WRITING FOR MEDIA

(Study Material Compiled and Edited by Deepak Parvatiyar for JIMS)

UNIT I

INTRODUCTION
Journalism begins with reporting and writing for different media. The major purpose of writing for the
mass media is to present recent and verifiable medium-specific information before a mass audience.

Production Types
Media writing covers a variety of formats, news magazine, television, internet and radio copy. Good
media writers not only understand the medium they are writing for but also understand their audience.
Writing is central to all media industries. There is a basic writing skill common to all forms of media
and based on a journalists understanding of news and information and the important role that they
play in society. A good writing for the mass media revolves around the concept of modesty that puts
the writer in the background and emphasizes instead the content of the writing which is generally free
of opinion or biases. The audience wants accurate, precise, effective and complete information.
However, to write well with control and accuracy and to effectively articulate ideas and information in
a professional, medium-specific environment comes through training and practice.
An understanding of various forms of writing for various mass media is important for any journalist as
media technology is fast evolving and becoming more complicated than ever. The development of
digital media has radically transformed journalism. Today media convergence has also necessitated a
converged style of media writing. Unlike other mass media, web is an immediate medium which has a
much larger capacity to handle news and where information can be posted even as events are still
unfolding. Web has triggered off an era of media convergence because of its flexibility, offering
platform to a variety of forms text, audio, video and photos. Nothing on the web need be lost, and
everything here is retrievable and easily duplicated. It is a mobile, interactive medium where readers,
and users are not just passive audiences but even contribute to the coverage of a topic or event from
anywhere through their cellphones and hand-held devices. In fact hand phones are fast becoming the
medium of choice for many new audiences and journalists need to understand the nature of this
mobility and the significance of linking their content to other information on the web, as well.
Four characteristics of media writing

Accuracy: It is the chief requirement of a writer for the mass media. A writer is expected to
present accurate information. This requires effort and therefore many of the of the procedures
for writing for the mass media are set up to ensure accuracy.

Clarity: It means that information should be presented in a way that it is understood clearly
and there is no ambiguity. Since mass media is for the masses, the sentences should be
simple and words and phrases are easily understood by a mass audience. The write up
should an answer all of the questions that could be expected by the audience to understand
the information.
Efficiency: It means using the fewest words to present the information accurately and clearly.
It is a difficult task and can be perfected by practice.

Precision: It means that as a writer, one needs to use words for precisely what they mean.

Concept of the audience

Journalists write for an audience; they do not write for themselves. This makes an enormous
difference in the way they write and what they say. They must always keep the idea of the audience in
their head what does the audience want, what information does it need, etc.

Processes of producing a copy

A media writers job is to gather, process and present information. The first and foremost
consideration in the processing and presenting of information is accuracy. Getting information right
means understanding that information in its appropriate context.
Professional writers need to learn what it is to write in the media environment. This environment is
not just a place although it is often that, such as a television or newspaper newsroom or the
writers pool of an advertising agency. But it is also a state of mind, an acculturation that the writer
must undergo.
How to present information?
A media writer must understand that the purpose of media writing is not self expression but to inform
the reader. It is to present information and ideas. Two secondary purposes
are persuasion and entertainment, but what lies behind almost all media writing is information.
While information is the chief purpose and accuracy is the chief goal of the writer, the writer remains a
third person or impersonal presence in the writing which is always done for an audience.
Many of the practices, customs and conventions of media writing are designed to ensure accuracy
and to convince the reader that information is accurate.
Conventions and practices
Part of becoming a media writer is to learn the conventions practiced by most writers for the mass
media. You also need to learn some of the concepts and principles that underlie these practices.
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Objectivity and fairness. Part of presenting information is doing so without injecting your
own beliefs or feelings into the writing. Media writers try to present information in a manner
that does not reveal how they feel about it or what they think. Their job is to let readers or
viewers make up their minds about what the information may mean. They go into what might
be called a third person mode writing impersonally, de-emphasizing the writer and
emphasizing the information.
Thats why one of the major writing conventions is to let readers know where information is
coming from. Sources of information and attribution are important parts of the media writing
mix. In the weeks ahead, you will learn how to attribute information to a source when you are
writing news and information. This is one of the most common practices that a media writer
does.

Editing: Writing is an individual act, but in the media environment, it does not remain with
the individual. Most media organizations have some kind of editing process. Other people will
get involved with your writing. They will edit and question it. They may rewrite it. This is part
of the process, and writers need to get used to it.
Editing begins with the individual writer, however. Few people can write in a way that does
not need editor. The good writer learns to recognize the weaknesses of the first draft and to
take care in correcting them. He should edit his work carefully and learn to to recognize the
technical mistakes he might make, but also read the copy for wordiness, logic and
coherence.
When you edit your work: Instead of telling yourself, Im going to find the mistakes,
tell yourself, Im going to make this better.

Time, space and deadlines. Almost all media writing is done under fairly strict deadline
pressure. Newspaper reporters must meet daily deadlines. Broadcast reporter must meet
hourly deadlines. Advertising copy writers and public relations practitioners must always meet
deadlines. One needs to learn to work under short and sometimes harsh deadlines.
Deadlines are sacrosanct because if we didnt have deadlines, few newspapers, magazines,
newscasts, advertisements or newsletters would get produced. Deadlines make the process
of producing these things more efficient and predictable. The mass media couldnt work
without deadlines. So, a media writer should learn to meet the deadlines and get used to
them.

Writing for an audience. It may seem obvious, but the media writer must keep in mind that
the writing is done for an audience usually a mass audience. The writing will be read or
heard by many people. That imposes a great restraint on the writer, who must always ask,
What does the audience want? What does it expect? What must I do to satisfy the
audience? Again, the point is that media writing is not done for self-fulfillment. It is done for a
purpose of serving a large audience in some way.

Attributes of a media writer: Successful media writing reveals the following characteristics about the
writer:

maturity an understanding of the responsibilities of the writer who asks that the audience invest its
time and its money in what he or she is doing

knowledge of the language

knowledge of all forms of media writing and understanding of the proper use of these forms

willingness to risk having his or her efforts subjected to the judgment of a large audience

Three steps for improving writing

Read examples of good newswriting;

Analyze these articles; look for examples of clear writing, good lead paragraphs, use of transitions,
efficient writing, etc.

Emulate; Copy. Try to do the same things in your writing that you have seen in the writing of others.
Make your stories like the examples in the book.

Habits that make one a good media writer

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Read with great concentration;

Learn to block out distractions;

Get into the habit of developing your writing sentence by sentence, rather than word by word.

Write coherently: Clear, coherent writing takes practice and effort. Most of us can speak well
enough to be understood by our friends and acquaintances. Writing is a different matter. To
say what we want to say in writing involves an enormous intellectual effort.

Basic tools of writing

a) Grammar, spelling, punctuation
Knowledge of the rules of grammar, spelling, punctuation and style are crucial for any writer and
important for the writers professional reputation. The rules grammar, spelling, punctuation are
dynamic rather than stagnant. They change often. Media writers must keep up with the language and
the way in which people are using it.
Most common errors
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Run-on sentence and commas splice:

A run-on sentence connects two complete sentences with no punctuation or
coordinating conjunction. For example, The computer screen began flashing it would
not stop.
A comma splice is where the writer might use a comma to separate the two
sentences. For example, The computer screen began flashing, it would not stop.
This sentence is still incorrect. To proper separate two complete sentences within a
sentence, you should use a comma AND a coordinating conjunction, such as and or
but.
The computer screen began flashing, and it would not stop.

Pronoun-antecedent agreement:
This may be the most common error in writing because it is the most common error in
our speaking. We often use a plural pronoun to refer to a singular antecedent in our
speech. This is acceptable when we speak, but it is not acceptable when we write.

Singular antecedents require singular pronouns. For example, The Supreme Court
announced its decision today.
Not
The Supreme Court announced their decision today.

Essential and non-essential clauses:

It is important to understand how an essential clause differs from a non-essential
clause. In many constructions, essential clauses are introduced with the word that
and are not separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. Non-essential
clauses are introduced with the word which and are separated from the rest of the
sentence with commas.

Use of Its, its:

It is a singular pronoun.
Its is the possessive of it.
Its is a contraction for it is.
Its does not exist.

Commas:
The comma can be a very powerful instrument for expression.
God save the Queen.
God, save the Queen.
God save the Queen?
God save the Queen!
God. Save the Queen.
There arent many rules for using commas, but they are very important. The comma is
one of the most important tools of punctuation. If it is used correctly, it can clarify an
otherwise confusing piece of writing.

Pay particular attention when you use a direct quotation and attribution.
A comma should be inside the quotation mark to separate the quote from the
attribution, as the examples below:
I ran to the store, he said.
A period should not be put after the word store. It should be a comma. Dont make
the silly mistake of writing:
WRONG: I ran to the store. he said.

Words:

Use words precisely for exactly what they mean.

Dont use reticent when you mean reluctant,
imply when you mean infer,
dont shoot off a canon,
dont sentence someone to be hung for a crime,
and above all,
dont stand on your principals.

Forming plurals:

Do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of a word.

Forming possessives:

Learn to use the apostrophe properly.

b) Style and the stylebook

All media writing is governed by the rules of a stylebook. The most wide-ranging stylebook is the AP
Stylebook and Libel Manual. However, most of the big newspapers and magazines respectively have
their own style book that governs journalism, public relations and much of advertising.
Stylebooks:
help bring a consistency to writing
help draw attention away from the writing and toward the content
help make writing easier for the writer
Here are a few basic style rules that may help you learn the stylebook:
Every word has one and only one spelling.

Check the stylebook first then a dictionary

Look up the entry in the stylebook on spelling

Avoid unnecessary capitalization.
Proper nouns and names: exceptions: Popular names (South Side, East Tennessee, the Series);

Derivatives (English, Christian, but not biblical or french fries)

Learn the difference between capital and Capitol
Avoid excessive abbreviation.
A name and an abbreviation in parentheses immediately after it is usually not necessary.
Memorize abbreviations for months and states.
In most cases, capitals and periods are not necessary for an abbreviation.
ABC, not A.B.C.; but always U.S., never US
Some abbreviations are appropriate on all references: FBI for Federal Bureau of Investigation
Punctuate according to generally accepted rules of punctuation.
Major exception:
Items in a series: AP style says not to put a comma between the next-to-last item and the conjunction.
The flag is red, white and blue.
In general, spell out zero through nine.
Many exceptions and contingencies to this rule.
Look up numerals entry in the stylebook.
Pay attention and memorize.
Knowledge and use of style is a way of showing that you care about your writing and that you have
the discipline to improve it. Consistency in writing is almost always a virtue.

Economics of operation for a media writer

The undisputed role of internet is transforming the planet into a global village is universally
acknowledged. With the growth of digital media, communication technology has acquired a totally
new dimension. While traditional media such as print, radio and television are still popular, web has
emerged as a platform for media convergence. Unlike the traditional media, the new media has a
much wider reach and is easy to launch. Even a handful of persons with the basic knowledge of
designing, internet, videography/photography and media writing can launch a news portal today. It
does not require the paraphernalia required for running a newspaper, radio station or a television
channel. RSS feed could be a major resource of content for the website thus drastically reducing the
cost of operations as compared to the traditional media. Hence, scope of a content writer too has
increased manifold with the emergence of the new media. The web has facilitated a global market
place and fields such as corporate writing, advertorials, annual reports today offer lucrative career for
a media writer. Today a media writer has more opportunities than just being a staffer in any of the
media houses. Therefore, today a free lance media writer assesses the value of unpaid writing gigs,
including internships and online outlets; seeks out corporate clients and pitches his/her writing
services; develops a self-promotion strategy that embraces traditional resources and social media;

evaluates channels for self-promotion, including websites, Twitter, Facebook, and other resources;
and even outlines a basic business plan that satisfies his/her financial needs.

Organizing and managing media write-ups

One thing that helps media writers is that they use particular forms, such as the inverted pyramid
form, acceptable to certain media. Along with knowledge of the form, we must understand what we
are writing about. That is, we should have a thorough knowledge of the facts, information and ideas
that we are trying to present with our writing. Often, we will be asked to string a set of facts together in
a unified way, and the technical tool we use for this is the transition.
There are several major forms of transitions. It is not important that you know them by name, but it is
important that you understand how they work and when they should be used. They are
* connectors
* hooks
* pronouns
* associations
* logic

Organizing and managing media write-ups

Information gathering is a major challenge before any media writer writing for any news organisation.
It requires, research, travelling, interviews, and an indepth knowledge of the subject. One of the things
that helps media writers is that they use particular forms, such as the inverted pyramid form,
acceptable to certain media.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The inverted pyramid

The inverted pyramid is an anti-narrative structure of writing about events. Instead of starting at the beginning, the inverted
pyramid structure demands that you begin with the most important information and that you present information in decreasing
order of importance.
Some historians argue that the inverted pyramid form developed in the mid-19th century when news was first being transmitted
by telegraph wires. The wires were unreliable or during the Civil War would be taken over by the military so a style of
presentation had to be used that would get the most important information out first. The outcome of a battle might be the most
important thing that happened during the battle. But rather than writing a narrative that delayed telling what happened until the
very end, the journalist had to say it at the beginning of the report.
Today the inverted pyramid structure is highly developed and widely used, not just in newspapers and wire services but in
many kinds of writing. Many business letters, for instance, use an inverted pyramid structure to tell the recipient immediately
what the most important information is.
Lead paragraph
The most important part of an inverted pyramid news story is the lead paragraph. Most lead paragraphs should be one
sentence and a maximum of 30 to 35 words. Those are the technical requirements. The content requirement is that it tell the
most important piece of information that occurred in the event.
In addition, a lead should contain the main who, what, when and where of the story. And they

should be direct and simple; they should have the most important information near the beginning of the sentence;
should not try to tell everything, but they should be good summaries of what the story is about;
should include specific information concrete facts about the story;
should not begin with the when element because this is rarely the most important thing you have to tell the reader;
should use a strong verb to describe the action;
should be accurate above all else.

The second paragraph

Almost as important as the lead is the second paragraph. The second paragraph is where you develop some idea or piece of
information that is in the lead.
You should not drop into a narrative in the second paragraph. Many students concentrate on writing good leads but then have a
tendency to start at the beginning in the second paragraph.
Resist that temptation.
Remember that you are presenting information in decreasing order of importance. Each new paragraph should present the
reader with some new information. But it should be tied to the previous paragraph by the skillful use of transitions.
Inverted pyramid checklist
When you write an inverted pyramid news story, use the following checklist to make sure that you have done it correctly.

Information should be presented in descending order of importance.

Leads
one sentence
30-35 words maximum
lead tells the most important information in the story and gives specific facts

Second paragraph
expand or develop some idea introduced in the lead
should not drop the story into a chronological narrative

Attribution
All major information should be attributed unless it is commonly known or unless the information itself strongly implies the
source.
Dont dump a string of direct quotations on the reader.
Direct quotations should be no more than two sentences long.
Direct quotations and their attribution should be punctuated properly. Heres an example:
John did not go with her, he said.

Elements of a direct quotation should be in the proper sequence, as in the example above: direct quote, speaker, verb.
Always. Check numbers, dates, locations, titles, etc.
Check the following
pronoun-antecedent agreement
it, its, its
it is . . ., there is . . ., there are . . . structures; avoid these. They are passive and vague.
Use the past tense, not the present.
Comma splice or run-on sentence, such as
He picked up the ball, he ran down the field.
Sally does not know where he is he is not here.
These are grammatically incorrect.
Plurals dont make them by using an apostrophe s.
Short paragraphs any paragraph more than three sentences is definitely too long; any paragraph that is three
sentences is probably too long.
Wordiness have you checked for too much verbiage, redundancies, unnecessary repetitions, etc.
Name, title When you put the title before a name, do not separate them with commas, such as
(WRONG): Game warden, Brad Fisher, arrested the trespassers.
When the name comes before the title, the title should be set off by commas.
Brad Fisher, the game warden, arrested the trespassers.
Transitions use them to tie your paragraphs together. Dont jump from one subject to another in a new paragraph
without giving the reader some warning.
Dont copy the wording of the information sheet.
Names check them once more to make sure they are spelled correctly.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------

Along with knowledge of the form, media writers must understand what they are writing about. That is,
they should have a thorough knowledge of the facts, information and ideas that they are trying to
present with their writing. Often, they will be asked to string a set of facts together in a unified way,
and the technical tool they use for this is the transition.
There are several major forms of transitions. It is not important that you know them by name, but it is
important that you understand how they work and when they should be used. They are
* Connectors
* Hooks
* Pronouns
* Associations
* Logic
To manage all information and then to organize them in an interesting style for the readers/audience
is a skilled task. Presentation of a report requires adherence to the style of the particular media
organisation also.

UNIT II

News
News is newly received or noteworthy information, especially about recent events or happenings,
especially as reported by newspapers, periodicals, radio, television, Web sites, RSS feeds or wire
services. It is, in the words of the founder of the first School of Journalism, Water William, that
which is of interest to the readers the public
News is also defined as anything timely that interests a large number of persons, and best news is
that which has the greatest interest for the greatest number.
News is something significant that happens: circumstance, development, episode, event, happening,
incident, occasion, occurrence, thing. The word "news" comes from a special use of the plural of the
word "new" and not, as the common backronym claims, from the four cardinal directions (North, East,
West, and South).
Commonly, news content should contain the "Five Ws" (who, what, when, where, why, and also how)
of an event. There should be no questions remaining.
News reporting is a type of journalism, typically written or broadcast in news style. Most news is
investigated and presented by journalists (or reporters) and often distributed via news agencies.
To be considered newsworthy, an event usually must have broad interest due to one or more news
values:
* Sales (how much revenue can be generated?)
* Effect (how many people were, are or will be affected?)
* Timeliness (did the event occur very recently?)
* Revelation (is there significant new information, previously unknown?)
* Proximity (was the event nearby geographically?)
* Oddity (was the event highly unusual?)
* Entertainment (does it make for a fun story?)
* Celebrity (was anyone famous involved?)
News values
One of the first things you should understand about news is news values. News values are formed by
tradition, technology, organizational policy, and economics. These are the concepts used to
determine whether or not an event is news. They broadly include
Change: World is a dynamic place and everything keeps changing. The bigger the change and the
more the people affected by this change, the bigger the news.
* conflict (people love conflict when it involves other people): Conflicts affect lives. Conflicts and
even the danger of conflicts make news as they tend to bring about major change to the lives of the
people. Conflicts of smaller dimension such as group or personal conflicts resulting in crimes, strike,
demonstrations etc. as well as bigger conflicts such as wars make news as they affect lives of the

people. Even conflicting ideas of leading personalities make news as they tend to influence polity and
people.
* Disaster: Disasters whether natural or man-made, small or big, make news.
* impact or Consequence: The immediate and long term impact of an event also makes news. The
more people it affects the greater the impact or consequence. Fear of consequences also make
news.
* Prominence: What happens to important people makes news as their announcements and words
have an impact on the common people. At the same time prominence is many a time built up by
media in view of the seriousness of the issue.
* Proximity: Proximity becomes key news value as people are more interest in what happens under
their nose in their village, town, country rather than in distant places. At the same time they are more
interested in the occurrence of an immpediate impact on them.
* Timeliness (the latest, most up-to-date information): Old news is no news. News is a highly
perishable commodity and therefore its timeliness is crucial for its acceptance as news.
* Human interest: Almost everything in news concerns human beings, but any news which involves
the emotions of the people is of human interest. Human interest content of stories is higher when
ordinary persons are involved in extraordinary situations an adventure, a disaster, a tragedy or a
triumph. Human interest is also evolved when it depicts extraordinary persons in ordinary situations.
An event is judged as newsworthy or not newsworthy depending on whether or not it exhibits any of
these values. An event does not have to have all of these things although sometimes that
happens. And almost everything that is news has to have the news value of timeliness.

Qualities of News

News is the most wanted commodity in the world. Everyone wants to know about the developments in
his or her environment, whether at the local, regional or global level. Much of the news that we read in
the newspaper and hear or see respectively on radio or television is event oriented. What we learn
about government and politics is event oriented-news of meetings, hearings, trials and sessions of
legislative bodies. Similarly reports of action and confilict-accidents, fires, murders, wars, disasters.
Another aspect of news, one of growing significance, is the personal, especially health, sex, education
and safety.
A good news has the novelty to catch the attention of the reader. It creates a personal impact and is a
well written or well articulated and credible piece.
News can be either hard news or soft news. They may be simple reporting of events or in the form of
an analysis, called news analysis, or in the form of an editorial. Soft news are generally presented as
a feature.

Every journalism student should be able to differentiate between an article, feature and editorial. An
article is a glorified and dignified form of a essay written in a journalistic manner wih topicality, novelty
and social significance. It is written on serious hot and timely issues like foreign policy, international
issues, international relations, diplomatic ties, constitutional reforms, womens bill, industrial policy,
disinvestment policy, economic policy, land reforms, etc.
Both articles and features are non-news forms of writing. They strive on the quality of a good prose.
Yet the difference between an article and a feature is that while writing a feature, the writer might
include his feelings, his emotions. An article is generally written on broad subjects, covering more
than one aspect and in features the subject matter is specific, minute and narrow. An article is written
by a subject expert and is more scholarly, while a generalist can write a feature.Feature is a special
form of presentation ful of high communicability and creativity written on a given topic, which is of
concern and interest to the common readers. It is a sort of lyric in prose.
An editorial of a newspaper is the comment of the newspaper on current burning issues. Newspapers
are generally known for their views. News are perishable but views can remain fresh for a long time.
Editorial is the mirror of the newspapers opinion; it is the conscience of the paper. It projects the
viewpoint of the paper on a particular policy, programme or event. Editorial has the power to inspire,
motivate, excite, appeal, criticize, or reject certain idea or policy. It is meant to create a public opinion
and is written with reason and conviction. The writer should have his heart in te subject on which he is
writing. He should not be repetitive of facts stated in the news story, and should give a digest of facts,
evaluate them, and arrive at a logical conclusion step by step.

Importance of News
News is important for a number of reasons within a society. They inform the public about events
which are around them and may affect them. Often news is for entertainment purposes too to provide
a distraction of information about other places people are unable to get to or have little influence over.
News can make people feel connected too.
News is important as a social gathering space too. News are the basis of public awareness. They
have a real and sometimes immediate impact on people and society at large; Public opinion is
created, based on the information people get. If the content of news is significant enough, it eventually
becomes history. In democracies, news organizations are often expected to aim for objectivity:
Reporters cover both sides in a controversy and try to eliminate bias. This is not true of all, as some
are expected to have a point of view. Individuals and organizations who are the subject of news
reports may use news management techniques to try to make a favourable impression. In the United
Kingdom, limits are set by the government agency Ofcom, the Office of Communications. Both
newspapers and broadcast news programs in the United States are generally expected to remain
neutral and avoid bias except for clearly indicated editorial articles or segments. In India, the Press
Council of India and the News Broadcasters Association have set guidelines for fair news reporting.

News Gathering
News writing depends on information. The quality of the writing is tied to the quality of the information.
The quality of the information depends on its source. News Reporters gather news from different
sources. News gathering requires a nose for news. Good reporters can smell news from nowhere and
produce excellent copies.
News can be gathered from the neighbourhood, public and government offices, political parties,
market places, commercial establishments, Legislatures, Courts, Police, Scientific Communities and
Establishment, Celebrities and public figures, Social Organisations, Welfare Trusts etc. In short, the
society that we live is the very source of our news. Journalism reporting and writing news
demands that you make judgments about the information you are given and put it in an order of
importance.
Parameters for news gathering are as follows:
Death and injury
Damage to property
Involvement of people The larger the number of people involved, the more important the
information.
How much money is involved and whose money is it? The amount of money involved in a story is
an important and interesting fact that readers will want to know soon after starting the story.
Differing points of view or disagreements Conflict is often what makes an event news. Look for the
conflict in a story and emphasize that. But use some judgment about how much to emphasize it. The
news media are often accused of overemphasizing conflict. That over-emphasis is called
sensationalism.
How unusual is the event? Emphasizing the unusual or the bizarre nature of an event is tricky. In this
area, too, the news writer needs to take care to avoid sensationalism. Still the unusual aspects of an
event are often of real interest to a reader, and a news writer needs to weigh this in considering facts.
What would be of interest to readers? This follows from our previous question. News writers should
remember that they are writing for an audience, and that audience has certain demands and
expectations. A news writer must satisfy those demands.
Journalists have to tell their audiences bad news. Its not fun or pleasant to do this, but youre going to
be a journalist, thats what you have to do.

Information, at its source

News writing is important but secondary to reporting. Reporters and news writers must learn to get
the most from their sources by
finding the right people to talk to (VERY IMPORTANT), rather than using sources of convenience
respecting their feelings and position
dealing with them ethically by identifying themselves, understanding the principles of on-the-record
and off-the-record conversations, and maintaining the confidentiality of sources even when it is

difficult to do so (such as being faced with going to jail)

learning how to interview people properly
News writers must understand information and sources in order to present the information properly to
the audience.

Sources can be categorised broadly into three categories:

Stored book, library, and the Web are examples of Stored sources. These sources provide
background material or offer starting point for any developing news story. The good news reporter
knows sources of information and can find them quickly.
Because of the web, even stored information are constantly updated. Yet, even the web does not
solve the basic problems of stored sources: they are static (they cant be questioned) and they may
not contain the latest information. It is therefore left to news writer or reporter to update the stored
information and present it as news.
Observational information that you can get from personal experience, by going to a city council
meeting, a fire, a press conference, etc.
Reporters would like to cover more events than they are able to. Being an eyewitness to something
and being able to talk to people who have experienced it is an experience that cannot be duplicated.
Reporters learn to prepare themselves to cover an event by
learning as much as they can about the event beforehand
getting into a position to see and hear what is going on
talking with people who are also experiencing the event
taking good notes; using a tape recorder; making notes to themselves immediately after the event
taking pictures
writing from press releases
Personal information that you get from talking to people. Most news reporters have to interview
people to complete their news stories.
Being able to talk to people and getting people to talk to them is one of the most important skills
of reporters. Many people are reluctant to talk with reporters because they are afraid of being
misquoted or afraid of the consequences of being in the news. Others are anxious to talk with
reporters but they may not have good information or they may be pushing their own agenda or point
of view. It is a skill to make the people speak the right thing that makes news.

News Gathering Skills: Interviewing; On-the-scene reporting; Records

Interviewing
One of the most important things in journalism is interviewing because

most news and information is gathered by talking to people

it is a standard practice of journalism

good interviewing takes skill acquired by practice and experience

we place a high value on what people say

interviewing gives us the latest (most recent) information from the people likely to know the most

in journalism, interviewing isnt just talking to people; there are specific rules, guidelines and
expectations involved if an interview is conducted properly
Anyone can look something up (using stored sources). And anyone can have an opinion about
something. But it takes a journalist to find out information that other people cant find or cant be
bothered with finding. Thats why we interview.
Who should be interviewed? Finding good sources of information and persuading them to talk to
you is the job of the journalist. When you are writing about any topic or event, you should try to find

Experts with first-hand knowledge of the topic

Eyewitnesses

People who general knowledge about the topic

People with informed opinions

How should the interview be conducted? In person, if possible. Over the phone, if in-person is not
possible. By email, but that isnt always a good option.
The rules. OK, what are the rules of journalistic interviewing that make it different from just
conversation. Here are a few:

Be completely honest with your interviewee. All information exchange in journalism is based on
honesty.

Indentify yourself to the interviewee BEFORE the interview begins. Tell the interviewee why you
want to talk with him or her and that what is said might be quoted in a news story. Make sure the
interviewee understands all this.

Tell the interviewee what news organization you are working for.

Ask the interview how to spell his or her first and last name. Take down the interviewees title.

Take notes.

Listen carefully to what the person is saying. Repeat back what you dont understand. Ask for
clarification.

Ask the interviewee before turning on a digital recorder. You must have the persons permission.

When you use a quotation, if you put words within quotation marks, they must be exactly the words
the interviewee said and in the order they said them.
Verification
Journalism is defined by the process of verification. It is the essence of the journalistic method of
finding information and assuring its accuracy.

Consistency. Journalists use the same approach to finding information for their stories. See last
weeks lecture notes on sources. Who are the people we want to talk to about a story?

Transparency. Journalists dont use secret methods, nor do they disguise themselves and what they
do. They operate in the open, and they are open to criticism about their methods and actions.

Multiple witnesses or sources. Journalists try to gather information from as many sources as
possible given the nature of the event or topic and time they have to complete their work.

Recognizing bias. Journalists first recognize their own bias and make consistent and honest efforts
to assure that their methods are not change by their own bias. Then they recognize the bias that their
sources have toward the information they are giving. This recognition allows them to weigh the
information and correct it with other information.

Adherence to professional forms. Many of the forms of writing, story structure and information
presentation exist because they assist in the process of verification. For example, in a news story, all
major information should be attributed to some source. This custom puts a burden on the writer, but it
is necessary to show readers where the information comes from.
A good statement of the principles of journalism is at the Pew Research Centers Project for
Excellence in Journalism.

On-the-scene reporting

Three kinds of events occur that reporters must cover: staged events; spontaneous events; and
events that are a mixture of the two.
A staged event is one that is planned and about which information can be gained before the event
occurs. A staged event might be a concert, a political speech, an awards ceremony or a grand
opening. These events are usually managed by a person or organization and have a purpose that
benefits whoever is producing the event. These are the easiest for the journalist to plan, often
because the producers of the event want news coverage and will be cooperative with the journalists.
In covering staged events, journalists

should contact the producers beforehand to get the who, what, when and where of the event.

make sure that there are arrangements to accommodate journalists by finding out what access
journalists will have to the areas of the event, to whom the journalists can talk to, the timing and
scheduling of the event and so on.

should check with the producers to see if there are any special rules in covering the event and to see
if those rules are acceptable. Sometimes producers will want to limit coverage or will try to make sure
that events are reported in a particular way.

should not agree to attend and cover staged events if the conditions intrude on their freedom to write
and say what they want about the event.

check on with a staged event is to find what electronic and wireless availability there is in case
journalists what to report live from the scene via the web.
A spontaneous event is when something unexpected and significant occurrs that involves more than
a few people: a fire, an explosion at a factory, a major traffic jam caused by a wreck, a tornado that
destorys property, etc. While many spontaneous events are bad news, that is not always the case.
Still, a spontaneous event is more likely to involve tragedy than not. Journalists must be ready to
cover such events with all of the professionalism and objectivity they can display. They must
remember that they are witnesses and should not get caught up in the moment and its emotions.
In covering a spontaneous event, journalists should

1. try to get as close to the events location as possible

2. should always carry some form of identification that shows they are reporters working as media
professionals. Police and emergency workers are more cooperative in allowing reporters access
when they are convinced the reporters are professionals.

On September 11, 2001, CNN reporter David Mattingly was visiting family in Pennsylvania when he
hear the news of the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington. He then realized he was about
two hours away from where a plane hijacked by terrorists had crashed. He drove there immediately
but did not have any identification that would show he was a reporter. He talked with the police
guarding the crash scene and convinced them to let him have access to the scene by showing them
his Georgia license tags (CNN headquarters is in Atlanta) and a CNN baseball cap that he had in the
back seat of his vehicle. (See James Glen Stovall, Journalism: Who, What, When, Where, Why and
How, Allyn and Bacon, 2005.)

try to find officials in charge of the scene so they can get the latest information.

try to find eyewitnesses to the event and interview them. Finally, they try to find people who have
been affected by the event and talk with them about the ways in which the event has altered their
lives.

should identify themselves and make sure that people understand they are talking with a member of
the news media and that they may be quoted if they continue the conversation.

should take additional care for those who are grieving to make sure they do not take advantage of
their vulnerability.

if asked by those in grief to be left alone, they should honor that request.
A mixed event is one that has both elements of spontaneity and planning. An event might be
planned, but its outcome may be in doubt. A sporting event such as football game is a good example.
Journalists know generally what will happen at such events, but they still need to be there to witness
the action and record the outcome.

Attribution
One of the conventions of news writing is that you give the reader some idea of what the source of the
information is. This is called attribution. Three things you should know about attribution are

most important information in a news story should be attributed to some source;

information that is well known does not need to be attributed; for instance, you would not write, The
lake is on the north side of town, the sheriff said;sometimes the source of the information is so
obvious that it does not need any direct attribution;

different media have different styles of attribution; in writing for print, attribution is often direct and
obvious; in broadcast writing, attribution is often implied rather than directly stated.
See the JPROF essay on verbs of attribution.
Quoting and paraphrasing
Because newswriting depends so much on personal sources of information, you will do a lot of
quoting and paraphrasing. Both terms refer to attributing information to a personal source.
Quoting (or sometimes we say a direct quotation) means using the exact words that the source used.
A direct quote uses quotation marks ( ) around the words of the source and then gives the name of
the source.
A paraphrase is when you change the words of a direct quotation or when you put what the speaker
has said in your own words. This is sometimes called an indirect quotation.
Direct quotation:
My opponent is distorting my record, Bradley said.
Paraphrase
Bradley said the vice president was distorting his record.
In writing a typical news story, you should quote sparingly. There are several reasons for this.
One is that, as a trained news writer, you can generally say things more efficiently that your sources.
Another reason is that as a news writer, you are an interpreter for your readers. Lazy writers just
dump a bunch of direct quotations on the reader as if to say, Here, you figure it out.
Still, you should use at least some direct quotation in your news stories when it is appropriate.
Quoting directly gives your stories life and makes the sources seem more real.
Finally, two things about using direct quotation:
Notice how the quotation above is punctuated. Be sure to use the proper punctuation for your direct
quotes.

 The proper sequence for the elements in a direct quotation are direct quote, speaker, verb. Again,
look at the example above.

Mass media ethics

honesty in all things
openness in operation (to some extent); no hidden agendas
identification
fairness
respect for what they are doing knowledge that what media do can affect peoples lives
respect for individuals sources; individuals emotions
integrity (keeping confidences)
respect for the law and legal processes

Common ethical lapses and dilemmas

falsifying information
plagiarism using the words and information of others without giving credit
privacy intruding on the lives of individuals; a constant problem that happens as part of the natural
process of gathering and disseminating news
independence acting for the news organizations
Problem: when news organizations are owned by larger corporations and cross promote, do they
make decisions that are in their self-interest rather than the interest of those they are supposed to
serve?
balance and fairness do (can) news media be fair, tell the whole story, present all points of view?
photos continue to be a real problem
One approach to ethical problems: Loyalities
self what are personal standards of integrity and ethics
organization and peers what is expected? rewarded? what is the organization about and what
does it value?
profession what does the profession demand; what does it value?
society what are the standards society expects.
The ideal operational characteristics
Journalism involves a contract with the audience: The audience will give time and money if the
journalist operates with

Honesty
Independence
standing apart from what you are covering
not accepting gifts
Respect
understanding the point of view of others
keeping your word
avoiding doing harm

UNIT III

COMPILATION

In the previous chapters we learnt that news gathering requires a nose for news and constant tapping
of the right and credible sources of news. Understanding news value also means an understanding of
ethical responsibilities. Trained and experienced reporters, correspondents, free lancers, stringers are
the main source for the compilation of news for any news organization. From the million of things
happen every day, print, broadcast, telecast and online journalist decide which few things are worth
reporting. Deciding what is newsworthy is not an exact science. News values are formed by tradition,
technology, organizational policy, and economics. In addition to five traditional elements of timeliness,
proximity, prominence, consequence and human interest of news value, economics also plays a vital
role now in compilation of news.
While compiling news, generally news can been broken into three broad categories:

Hard news
Soft news
Investigative report

Hard news stories make up the bulk of news reporting. They typically embody the traditional news
values. Hard news consists of basic fact. It is the news of important public events, such as
government actions, international happenings, social conditions, the economy, crime, environment
and science. Hard news has significance for the large number of people. The front sections of a
newspaper, or magazine and the lead stories of a radio or television newscast usually are filled with
hard news.
Soft news or feature covers a wide territory. The one thing all soft news has in common is that it
interests the readers. Features typically rely on human interest for the news value. They appeal to
people's curiosity, sympathy, skepticism, disbelief, or amazement. They can be about places, people,
animals, topics, events, or products. Some stories that would be classified as soft news are the birth
of lion cub at local zoo, a personality sketch of a local resident who have a small part in the upcoming
movie, a cook who works as a stand-up comedian, a teenager gets a tax refund cheques. Features
are entertaining and the audience likes them.
Investigative reports unearth significant about matters of the public importance through the use of
non-routine information gathering methods. Since the Watergate affair was uncovered by a pair of
Washington newspaper reporters, investigative reporting has also been looked upon as primarily
concerned with exposing corruption in high places. Investigative reports require a good deal of time
and money. Because of these heavy investments, they are generally longer than the typical news
item.

1. Role of Reporters, Correspondents, and stringers

a. Reporters: A 'reporter' is usually someone who is allocated stories by the newsdesk

of a news organisation at the home office. Reporters play an active part in getting
information on current events. They spend a large part of the day investigating news
before sending in their story. Some reporters specialize in covering the news in a
certain field such as science, politics, or crime. Others are given a general
assignment, covering all the news events in a certain town or county.
Generally, newspaper reporters work for two kinds of papersdailies and weeklies.
Reporters for daily newspapers generally have less time to find and report their news.
Reporters for weeklies or for news magazines have more time for research. Large
papers and magazines usually assign reporters to certain subjects, called beats,
which fit each reporter's talents. In contrast, reporters for smaller papers, such as
weeklies, typically have to cover several beats at a time. They may take photographs
and do general office work in addition to their regular duties.
Some reporters work for wire services, which are large organizations that hire many
journalists to gather news from all over the world. These services send their
information to newspapers, magazines, and radio and television stations.
Most reporters start at small publications or broadcast stations as general
assignment reporters or copy editors. They are usually assigned to cover court
proceedings and civic and club meetings, summarize speeches, and write obituaries.
With experience, they report more difficult assignments or specialize in a particular
field.
Reporters should be dedicated to providing accurate and impartial news. Accuracy is
important, both to serve the public and because untrue or libellous statements can
lead to lawsuits. A nose for news, persistence, initiative, poise, resourcefulness, a
good memory, and physical stamina are important, as is the emotional stability to
deal with pressing deadlines, irregular hours, and dangerous assignments.
General-assignment reporters write about newsworthy occurrencessuch as
accidents, political rallies, visits of celebrities, or business closingsas assigned.
Large newspapers and radio and television stations assign reporters to gather news
about specific topics, such as crime or education. Some reporters specialize in fields
such as health, politics, foreign affairs, sports, theatre, consumer affairs, social
events, science, business, or religion. Investigative reporters cover stories that may
take many days or weeks of information gathering. Some publications use teams of
reporters instead of assigning each reporter one specific topic, allowing reporters to
cover a greater variety of stories. Reporters on small publications cover all aspects of
the news. They take photographs, write headlines, lay out pages, edit wire-service
stories, and write editorials. Some also solicit advertisements, sell subscriptions, and
perform general office work (which is often protested and this makes their reports
biased and motivated).
In covering a story, reporters investigate leads and news tips, look at documents,
observe events at the scene, and interview people. Reporters take notes and also
may take photographs or shoot videos. At their office, they organize the material,
determine the focus or emphasis, write their stories, and edit accompanying video
material. Many reporters enter information or write stories using laptop computers
and electronically submit the material to their offices from remote locations. In some
cases, newswriters write a story from information collected and submitted by
reporters. Radio and television reporters often compose stories and report 'live' from
the scene.

b. Correspondents: A correspondent or on-the-scene reporter is a journalist or

commentator, who contributes reports to a newspaper, or radio or television news, or
another type of company, from a remote, often distant, location. He/she works in
bureaus located far from the home office. Correspondents are sent to places where
important events are likely to happen. There they cover news outside the reach of the
local office.
A foreign correspondent is stationed in a foreign country. The term correspondent
refers to the original practice of filing news reports via postal letter. A correspondent
generally includes some of his/her own perspective on the news. For example, a
correspondent is expected to provide considerable context to the events being
chronicled. A reporter, on the other hand, offers largely fact-based reporting.

c.

Stringers: In journalism, a stringer is a freelance journalist or photographer who

contributes reports or photos to a news organization on an ongoing basis but is paid
individually for each piece of published or broadcast work. Stringers are in places
where the flow of news is not sufficient to justify the presence of a staff
correspondent, As freelancers, stringers do not receive a regular salary and the
amount and type of work is typically voluntary. The term is typically confined to news
industry jargon, and in print or in broadcast terms, stringers are sometimes referred to
as correspondents or contributors. At other times, they may not receive any public
recognition for the work they have contributed. A superstringer is a long-term
freelance journalist. He or she is usually a contract worker for one or more news
organizations.

2. Role of Editorial Desk

The editorial department takes care of news and editorial. Usually news is the responsibility of a
managing or executive editor who are directed by the editor or editor in-chief, while the
editorials are directed by the editor or editor in chief.
All stories destined for the newspaper, whether they come from the reporters and rewrite men or
from the several wire services, teleprinters and other sources-require editing. This duty falls
chiefly on the copyeditor, also called sub editor, who sits on the desk under the supervision of the
chief copy editor. The city editor and other editors read all the copy.
However, the news editor is in charge of the news room and the editorial desk. He is the first
reader of all the copies that land at the news desk. His role is to taste the copy, and decide
accordingly the priority and space to be allocated to that story, and get it edited with proper
headlines and captions for the photo. He is the eye and ear of the editor and also assigns
assignments to reporters by coordinating with the chief reporter, the bureau head or the news
coordinator.
The news editor, glances through the copy quickly, gauges its relative importance, determines
the space it should occupy-200 words or a half or three-quarters of a column- and decides the
type on the copy and passes it on to the chief sub editor who further passes it on to one of the
copy editors.

This copyreader, also called the sub editor, desk man, rim man or 'mechanic' of the editorial
room, is the anonymous and frequently unappreciated collaborator of the writer. Newsmen or
correspondents who see his blue pencil flay their cherished prose, have no words of praise for
him. Neil Mac Neil in his book "Without Fear or Favour" indicates the newsman's true worth. He
says that the reputation of many a star reporter rests partly on the work done by rim man in the
green eye shade who comes out the reporter's cliches and trims them, to pieces. The work is
mainly two-fold: the editing of the story and the construction of a suitable headline for it.
The amount, of this work varies with each paper and even at different timings on each day. On a
big desk the copyeditor may edit from 10 to 15 columns. His editorial function is to bring each
news that comes to him up to par. As he picks up the copy and reads; he forms general
conclusions about the story in hand.
Has it news value? If it hasn't, then it is not worth printing.
Is it accurate and fair? Inaccurate and uncertain items are no; wanted by a good newspaper. If at
all he selects anything which is dubious or doubtful, he takes the responsibility for published
inaccuracies.
Is it libellous? An item that contains words or implications that may get the paper into legal
difficulties has to have the danger spots eliminated.
Is it complete? Is the treatment fragmentary and partial? Will it lead the reader up in the air? If so,
its details must be rounded, with or without the help of background materials.
If the item meets these qualifications, the copyeditor starts his editing to fit his paper's
requirements. These requirements may vary but, as a general rule, we take it that the paper
requires.
(i) Clearness:
The reader must have no difficulty in finding out what the story means.
(ii) Condensation:
The copyreader must cut and condense each story to the length assigned to it. Condensation
applies to words and not to ideas. Verbal frills may go but the meaning must remain.
Condensation is done by substituting short words for long ones-even smaller words tor bigger
ones; for example, 'try' in place of 'endeavour'.
(iii) Arrangement:
The copyreader's notion of arrangement differs from that of the literary man. It is based on the
convention of the Mead' which puts the important parts first and the least important parts last. It
also makes for the sequence of ideas.
(iv) Style:

The copyeditor's style has nothing to do with literary quality. It refers to particular rules which his
paper has laid down for spelling, punctuation, capitalisation, abbreviation, use of numerals and
the like.
The copyeditor edits his copy along the foregoing principles by means of a set of standardised
copy reading symbols, which tell the typesetter what section to omit, when to transpose, when to
spell a word out and when to contract. He then proceeds to check the copy paragraphs and if the
story has sufficient length, supplies subheads.
The subhead is a line to be printed in a type which differs from the body of the story/article and is
used to break up the too solid look of a long column. The best rule is to paragraph for ideas and
not for mechanical reasons. Copyeditors try to avoid being mechanical when it comes to the
subhead.
The look of the column demands a sub-head every two sticks or a stick and a half at least, or say
about every 300 or 350 words.
The copyeditor aims to have his subheads make divisions in the subject, each division meant for
something new, and not merely for repeating what has been already told.
The copyreader or copy editor usually faces three problems: (i) to tighten up the story and
thereby speed up the action; (ii) to cut out the excess matter and bromides; and (iii) to reduce the
story so that a telegraphic editor could splash it in a page-one box if he chose to handle it that
way.
The Art of the Headline:
Although the copyeditor works anonymously, when he constructs a good headline, he feels the
pleasure of a creative artist. With short words and in short compass, he can tell a whole story. He
knows that the headline must fulfil two requirements-it must attract attention to the story; it must
announce the story's main facts. He sees to it that each headline he concocts does both.

3. Photo Journalism
Photojournalism is the visual documentation of newsworthy events and subjects. Photos are capable
of telling the story with using a single or a few images. Photojournalism is a particular form of
journalism (the collecting, editing, and presenting of news material for publication or broadcast) that
creates images in order to tell a news story. A journalist tells stories. A photographer takes pictures of
people, places and things. A photojournalist takes the best of both and locks it into the most powerful
medium available - frozen images.
Photojournalism is important because it enhances a news story, making it understandable to the
viewer. A photojournalist is especially important in the realm of reporting current events. The best
images captured are able to summarize what is being written in the article. They support the
statements being made, making the report more effective. This becomes more and more important,
as an increasing number of people do not have the time to see or read all of the content that's
included. A single photo can speak louder than several words can! The images in a piece may be
accompanied by explanatory text or shown independently, with the images themselves narrating the
events they depict. While a photographers goal is to take photographs of a certain event,

photojournalists do more than tell a story. With using as few images as possible, they are able to
highlight the most important issues of a news story. The best photojournalists are able to convey the
truth of a news report through a single, powerful photograph. .
However, while Photojournalism is usually understood to refer only to still images, in some cases the
term also refers to video used in broadcast journalism
Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography (e.g., documentary
photography, social documentary photography, street photography or celebrity photography) by
complying with a rigid ethical framework which demands that the work is both honest and impartial
while telling the story in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalism involves photographing

specific events, while documentary photography focuses on ongoing situations. A

photographer who follows traditional farmers in rural England is a documentary
photographer, but one who takes pictures of the aftermath of a suicide bombing for
publication in the news is a photojournalist.
Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the news media.
Timeliness the images have meaning in the context of a recently published record of events.
Objectivity the situation implied by the images is a fair and accurate representation of the events
they depict in both content and tone.
Narrative the images combine with other news elements to make facts relatable to the viewer or
reader on a cultural level.
One thing to keep in mind if you decide to go into this field, is photojournalism ethics. One ethical
issue is the altering of pictures. This isn't ethical, because it can alter the way the story is represented.
If you're using pictures to report the news, you still want to stick with the truth. Photojournalists also
have a moral responsibility to decide what pictures to take, what picture to stage, and what pictures to
show the public. Similarly the right to privacy and the compensation of the news subject is another
issue involving photojournalism, especially regarding pictures of violence when, photojournalists face
the ethical dilemma of whether or not to publish images of the victims. The victim's right to privacy is
sometimes not addressed or the picture is printed without their knowledge or consent. The
compensation of the subject is another issue. Subjects often want to be paid in order for the picture to
be published, especially if the picture is of a controversial subject.
Like a writer, a photojournalist is a reporter but he or she must often make decisions instantly and
carry photographic equipment, often while exposed to significant obstacles (e.g., physical danger,
weather, crowds).
People have been using images to depict events for centuries, from rock paintings to engravings in
major newspapers. The first big event to be captured in photography was the Crimean War,
establishing the groundwork for the professional field. Initially, photographs were often used to
accompany text stories to provide some variation and visual interest, but over time, images began to
be used more exclusively to narrate stories in the media.
The "Golden Age of Photojournalism" is often considered to be roughly the 1930s through the 1950s.
It was made possible by the development of the commercial 35mm Leica camera in 1925, and the
first flash bulbs between 1927 and 1930 that allowed the journalist true flexibility in taking pictures. A
new style of magazine and newspaper sprung up that used photography more than text to tell their
stories. The (Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung was the first to pioneer the format of the illustrated news
magazine. Beginning in 1901, it began to print photographs inside the magazine, a revolutionary

innovation. In the successive decades, it was developed into the prototype of the modern news
magazine.
It pioneered the photo-essay, had a specialised staff and production unit for pictures and maintained a
photo library. It also introduced the use of candid photographs taken with the new smaller cameras.
The magazine sought out reporters who could tell a story using photographs, notably the pioneer
sports photographer Martin Munkcsi, the first staff photographer, and Erich Salomon, one of the
founders of photojournalism.
Other magazines included, Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung (Berlin), Vu (France), Life (USA), Look (USA),
Picture Post (London)); and newspapers, The Daily Mirror (London) and The New York Daily News.
Famous photographers of the era included Robert Capa, Romano Cagnoni, Alfred Eisenstaedt,
Margaret Bourke-White and W. Eugene Smith.
Henri Cartier-Bresson is held by some to be the father of modern photojournalism, although this
appellation has been applied to various other photographers, such as Erich Salomon, whose candid
pictures of political figures were novel in the 1930s.
The Golden Age of Photojournalism ended in the 1970s when many photo-magazines ceased
publication. They found that they could not compete with other media for advertising dollars to sustain
their large circulations and high costs. Still, those magazines taught journalism much about the
photographic essay and the power of the still images.
st

Photojournalism in the 21 Century

In the last century, newspaper readers and television viewers have been shaped by the
images captured by photojournalists. With the advent of the Internet, videophones, digital
photography, and the popularity of video sharing sites such as YouTube have changed the
way photojournalism is viewed. These days the public demands sensational images and
many media organizations comply in order to keep regular viewers and attract new ones.
Despite society's insatiable appetite for sensational images, it's important that individual
photojournalists find a humanistic approach to picture taking. It is important to document
real situations rather than pick certain points and sensationalize them.
Truth in Picture Taking
Truth in photojournalism is more than accuracy; rather it means that the viewer must see
enough of an event to connect and sympathize with the people and situation. A
photojournalism student should be able to apply the basic fundamentals of shooting, such
as:

Lighting

Composition

Focus

Exposure

Colour balance

In doing so, he will be able to create images that enhance a news story. Shots should be
able to tell a story on their own and speak to the totality of an event and not a single portion
of it.
One of the most important lessons in photojournalism is fostering creativity. Critics of hightech photo tools maintain that photojournalism has used new technology to improve its
efficiency, but not to improve its ideas. Photojournalists should use their cameras as
communication devices, so their pictures illustrate written stories in a way that will impact
and inspire the world around us.

Simple Photojournalism Tips

Being at the right place at the right time is key when you are looking to capture a shot.
However, you can't leave everything to chance. Photojournalists should practice the
following tips to ensure the images they shoot make an impact on viewers:
Do Your Research
Photojournalist are not just photographers, they are reporters. This means you need to know
the who, what, when, where and why behind each and every shot you take. Never
underestimate the power of good research. The more you know about your subject, the
better prepared you will be to photograph him or her. Also, it pays to be a proactive
photographer. Instead of waiting for the perfect assignment, generate your own projects and
submit them to your editor.
Be Accurate
In order to be a credible photojournalist, you must take accurate photos. Your job is to
document an event, not create one. Pictures that are not truthful will ruin your credibility. One
of the cardinal rules in photojournalism is to never ever interfere or influence a news event.
What's more, you should never ask a subject to re-do something or set-up a shot in a way
that is deceptive.
Pay Attention to Content
While it's important to look for ways to make a picture aesthetically pleasing, you don't want
to lose sight of the photo's content. Don't get caught up in the details. A news photo is
content driven. Your focus should be on getting the facts straight and making sure the image
is accurate. Concentrating on whether a picture is pretty or not shouldn't be at the top of your
list of priorities. If you are able to strike a balance between the two, however, you will be
ahead of the pack.
Lighting Matters
Lighting can make or break your photos. As a photojournalist, you should always pay
attention to your light source, be it artificial or natural. In addition, it is vital to focus on the
angle from which you approach the light, the time of day you shoot a subject, and the way
you expose your picture. Each of these elements can have a dramatic effect on your images.
Don't Forget Form

Photojournalists, especially those assigned to cover wars or natural disasters, face

environmental challenges. Don't be distracted by tough conditions. Your photos should not
be taken haphazardly. Instead, pay attention to the natural geometry in each picture and
apply basis photo techniques, such as the rule of thirds and color saturation. Angles and
color can have a tremendous impact on the tone of a photograph.
Be Human
This photojournalism tip is very important: Human photo subjects shouldn't be viewed as
mere objects. They are your fellow man and should be treated as such. While it is important
to keep a professional distance, you shouldn't completely disregard a person's feelings and
emotions. This is especially critical when you are shooting a tragedy. If you are assigned to
cover a horrific event that includes loss of life and you don't know whether a photo you are
taking is appropriate, it might pay to snap it and then decide with your editor whether or not
to run it later.
4. Design and lay-out
Page layout is the process of composing text, image and negative space on the page to produce a
balanced, and harmonious visual impact that would allow for a collaboration of the author of the text,
the artist of the design and the reader to construct collectively a meaning and a message for the text.
No text has a single meaning or a unique message, and different designs create different meanings
and different messages for the same text. Newspaper, magazine, book and other paper media layout
designers not only must make the layout visually appealing to the eye, but also tell and show the
importance of the story, the text, and the message through their designs. Stories and photographs are
not the only elements that convey a context to a reader; a good design suggests a context too.

At its most basic, the composition of a layout is determined by the two dimensional geometry
of its typography, image, color scheme and the nature of its textual content; namely whether
it is technical, mathematical, poetical, philosophical, scientific or anything else . Various
design choices; starting from geometric dimensions of pages, sizes of type, texture of the
paper, column widths, their spacing and alignment would exert subtle but important impact
on the nature and quality of the communication.

A layout designer usually uses a grid system to subdivide a page into geometrical spaces that would
constitute the grammar of layout design made up of vertical, horizontal, oblique and curved borders,
margins, columns, inter-column spaces, lines of type, and negative spaces between blocks of type
and images. The visual grammar of layout design forms its visual message. Newspapers are usually
put together on a grid. These grids are based on the number of different columns that will appear on
the paper. Common grid sizes are four columns, five columns, six columns, and eight columns.
Good newspaper design is more important today than ever. The layout of a newspaper is designed to
attract readership and to optimize the newspaper's effectiveness in presenting information. Rules and
conventions have evolved over the years and almost all western newspapers share well-established
layout principles.

Basic Rules of Newspaper Layout

1. Each page contains a lead article with the biggest headline and photo.
2. Newsflashes are clustered in blocks on the right or left margin or, less often,
at the bottom of the page.
3. Facts and figures and other additional information are gathered in service
boxes.
Basic page layout:

Headlines are centered, sub-headlines only have the FIRST word capitalized
Pages are always five columns across, try to keep the text from the article all in one
box.
Vertical lines are used to divide the page between articles. Horizontal lines are also
used to separate text. Lines are 1pt, solid, black. Lines are NOT used if an article on
the page has a shaded background.
To put a shaded box behind an article, the easiest way is to find one somewhere else
in the paper, copy and paste, and fit the box to the area you need. If you need to
make the box, use the rectangle tool, and then use the eyedropper to match the color
to the other box. If you really need to fill the box yourself, go to color, at the exact
color is R=230, G=231, and B=232. Make sure the shaded box has been sent to
back, and just slap your text box right on top. The box has a .25 black border.
Make sure to leave an aesthetically pleasing margin around the actual text and the
border of the shaded box. TEXT CANNOT LOOK CRAMMED. Make sure nothing is
too close to anything else, space is important.

Fonts and stuff:

Headlines are in Myriad Pro, Bold. Size is up to your discretion. Sub-headlines are
Myriad Pro, regular. Size for this is also up to your discretion.
In bylines, names are in ALL capitals, Trade Gothic, bold #2, 9.5. Please make sure
all names are spelled right and all articles are credited correctly! Make sure the thick
line is under the byline, make it look nice.
Article text is Minion Pro, regular, 9.5. This one should definitely be set under
paragraph styles, called article text. Have the text selected, click article text, and
you should be set.
Picture credits are Trade Gothic, Medium, size 4.
Picture captions are also Trade Gothic, bold for the first part of caption, medium for
the explanation of the caption.
Pull quotes Trade Gothic, Medium, size is up to your discretion. Use horizontal lines
to separate the pull quote from the article text. A line width of 1 is usually good.
If these arent set under paragraph styles, you can set them so you just have to click
the appropriate style instead of having to change the fonts and sizes manually every
time. Click the desired paragraph style, right click, select edit style, click basic
paragraph formats, and change it to the specifications listed above. I know most of
mine arent set correctly, so if you guys change yours that will make things easier.

Pictures/graphics:

Photographs need to be of the highest resolution possible. When you get photos
off Google, place the filter on the large so you get the high-res photos. With
cartoons and stuff it doesnt matter.
Photos have a .25 width solid black border.
Make sure text is wrapped nicely around the photos, use your judgment, make it look
nice.
To wrap text around the edges of an oddly shaped picture: 1) open the text wrap
window 2) click the middle graphic, wrap around object shape 3) under contour
options select detect edges 4) select the picture with the black arrow 5) go the
object menu at the top of the screen, go to arrange, and select send to back. The
text should wrap around the picture closely and should move as you move the picture
around.
All pictures need to be credited, even if it just says google.com, or the persons
name, or whatever. Get the credit box as close to the picture as you can; this is going
to require some messing with the text wrapping. It usually helps if there isnt a text
wrap on the credit box.
When you select photos to place in the paper, look at it and decide if it will look
alright in black and white. So nothing too dark, with too much shading, etc.

Basic Magazine Design

Magazine design is have some particular rules and boundaries, which should be followed
while designing.
Before getting into the main part you should know some of the basic principles. Some of the
important points which might help you in designing a perfect magazine layout:
1. Different templates and style guides in the designing world, a consistent design is
very important; it not only represents your brand value, but it also engages the user for a
very long period of time. Consistent designs are valued in this industry, but that does not
mean new designs wont be getting any further chance.
In fact, more creative peoples and designers are constantly coming up with bright ideas
regarding templates and style guides. These new designs are very important because they
open up various opportunities for new ideas and innovations.
2. Keep audiences in mind A good designer always thinks about its audience first.
Think about the peoples who will read this particular magazine, think about their mentality
and then only you can come up with something that will attract those targeted audiences.
Sports magazines are basically meant for people who take an interest in sports, therefore, a
design which will attract more and more sport lovers should be very useful.
3. Capture ideas from everything Generally, designers dont come with special ideas
because they are constantly working on the same design which they have used earlier. This
is a common problem faced by every designer. The best thing to do is go outside and relax
for few hours; soon you will notice that ideas and various creative designs are coming
straight into you. This whole world is filled with beautiful inspirations for designing; one must
change his or her perception to seek out some of the best to apply in their creativity. You can
carry a notepad with yourself and note down each, and every idea before they vanish from
your memory.

4. Getting the perfect cover Magazine cover is the most important part of a magazine.
Generally, a designer spends hours on designing a perfect cover page. Cover of a magazine
should be colorful with some brand value and short intro to interesting contents. There are
various things that should be done properly like alignment, color selection, text format, etc.
5. Be flexible with other members Editors are generally working on the content of the
magazine, and designers work on the designing part, but team work is very important if a
good magazine is to be produced. Editors can take advice from designers about various
topics, and similarly, designers can take suggestions from editors.
Team work always helps in producing something different and interesting. If you dont work
in a team, then things will get a bit tough for you, and you wont be able to explore your
creativity as easily.
6. Keeping the text interesting and presentable Some articles are very long and
without any pictures. In this case, designers should keep in mind that text should have
proper and attractive format otherwise readers will get bored.
These texts should have a proper heading format and other clever entry points, which make
the overall article appealing. Various pull quotes and drop caps should be used with proper
format. Numbering and alignment should be used in such a way that it should attract the
reader instantly.
7. Without money, there is nothing In most of the publication company, budget is the
main problem which reduces the overall quality of the magazine. If you have a sufficient
budget, then getting a perfect and attractive magazine is not at all a problem.
However, nowadays, there are various online designing websites available, which can do
your designing work even at low cost. You must research well on the internet to get lists of
websites that can provide you excellent designs at cheaper or economical rates.
8. Be a professional designer Always double check your work, it enhances the overall
quality of your magazines pages. Each page should be checked by the designers for any
kind of flaw, which should be taken care of. Alignments should be checked, and color of text
should be maintained.
Designers must ensure that each page contain the same amount of color otherwise readers
will find this unequal distribution of colors very disturbing. Make sure that all the unnecessary
blank spaces are removed perfectly, and other small mistakes should be removed before
publishing the magazine.
9. Understand your printer You must understand your printer well to get that perfect
print which you always wanted. Printers are having various resolution and image settings,
which help in getting flawless printing. Always choose the right setting before printing;
otherwise you may get faulty printout pages, which will waste your time and money. Check
out all the resolutions provided and choose the best one that matches your requirement.
Images are very important; therefore, you must make sure that printer is working properly,
and printing process is going smoothly without any problems.
10. Complete magazine Designing a magazine is not a rocket science, with a little bit of
creativity and good sense of designing; one can easily create a wonderful magazine. Placing

the text properly and getting the perfect articles are not enough. A designer will have to
imagine each and every step, right from placing all the text on the pages faultlessly and
creating excellent designs that should attract more and more readers. Designers are having
a lot of work to do and therefore, they must concentrate on smaller things to get the bigger
things done quickly and flawlessly.
UNIT IV

ORGANISATION
1. Newspaper organization

The organisational structure of a newspaper is determined by the frequency of the publication

whether daily or weekly; its market size large, medium or small; and whether the paper covers the
whole nation or just a city or a particular region.

There are four basic departments in every newspaper organization editorial,

production/printing, circulation, and advertising department. Some big newspaper
establishments might however have other departments but the average newspaper
establishment will have the above-mentioned departments.
Below is a list of the basic departments that the average newspaper organization has:

The Editorial Department as the name implies, this department is the one responsible for
content creation in any newspaper establishment. It is headed by the Editor. The main
responsibilities of this department is the gathering of news, selecting of which news and
features get to be published in the paper, editing the news and features that have been
selected for publication and then laying them out for print. Like was said above, the Editor is
the head of the Editorial department of a newspaper and he or she is the one responsible for
all the content that appears in a newspaper. The Editor works in conjunction with Assistant
Editors, News Editors,Sub Editors, Copy tasters, feature writers, reporters and
correspondents and so many others to gather news from various sources and bring them to
the doorsteps of readers.
Advertising Department the advertising department is also another very important
department of any newspaper establishment. Everyone knows how much revenue
advertisement brings newspapers. As a matter of fact, advertisement is said to be the major
source of revenue for newspaper establishments. Without advertisements in a newspaper,
the establishment cannot survive. The Advertising department of a newspaper is in charge of
advertisements that are published in the paper.
The Circulation Department this department as the name suggests is in charge of
circulating or distributing the newspapers. They are also a very crucial department in a
newspaper organization. This department is responsible for selling the newspapers, which is
also another major source of revenue for the organization. The department also sees to it
that the newspapers are delivered to the right places.
The Production/Printing Department this is another department in a newspaper
establishment whose name simply tells people the job that they perform. This department is
responsible for the printing of the newspapers. The department is in charge of everything
that has to do with the production and printing of the papers, which includes, transforming
journalists stories into type and maintaining the printing machines.
The Accounting Department this is where figures are worked on. Every business needs
accounting in order to survive and move forward. The accounting department is responsible
for all the accounting work in the establishment. Some of these accounting works include the
preparation of books of accounts, preparation of the budget, making financial plans,
preparing the balance sheet, and what have you.
The Administrative Department this department is responsible for the general
administration of the entire establishment. The department is in charge of certain very
important duties such as planning, organizing and staffing.
The stores Department this is a department that has one sole responsibility which is to
properly store newsprint and all the raw materials used for printing. They also store all other
materials that are used in the establishment.
There is also another very crucial department that is found in most big newspaper
organizations called the Legal Department who are in charge of all legal matters. Some big
newspaper establishments also have departments such as Human Resource, Marketing and
even IT departments.

2. The Organisational Structure of the Magazine Industry

Most magazines have bifurcate structure:

a) Creative Engine (Editorial and Art)
b) Business Function(Advertising, Circulation, Production and General
Management)
The role of the publisher of a magazine:

He is responsible for all the operations of the magazine

He is a strategist who sets challenging but achievable goals
He knows his readers and his advertisers
He uses possible resources (personal experience, market research, current
economic and business press)
He is the prime mover in the development of new products that can be developed

Structure of the editorial department of a magazine:

The structure of the editorial department of a magazine is somewhat similar to that of a
newspaper. However, it is often smaller than the editorial department of a daily. The Editor
or Editor-in-Chief is the head of the editorial department. Working under him are the
managing editor, executive editor, contributing editors and columnists, senior editors, news
editor, features editor, staff writers, associate editors, assistant editors, copy editors,
research chief and fact checkers, reporters and correspondents, creative director, art
director, associate art director, art department assistant, photo editor, etc.
The strength of the magazine workforce depends on its size, periodicity and circulation.
The role of the editor in chief of a magazine
Much like the editor of a newspaper, the editor-in-chief of a magazine must have an overall
vision to see clearly where his magazine is headed. His basic job is to oversee the editorial
direction and content of the magazine. He decides what will appear and also keeps the
words and images in the magazine consistent with its editorial mission (whether it is a news
magazine, film magazine, features magazine, womens magazine, high society magazine
and so on). Being the editor of a magazine, which is meant for more relaxed and detailed
reading than a newspaper, he must be an exceptional writer and must be creative and able
to recognize and nurture creative ability in his subordinates. As design and layout matters
more in a magazine and therefore the editor-in-chief must have a graphic sensibility and a
focus on the appearance of the stories and their visual impact to entice newsstand buyers
into buying. He must understand the production and other technical aspects of publishing.

3. The Organisational Structure of a News Agency

A news agency is an organization of journalists established to supply news reports to news

organizations: newspapers, magazines, and radio and television broadcasters. Such an
agency may also be referred to as a wire service, newswire, or news service.

A large news agency may have the following departments:

1. News Department
News Reporters' Section
Parliamentary Affairs Section
Photo Section
Local Correspondents Section
Foreign Correspondents Section

2. Editing Department
Foreign News Editing Section
Local News Editing Section
Foreign News Section (Translation)
Radio and T.V Monitoring Section.

3. Information, studies and Investigative Reporting Department

Internet Section
News Information and Electronic Photo Archives Section
Reporting and Studies Section
4. News Services and Marketing Department
Marketing section
Cultural News Section
Special News Section
Sport News Section

5. Training and Development and Foreign Relations Department

6. Technical Affairs Department

Computer Section
Maintenance Section
News Typing Section

7. Administrative Affairs Department

Personnel Section
Administrative Section
Typing Section
Transport Section

8. Financial Affairs Department

Accountancy Section
Revenues and Collection .Section
Supplies Section

9. T.V Unit
Montage Section
Studio
T.V Cameras
TV Crew

The history of the world news agencies can be traced back to the mid 19th century when
newspapers in advanced countries joined together to send correspondents abroad to cover
events of common interest to them. Such pooling was dictated by economic necessity.

The first news agency, 'Havas" in France, was founded in 1835 by Charles Havas. Today,
national news agencies exist in 120 sovereign countries but the major ones are located in
the developed countries of the west. Some 35 developing countries have no news agencies
at all including 24, with populations of more than 1 million.
The top five news agencies in the world by virtue of their size and technological strength are
1. Agence France Press (AFP) France
2. Reuters A British news agency which merged with The Thomson
Corporation of the USA in 2008 forming Thomson Reuters
3. Associated Press (AP) USA
4. United Press International (UPI) - USA
Each of these has offices in a large number of countries. Together they transmit millions of
words each day to all parts of the world, informing and influencing public opinion and
perceptions.
PTI
The Press Trust of India (PTI) is a cooperative non-profit-making news trust that aims at
providing efficient and unbiased news services to all its subscribers. Founded in 1949 as a
successor to the British-owned Associated Press of India (API), its news service in English
contains around 1,00,000 words per day.
A network of 145 bureaux, over 400 journalists, 300 part-time correspondents across the
country, over 40 staffers and stringers around the world, and arrangements with Reuters,
AFP and several national news agencies together make up the backbone of this agency.
PTI is a leading participant in the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool (NANAP) and the
Organisation of Asia - Pacific News Agencies (OANA)
After closure of United Press of India, the United News of India (UNI) was established. It has
over 100 news bureaux in India and abroad and is one of the largest news agencies in Asia.

4. News vs Information

News is an account about what has recently happened as in a newspaper or a news

programme on the tv or radio telling you what has happened in the world. It is some
recent happening or development. News is a report of a current event
Information describes facts and details about a certain subject, for example, you will
find information desk in many public places such as airport, supermarket, etc.
Information is telling about something that is generally within the common knowledge
of many people. It is the knowledge gained through study, communication, research,
instruction, etc.
Information becomes news when news value is added to it. In the railway station, you
might have noticed the board displaying the train timings. That is not news. That is
information. But if a new train time table is issued by the railways replacing the
existing one with changes in train timings, that becomes news.

While a purpose of all news is also to inform, all information cannot be termed as
news. So information is different from news. News should give something new to the
readers, viewers or listeners.

UNIT V
WRITING FOR Media
1.International, National, Local regional and city levels writing
The concepts of diversity and inclusion are important because we live in an increasingly diverse
society. As journalists, we try to report and interpret the things that are happening in that society to a
larger audience. Journalists should recognize their own biases and tendencies toward stereotyping
(we all have them). They must realize that people from different regions, cultures, religious
backgrounds, ethnic groups and interest groups deserve our attention and sympathy.
Before you start writing you must have

A news story or angle something new, unusual, a change, an update or reminder etc

Time and resources to draft, implement and evaluate

It is important to decide which media will you use to communicate key messages to the target
audience. Whether it is national, regional and local media? Whether you consider press
(newspapers and magazines), broadcast (TV and radio) and websites/online.

Importance of international news

News from one country to another is important in todays global economy. Knowing what is happening
in other countries gives people a perspective of each others ways of life and cultural differences.
Certain kinds of news from countries that rely on each other for energy or other resources can often
have a profound influence in overall global economics.
Importance of national news
Often countries have a broad extent of distance and in some cases differing time zones. Having a
national news focus can allow people to gain a sense of national perspective. This is particularly
significant for countries that have a diverse range of population centres such as cities or towns. For
example large cities many thousands of kilometres apart may still rely on each other for trade or
resources of economic significance. So knowing the situations in other cities and towns becomes
important.
Importance of local news
News from a local area is often important to advise people in a locality about activities that may have
an impact on a community. This can allow a community to engage in decision making processes in a

community. For example if a local community reports on a dangerous road or accident hotspot
reporting these can be later used as evidence to lobby for funding to fix a problem.

2. Policy and Agenda

Every media organisation has its own policy and agenda. It has its own style sheet and strictly
adheres to it. In countries like UK and USA, the political affiliations of media houses are quite
clear. However in India, it is not so. Yet newspapers. Magazines and news channels may
have their own respective policies and agenda vis a vis a political party, leader or business
houses. The concepts of agenda setting and gatekeeping apply to all media organization.
Agenda-setting theory describes the "ability [of the news media] to influence the salience of
topics on the public agenda." That is, if a news item is covered frequently and prominently the
audience will regard the issue as more important. Agenda-setting theory was formally
developed by Dr. Max McCombs and Dr. Donald Shaw in a study on the 1968 presidential
election in the USA.
Gatekeeping is the process through which information is filtered for dissemination, whether for
publication, broadcasting, the Internet, or some other mode of communication. The theory
was first instituted by social psychologist Kurt Lewin in 1943. Gatekeeping occurs at all levels
of the media structure from a reporter deciding which sources are chosen to include in a
story to editors deciding which stories are printed or covered, and includes media outlet
owners and even advertisers. Individuals can also act as gatekeepers, deciding what
information to include in an e-mail or in a blog, for example.
As a media writer one therefore must understand the basic requirement of writing style and
content of a particular media organization
3. Freedom and Responsibility
How far can a journalist go in placing before the reader facts as he sees fit? The Indian
Constitution without specifying the word press guarantees freedom of speech and
expression in Article 19 1 (A) with such freedom being restricted for reasons of national
security. Is such freedom being misused in the guise of free press today? It can often seem
so in the incessant chatter of 24/7 new coverage on television and ever more racy tabloids
fighting for the readers attention. Relentless probing of private tragedies, barebones detailing
of personal details to the point that it is more voyeuristic peddling of information is a common
enough feature of present day journalism.
More alarming is the misuse of journalistic access as in the case of round-the clock
television coverage of the 26/11 terrorist attack that had tragi-comic repercussions, when live
coverage of commando operations provided the terrorists holed within, a live feed of attacks
planned to counter them. Clearly there is a limit to how far the media can go and those limits
are apparent even without too much of soul searching.

The challenge for free media in India today is to sift the stories worth pursuing unto the bitter
end from those that offer sensational ratings in the short term. To go after the issue or the
causative factors behind incidents. Like the rape of a student of a prestigious Mumbai institute
for instance, which ought to have led to a series of investigative stories on why one of the
safest cities for women in India is no longer as safe as believed. Instead the media frittered
away the opportunity by focusing more on the alleged conduct of the victim herself. According
to the Worldwide Press Freedom Index, the press in India ranks 118 in terms of freedom
enjoyed just ahead of peers in the USA. The index is collated by non-profit group Reporters
without Borders set up in France in 1985 that takes care to specify that it rates only the level
of freedom accorded to the media and not the quality of media work. Clearly it is time now for
a qualitative index that gauges the discharge of such freedom enjoyed by reporters,
broadcasters and editors.

4. Importance and Impact

Theorists such as Louis Wirth and Talcott Parsons have emphasized the importance of mass
media as instruments of social control. In the 21st century, with the rise of the internet, the
two-way relationship between mass media and public opinion is beginning to change, with the
advent of new technologies such as blogging.
Various studies indicate that media affects public opinion.
In 2008, The Lancet published a study indicating that North American young boys were
negatively influenced by portrayals of violence on television. This often resulted in short term
fearful or aggressive behavior.[9]
In 2006, an Associated Press article reported the negative affects on self-image of both men
and women, the result of the use of unrealistic models in advertising.
The impact of media on the society extends to both social and political sectors.
On a social level, media has its greatest impact. Viewpoints have been shaped due to the
representation of different cultures, races, genders, religions, and sexual orientations. The
two main elements of this are entertainment and news. While the representations should be
taken at face value when it comes to entertainment, some representations have led to unfair
stereotyping which becomes a part of social norms and thinking for generations.

While the media has historically been viewed as being overly aggressive and insatiable in
their plight for the latest and hottest news, their watchdog function is essential in a democratic
society where people must know what their governments are doing. The media has the
capacity to hold the government accountable, forcing them to explain their actions and
decisions, all of which affect the people they represent. The assumption in some societies is
that the press speaks for the people, thus the freedom of speech and freedom of the press
acts in the countries. The reason for freedom of the press is to ensure that democracy is able
to function, so it is important to understand that such legislation does not only protect the
functions of the press.

With press freedom we then know what the differing views in society are, opening the floor to
debate and discussion, all of which aid healthy functioning of a democratic society.
One of the most powerful strengths the media has in any society is the ability to effect
change, both on a social and governmental level. All the journalists have the responsibility to
report the unbiased, accurate information as it is received from reliable sources. It is their
obligation to obtain all sides of a story and to report on both the good and the bad stuff.
However, responsible journalism also requires a balance of the good and bad stuff in
newspapers and in broadcast reports. The media today enjoys a wider coverage as well as a
wider viewership than perhaps a decade ago. It has survived and has kept up its values to
this day.