscles
1. orbicularis oris
2. diaphragm

Important muscle groups

A. Hamstring B. Quadriceps femoris group

1. Biceps femoris 1. Rectus femoris
2. Semitendinosus 2. Vastus lateralis

47
 3. Semimembranous 3. Vastus medialis
4. Vastus intermedius

NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES

1). Location:

ex. temporalis, intercostals

2). Shape:

ex. deltoid, trapezius

3). Relative size:

maximus -

minimus -

longus -

brevis -

4). Direction of muscle fibers:

rectus -

transversus -

oblique -

5). Number of origins:

biceps -

triceps -

quadriceps -

6). Origin and/or insertion:

48
 ex. sternocleidomastoid

7). Action of muscle:

FUNDAMENTALS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

&
NERVOUS TISSUE

COMPONENTS
1). Brain
2). Spinal cord
3). Nerves: spinal nerves
cranial nerves

FUNCTIONS
1). Coordination and integration (CONTROL, Along with what other
system?)

2). Communication:

3). Nerve impulses:

49
4). Regulating and maintaining homeostasis

HOW THE NERVOUS SYSTEM WORKS

1). Sensory input:

2). Integration:

3). Motor output:

Faster acting and more complex than the Endocrine System, but
its effects tend not to last as long.

Most highly organized system of the human body!

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

A. ANATOMICAL
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
a. Brain & spinal cord
b. Control center for the entire system and integration

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

a. 12 pairs of cranial nerves
b. 31 pairs of spinal nerves
c. Major Function:

B. FUNCTIONAL (Physiological)
1. Sensory (afferent) Division
a. Somatic & visceral sensory neurons
b. Function:

2. Motor (Efferent) Division

50
 a. Motor neurons
b. Function:

C. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE MOTOR DIVISION

1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
a. conveys information from the CNS to skeletal muscles
b. voluntary, conscious control

2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

a. conveys information from the CNS to smooth muscles,
cardiac muscle, and glands
b. involuntary, without conscious control

Two Major Divisions of the ANS

a. Parasympathetic:

b. Sympathetic:
NERVOUS TISSUE HISTOLOGY
1). Extracellular space - < 20%

2). Structural and functional units called neurons

- amitotic
- billions!

3). Supporting cells (Neuroglial cells)

- small, nonexcitable cells, surround and wrap neurons
- assist, segregate and insulate neurons
- Does the nervous system have more neurons or more
neuroglial cells?

- mitotic
- gliomas:

Types of Supporting Cells

A. CNS Neuroglial Cells
1. Astrocyte:

51
 2. Microglia:

3. Ependymal cells:

4. Oligodendrocytes:

B. PNS Neuroglial Cells

1. Schwann cells:

2. Satellite cells:

ANATOMY OF A NEURON
- large complex cells
- highly specialized cells which conduct messages
- extreme longevity (over 100 years)
- high metabolic rate

STRUCTURE
1). Cell body: contains a nucleus, nucleolus, cytoplasm
- nissl bodies:

- NO CENTRIOLES!

- perikaryon (soma):

a. nuclei:

b. ganglia:

2). Neuron processes

- tracts:

- nerves:

a. Dendrites: carries impluses toward the cell body

52
 b. Axon: carries impluses away from the cell body
Axon Parts
Axon collateral:

Axonal terminals:

Telodendria:

Myelin sheath:

Neurilemma
- specialized covering
- speeds up the nerve impulse
- protects axon (myelin = fatty substance = white matter)
Nodes of Ranvier:

Axon hillock:

Nerve fibers:

MYELINATED VS UNMYELINATED
A. Myelinated
1. PNS: Schwann cells -

2. CNS: Oligodendrocytes - may coil around as many as 60

different axons at the same time
- no neurilemma
- white matter

B. Unmyelinated
1. PNS: single schwann cell encloses 15 or more axons, but
no coiling

2. CNS: Oligodendrocytes embrace but do not wrap

- Gray matter: unmyelinated + cell bodies

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS

53
A. Structure
1. Anaxonic:

2. Multipolar:

3. Bipolar:

4. Unipolar:

B. Physiological
1. Sensory neurons (Afferent): carry impulses toward spinal cord
and brain

2. Motor neurons (Efferent): carry impulses from the brain and

spinal cord to the muscles and glands

3. Interneuron (Association): carry impulses from one neuron

to another inside central nervous system

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
Irritability:

Conductivity:

Sodium-potassium pump:

1). Resting potential: inside of nerve is -

outside of nerve is +
"polarized"

2). Loss of polarization is called depolarization

3). Action potential: nerve impulse (reversal)

- all-or-none response:

- threshold stimulus:

54
 - propagated:

4). Repolarized: resting potential restored

- Synapse: where impulse goes from one cell to the next cell
a. Axodendritic synapse:

b. Axosomatic synapse:

c. Neuromuscular junctions:

d. Neuroglandular junctions:

Two varities of synapses

1). Electrical:

2). Chemical:

- Synaptic cleft: the space between the two cells

- Synaptic vesicles:

- Presynaptic neuron:

- Postsynaptic neuron:

- Neurotransmitters: chemical substance that allows the impulses

to go from axon to dendrite or effector
- EXAMPLES:
Acetylcholine
Epinephrine & Norepinephrine
Dopamine
Serotonin
Histamine

- Neuropeptides: pain-killing neurotransmitters

- EXAMPLES:
Endorphines
Enkephalins

55
 NEURAL INTEGRATION
Types of circuits:
1. Diverging:

2. Converging:

3. Reverberating:

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

COMPONENTS: Brain & Spinal Cord

LOCATION:

Cephalization:

Protection of The CNS

1. Skull
2. Meninges (Meninx):

- cover & protects

- protect blood vessels and enclose venous sinuses
- contain cerebral spinal fluid
- forms partitions within the skull

a. Dura mater - leathery, double membrane, outer layer of the brain

with the outer membrane attached to the skull
- in places attaches brain to skull to prevent excessive movement

b. Arachnoid mater - middle layer, loosely covers brain

- separated from dura mater by subdural space
- between arachnoid mater and pia mater is the subarachnoid
space
- contains the largest blood vessels serving the brain

c. Pia mater - inner layer, composed of delicate connective tissue

with many small blood vessels
- clings tightly to the brain

3. Cerebrospinal fluid - found in 4 ventricles (2 lateral, third, fourth)

- liquid cushion, gives buoyancy to CNS organs

56
 - floats the jelly-like brain
- protection from blows and trauma
- helps nourish the brain
- derived from blood plasma but with a different composition
- formed from the choroid plexuses

THE BRAIN
- weighs ~ 3.5 lbs (1600 g)

A. FOUR MAJOR PARTS OF THE BRAIN:

- Cerebrum: Cerebral hemispheres
- Cerebellum
- Diencephalon: Thalamus, Hypothalmus, Epithalamus
- Brain stem: Midbrain, Pons, Medulla oblongata

B. VENTRICLES: hollow chambers lined with ependymal cells

1. Lateral: two, C-shaped, 1 in each hemisphere of cerebrum
2. Third: in the diencephalon, connected to 2 laterals by the
interventricular foramen
3. Fourth: dorsal to the pons and superior to medulla oblongata
- connected to third via the cerebral aqueduct (which runs
through the midbrain)
- continuous with central canal of spinal cord

Brain Structure
A. Cerebrum; largest, divided into two hemispheres, ~ 83% of
total brain weight
Functions: motor functions, speech, sensory center, visual
center, auditory center, olfactory center, conscious thought,
judgment, memory, reasoning, will power.

- fissures: deep grooves

- sulci: shallow grooves
- gyri: convolutions (elevated ridges)
- longitudinal fissure:

- transverse fissure:
3 Basic Regions of the Cerebrum
1. Cortex:

57
 - 2-4 mm thick
- ~ 40% of total brain mass

2. White matter:
- communication between cerebral areas and cerebral cortex and
lower CNS centers
- mainly myelinated fibers bundled into large tracts

3. Basal Nuclei:
- gray matter areas located deep within the white matter of the
cerebral hemispheres
- may play role in motor control??

Generalization about the Cerebrum

1. 3 kinds of functional areas
a. motor:

b. sensory:

c. association:

2. Each hemisphere acts contralateral

3. Lateralization of hemispheres
"split brain concept"
a. ~ 90% of people are left cerebral dominate
- left hemisphere dominate: mathematical abilities, logic
- right hemisphere dominate: visual-spatial skills, intuition,
emotion, art and music appreciation
- most are right handed

b. ~ 10% of people are right cerebral dominate or neither

Dyslexia: reading disorder, intelligent people reverse order of

letters, syllables, numbers
- has been attributed in some cases to a lack of cerebral
dominance

58
4. No functional area acts alone!

B. Diencephalon: composed of three major regions

- surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres, enclose the third
ventricle

1. Thalamus: relay station for incoming and outgoing nerve

impulses, sorts out information
- mediates sensations, motor activities, cortical arousal, memory

2. Hypothalamus: Autonomic nervous control (regulates

parasympathetic and sympathetic systems of ANS)

- Cardiovascular control, temperature control, appetite

control, water balance, gastrointestinal control, emotional
state, sleep control, thirst, Main Visceral Control Center

- An endocrine gland: Produces ADH & Oxytocin, regulates

hormonal output of anterior pituitary gland

3. Epithalamus: dorsal most part of diencephalon

- pineal gland (body): extends from epithalamus, produces
melatonin: mood & sleep/wake cycles

- Choroid plexus:

4. Limbic system: Emotional brain

Mammary bodies: olfactory relay stations

C. Cerebellum: 2 hemispheres connected by the vermis, tree-like

pattern called Arbor vitae ("tree of life")

- maintenance of balance, muscle tone, and coordination of skeletal

muscle contractions, posture
- process information from proprioceptors:

59
D. The Brain stem; 3 regions
- responsible for automatic behaviors necessary for survival
- 10 of 12 pairs of cranial nerves

1. Midbrain: between the pons and the diencephalon

- conduction pathway between higher and lower brain functions
- visual and auditory control centers
- motor centers

2. Pons: respiratory center, relay between medulla oblongata

and cerebrum, relay information from cerebrum to cerebellum

3. Medulla oblongata: vasoconstrictor center, respiratory

center, cardiac center, sensory relay to cerebellum,
centers for controlling: vomiting, coughing, hiccuping,
swallowing, and sneezing

- decussation:

4. Reticular formation: Maintains cerebral cortical alertness

(reticular activating system), Helps regulate skeletal & visceral
muscle activity.

THE SPINAL CORD

- Begins at foramen magnum and extends to the level of the first

lumbar vertebra
- Lies within the vertebral column
- Major reflex center
- Two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain
- 31 pairs of spinal nerves
- divided into right and left halves by the anterior median fissure & the
posterior median sulcus

Spinal Cord Enlargements

1). Cervical:

2). Lumbar:
Cauda equina:

60
conus medullaris:

filum terminale:

Gray matter - appears in the shape of a "butterfly", called

commissure

White matter - surrounds gray matter, called funiculi

1. sensory areas
2. motor areas
3. ascending and descending tracts
a. ascending: (sensory) conduct sensory impulses upward through
chains of 2 or 3 successive neurons to various parts of the brain

b. descending: (motor) conduct motor impulses from brain to

spinal cord. Two different groups:
Pyramidal:

Others:

REFLEX ARC: unconscious and involuntary

Is the brain involved?

Steps
1. receive stimulus
2. sensory receptors
3. sensory neurons
4. interneuron
5. motor neuron
6. effectors (muscles, glands)

THE PERIPHERIAL NERVOUS SYSTEM & REFLEX

ACTIVITY

61
Allows the CNS to receive information and to carry out its decisions!

Components:
1. Sensory receptors: specialized to respond to changes in the environment
"stimuli"
a. Sensation:

b. Perception:

c. Adaptation:

2. Perpherial nerves and their associated ganglia

3. Motor endings

Three types of Sensory Receptors Named Based on Location

1. Exteroceptors:

2. Interoceptors (visceroceptors):

3. Proprioceptors:

Types of Receptors Named Based on Stimulus

1). Mechanoreceptors:

2). Thermoreceptors:

3). Photoreceptors:

4). Chemoreceptors:

5). Nociceptors:

Types of Receptors Named Based on Structure

1). Simple:
- general senses: temperature, pain, touch, pressure
a. Free nerve endings:

62
 b. Merkel discs:

c. Root hair plexuses:

d. Meissner's corpuscles:

e. Krause's end bulbs:

f. Pacinian corpuscles:

g. Ruffini's corpuscles:

2). Complex:
- Special senses: eyes, ears, nose, tongue

CRANIAL NERVES
1). Olfactory: smell

2). Optic: vision

3). Oculomotor: moves the eyeball

4). Trochlear: eye movement

5). Abducens: eye movement

6). Trigeminal: sensory fibers to the face, motor fibers for chewing

7). Facial: facial expressions

8). Vestibulocochlear: hearing & balance

9). Glossopharyngeal: tongue & pharynx

10). Vagus: internal organs

11). Accessory: neck & back muscles

12). Hypoglossal: tongue muscles

63
 SPINAL NERVES
- 31 pairs
a. 8 prs = cervical
b. 12 prs = thoracic
c. 5 prs = lumbar
d. 5 prs = sacral
e. 1 pr = coccygeal

Dermatomes:

Reflex Activity
A. Somatic reflexes: activate skeletal muscle

B. Autonomic (Visceral) reflexes: activate cardiac and smooth muscles or

glands

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

System of motor neurons that innervate cardiac and smooth muscles and
glands.

Also referred to as:

Involuntary nervous system - subconscious control
General visceral motor system - location of most of its effectors

64
 Divisions of the ANS
1). Parasympathetic:

2). Sympathetic:

Differences Between The ANS & SNS

SNS ANS
1). Effectors skeletal muscles cardiac & smooth
muscles and glands

2). Efferent Pathways cell bodies located preganglionic

in CNS, Axons neuron:
extend to skeletal
muscles, motor postganglionic
fibers thick, heavily neuron:
myelinated
lightly myelinatyed:
preganglionic neuron
non-myelinated:
postganglionic neuron
motor fibers thin

3). Target responses to acetylcholine acetylcholine

neurotransmitters excitatory norepinephrine
either excitatory or
inhibitatory
Higher brain centers regulate and coordinate both SNS & ANS motor
activities!

THE DIVISIONS OF THE ANS

The parasympathetic and the sympathetic divisions generally serve the same
visceral organs but cause essentially opposite effects!

A. THE PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION

- most active in non-stressful situations, maintenance activities
- "resting & digesting", elimination of feces & urine
- concerned with keeping body energy use as low as possible
- fibers emerge from the brain and sacral region of the spinal cord:
therefore also called the craniosacral division

65
 - long preganglionic and short postganglionic fibers
- most ganglia located in the visceral effector organs
- causes vasodilation of blood vessels in external genitalia
"erection of male penis" & "erection of female clitoris" during
sexual excitement

B. THE SYMPATHETIC DIVISION

- "flight-or-fight" system
- mobilizes body to meet emergencies (fear, exercise, rage), enables
the body to cope rapidly and vigorously with situations that threaten
homeostasis
- fibers emerge from the thoracic & lumbar regions of the spinal
cord: also called the thoracolumbar division
- short preganglionic and long postganglionic fibers
- most ganglia located close to the spinal cord
- more complex than the parasympathetic, partly because it innervates
more organs
- sweat glands, arrector pili muscles, all arteries and veins
- causes ejaculation of semen by male and peristalsis of female's
vagina
- help regulate body temperature, activate the sweat glands to help
cool the body
- stimulate kidneys to release renin - promotes an increase in blood
pressure
- effects tend to be much longer-lasting than those of parasympathetic

NEUROTRANSMITTER RECEPTORS
A. CHOLINERGIC RECEPTORS
- mimic acetylcholine's effects
1. Nicotinic receptors:

2. Muscarinic receptors:

B. ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS
- norepinephrine and epinephrine

66
 1. Alpha receptors:

2. Beta receptors:

Knowing the locations of the different receptor sites is very important

clinically, because it allows specific drugs to be prescribed to obtain the
desired blocking or stimulatory effects on selected target organs!

CONTROL OF AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING

1). Reflex activity: spinal cord and Brain stem centers

2). Hypothalamic integration centers: autonomic, somatc, endocrine

responses

3). Cortical centers: influence autonomic functioning via connections

with the limbic system

NEURAL INTEGRATION

All activities of the nervous system go on simultaneously!

The Somatosensory System
- deals with reception in the body wall and limbs
- receives imputs from exteroceptors, proprioceptors, interoceptors
- consists of three primary levels of neural integration

1). Receptor level

2). Circuit level
3). Perceptual level

A. The Receptor Level

- sensory receptors respond to energetic stimuli: sound, mechanical,
chemical, light, etc.

67
 (rest of nervous system responds to chemicals in the form of
neurotransmitters)
- translate stimulus into a nerve impulse, this conversion of stimulus
energy to electrical energy is called transduction

B. The Circuit Level

- sensory fibers - carry impulses from cutaneous receptors and
proprioceptors to the spinal cord
- branch as they enter the spinal cord
1. some branches - spinal reflexes - motor activities
2. two major ascending routes: relay information to the brain for three
purposes; perception, arousal, motor control

a. nonspecific ascending pathways: most transmit pain and

temperature impulses, some transmit impulses for light touch,
pressure, or joint information
- "itch"

b. specific ascending pathways: chiefly concerned with percise

straight-through transmission of inputs from a single type of
sensory receptors.
- discriminative touch, pressure, vibration, limb & joint position
- nonspecific & specific pathways are parallel pathways which are
activated simultaneously
a. add richness to our perceptions - allows the same information to be
handled in different ways
b. provide insurance

C. The Perceptual Level

- involves awareness of stimuli and discrimination of their characteristics
- we can act or not act on the information
1. sensory perception:

2. magnitude estimation:

3. spatial discrimination:

4. feature abstraction:

5. quality discrimination:

68
 6. pattern recognition:

Motor Integration
- effectors (muscle fibers)
- descending efferent circuits
- motor behavior
Three Levels of Motor Control
A. Segmental Level
- spinal cord circuitry: controls reflexes and fixed action patterns

B. Projection Level
- descending fibers in the spinal cord

C. Programs/Instructions Level
- cerebullum: proprioceptor, tactile, equilibrium, visual inputs, feedback
needed for rapid correction of “errors” in motor activity

- basal nuclei: complex aspects of motor control

Brain Waves
- resulting patterns of neuronal electrical activity
- EEG (electroencephalogram):
A. Alpha waves
- in most cases: a calm, relaxed state of wakefulness, "ideling"

B. Beta waves
- awake, mentally alert, when we concentrate on some problem or
visual stimulus

C. Theta waves
- early stages of sleep, abnormal in awake adults

D. Delta waves
- seen during deep sleep and when the reticular activating system is
damped, such as during anesthesia

Amplitude: number of neurons firing together in synchrony

Brain waves change with:

a. age
b. sensory stimuli

69
 c. brain disease
d. chemical state of the body

Sleep & Sleep-Awake Cycles

Sleep:

Coma:

Reticular Activating System (RAS):

Stages of Sleep
1). Nonrapid eye movement (NREM):

2). Rapid eye movement (REM):

Higher Mental Functions

Consciousness:

Memory:

a. short term memory:

b. long term memory:

c. fact memory:

Language:

70
 THE SPECIAL SENSES

TWO MAJOR TYPES OF SENSES

1). General senses: most are modified dendrites of sensory neurons
a. touch
b. pain
c. temperature: hot/cold
d. pressure

2). Special senses: Where do you find them?

a. Chemoreceptors:

- taste buds: taste

- olfactory receptors: smell

b. Photoreceptors:

- eyes: sight

c. Mechanoreceptors:

- ears: hearing & balance

71
 Projection:

TASTE
Taste buds: differences in taste buds are not absolute, most taste buds
responds to 2 or 3 or all four taste qualities

1). Salty:

2). Sweet:

3). Sour:

4). Bitter:

STRUCTURE of a TASTE BUD

A. Papillae:
- fungiform:

- Circumvallate:

B. Globular taste bud consists of 40 - 60 epithelial cells

3 major types
1. supporting cells:

2. taste cells (gustatory):

3. basal cells:

C. Taste pore:

D. Gustatory hairs:

SMELL
Olfaction: detects chemicals in solution

72
 smell organ - a yellow-tinged patch of pseudostratified epithelium called
olfactory epithelium.
- contain millions of bowling-pin shaped olfactory receptor
cells (bipolar neurons).
- olfactory hairs located on olfactory receptor cells and
covered with a mucus layer.

THE EYE
- about 1" in diameter
- lies in orbital socket of skull
- 3 dimensional vision: length, width, depth = stereoscopic vision.
- protected by: bone, fat pad, and accessory structures
Accessory Structures:
1. Eyebrows & eyelashes:

2. Eyelids:

3. Conjunctiva:

4. Eye muscles:

5. Lacrimal Apparatus: tears - mucus, antibodies, lysozyme

lacrimal gland è ducts è eyelids è inferior/superior lacrimal

canals (caniliculi)

è lacrimal sac è nasolacrimal duct è nasal cavity

PARTS OF THE EYE & THEIR FUNCTIONS

1). Sclera: outer layer, white, maintains shape & protection

2). Cornea: transparent anterior part of sclerotic coat, permits

light rays to pass through
- plays a role in bending light rays

3). Choroid coat: contains blood vessels, non-reflective brown pigment

73
 (melanocytes), middle layer of eye, prevents light
reflection within eye, absorbs light

4). Ciliary body:

- ciliary muscle:
- suspensory ligament:

5). Pupil: opening

6). Iris: colored part of eye due to amount of melanin,

controls amount of light passing through lens

7). Lens: located behind iris and pupil, elastic, disk-shaped

structure, bends light rays

- Anterior cavity*: filled with aqueous humor - in front of lens

a. Anterior Chamber:

b. Posterior Chamber:

- Posterior cavity*: filled with vitreous humor - behind lens

* = help in maintaining shape and bending light rays

8). Retina: inner most layer of eye, light sensitive layer, image
formed
- rods: black & white vision
- cones: color vision

Farsightedness = Hyperopia:

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 Nearsightedness = Myopia:

9). Fovea centralis:

- macula lutea:

THE EAR
Divided into three regions
1). Outer ear (external ear)
a. pinna (auricle): funnels sound waves to tympanic membrane
b. external auditory meatus: canal leading to tympanic
membrane
- lined with ceruminous glands
c. tympanic membrane (eardrum): separates outer ear from
middle ear

2). Middle ear

a. tympanic cavity: small airfilled cavity between the tympanic
membrane and the oval & round windows, lined
with mucous
b. eustachian tube (auditory tube): equalizes pressure
- tympanic cavity to nasopharynx
c. ear ossicles: transmit sound waves from tympanic membrane
to inner ear
- malleus (hammer)
- incus (anvil)
- stapes (stirrup)

3). Inner ear (Also called Labyrinth)

- Bony labyrinth:
perilymph

- Membranous labyrinth:
endolymph

a. Cochlea: spiral-shaped, contains the cochlear duct which is

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 filled with fluid that vibrates the organ of corti

b. Semicircular canals: contain the ampulla - which house the crista

ampullaris, site for dynamic equilbrium (head moving).

c. Vestibule: contains the utricle & saccule which house the maculae,
receptor site for static equilbrium (head not moving)

d. Scala vestibuli:
- vestibular membrane

e. Scala tympani:
- basilar membrane

f. Tectorial membrane:

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