MADE IN DENMARK

Essays on Danish legal, historical, and political

science research on the European Community
and the European Union

Johnny Laursen

Henrik D. Hyer
Knud Erik Jrgensen (ed.)

2nd edition

Table of Contents:

Preface ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Historical Studies of Denmark's Policy towards European Integration.
Old and newFrontiers, 1945-1980 ................................................................................... 2
The Classics ........................................................................................................................ 2
The Historians .................................................................................................................... 3
Welfare and Small State .................................................................................................... 5
Early EEC-Relations .......................................................................................................... 8
Domestic and Foreign Policy............................................................................................. 11
The Nordic-European Frontier ......................................................................................... 12
Into the 1970s .................................................................................................................... 14
European Integration as a field of Study in Political Science .............................................
Problematiques and Major Research Areas .....................................................................
Theoretical approaches......................................................................................................
References ..........................................................................................................................

16
17
19
22

Towards a European Union Constitutional Framework: The Danish Constitution,

the Vienna Convention and Danish Legal Research ....................................................... 26
The Danish Constitution, the Vienna Convention and the Treaty on
European Union................................................................................................................. 26
Danish Research on Legal Aspects of European Integration.......................................... 28
The European Union's Legal Foundations, the Institutional Framework
and Enlargements ........................................................................................................... 29
The European Union's External Relations..................................................................... 32
The European Union's Large Internal Market .............................................................. 32
The European Union's Common Economic and Social Dimension............................... 35
The European Union's Economic and Monetary Dimension.......................................... 38
Other Dimensions of European Union Co-operation..................................................... 41
The People's Europe: Towards a European Union Constitutional Framework? . .
39
Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 41
Selected Bibliography.........................................................................................................43
About the authors ................................................................................................................... 51

Preface
This working paper gives a survey of recent Danish work on the European
Community and European Union - we use these terms inter-changeably in this
working paper. We focus primarily on historical, legal and political science
research. The working paper is thus an example of self-reflection, which in
Denmark is a fairly rare scholarly exercise.1 Narcissism can obviously be seen as
waste of time - as an activity with dim chances for new insights. Yet, both
stocktaking and sociology of knowledge are usually considered useful for
something. To make a statement of affairs often involves big questions like "Where
are we now and where are we going?" Equally relevant, however, are questions
like "Which topics have we found particularly attracting"; "How do we know what
we know"; and "Have some topics been neglected?" - subsequently to be followed by
questions like "Why is it that we have developed the research profile we have?"
Our survey provides a description of main trends in attitudes, approaches, and
priorities. The survey also provides three useful bibliographies. The degree of
departmentalization of Danish research on the European Union is remarkable.
Historical research here, law studies there and political science over there. Multiand cross-disciplinary approaches and activities are largely absent. We have found
only a few examples of mutual inspiration and even the attention towards others'
research is often quite limited. The three contributions present, each in their own
way, a background for the assessment of contemporary Danish research on
European integration. The joint working paper summarizes the development in
recent years and describes the present state of the art. If the contributions can
provoke further reflections our intention has been met.
Preface to 2nd edition
Minor changes have been made in the 2. edition of Made in Denmark. Chapters by
Johnny Laursen and Knud Erik Jrgensen are largely unaltered. Errors which the
editor by mistake introduced in Henrik D. Hyers chapter have obviously been
corrected in the 2nd edition. My apologies for this unfortunate source of confusion.
Knud Erik Jrgensen (ed.)

1)

We have noted the following publications dealing with research on the European Union: Mogens N.
Pedersen, European Topics in European Political Science: Structural Peculiarities and National Idiosyncracies,
Political Science Publications from Department of Commercial Law and Political Science, nr. 8/1990 (Odense
University); Kurt Klaudi Klausen ed., Danish Research on Europe, Political Science Publications from
Department of Commercial Law and Political Science, nr. 5/1992 (Odense University); Erik Beukel and Kurt
Klaudi Klausen, Danish Research on the EC, European Journal of Political Research, 25: 519-526 (1994). A
shorter version of Knud Erik Jrgensen's essay has been published in Journal of Common Market Studies 33(1):
157-162 (1995). Nostalgia and an interest in the sociology of knowledge might prompt curious readers to consult
the, to my knowledge, very first survey of Danish research on European integration: Forskning i Danmark af
europisk integration: rapport fra Dansk Udenrigspolitisk Institut (Kbenhavn: DUPI, 1974).

Historical Studies of Denmark's Policy

Integration. Old and new Frontiers, 1945-1980

towards

European

Johnny Laursen

Danish historians working on the history of European integration often feel that
same lonely, melancholic mood that the first settlers crossing the wide expanse of
the American prairie must have felt. Taking a tour of Danish historical research
on this topic might not quite be like crossing Death Valley, but it is certainly far
between the trading posts and land marks; far enough to make it difficult to map
out existing research into a clear pattern of research traditions, fields and
methodologies. Nevertheless, let us turn our attention to the historical research on
Denmark's position in European affairs and point to some aspects that might be of
relevance to a wider European research agenda.
The Classics
As has often been the case in contemporary history the political scientists have
been the first to claim the research field. Two works of political scientists from the
1960s stand as the absolute classics in the study of Denmark's relationship to the
European integration process. G.P. Nielsson's pioneer work Denmark and
European Integration.2 from 1966 not only discusses the foundations and factors in
Denmark's European policies, but also outlines the development in the country's
European policy from the mid-1950s up to 1963. The work is very empirical. It is
not based on archive material, but on a broad range of published sources and
extensive interviews with civil servants and politicians. Even though there is little
in the way of theory in Nielsson's work it touchs upon almost every issue that has
since occupied students of Denmark's European policy, e.g. the domestic-foreign
policy interplay, the precarious balance between Nordic cooperation and Europe
and the problems of conciliating the welfare state and full employment policies
with closer European alignment. Nielsson's work together with two MA's by P.
Hansen and U. Federspiel from the Institute of Political Science at the University
of rhus in the 1960s, gave the first impetus to the study of Denmark's relations
with the EEC.3 Hansen's M.A. provided the platform for his article from 1969 on
"Denmark and European Integration". In this brief article Hansen managed to
describe the entire setting, the internal conditions and the most important phases
in the development of Denmark's relations with Europe.4
2)

Nielsson, G.P.: Denmark and European Integration. A Small Country at the Crossroads, Ph.D.
Dissertation, Los Angeles 1966.

3)

Hansen, P.: Determinanter i Socialdemokratiets markedspolitiske mlstning, M.A., Institute of Political

Science, rhus, 1965; Federspiel, U.: En analyse af determinanterne i formuleringen af Venstres og Det
konservative Folkeparties markedspolitik i perioden 1950-63, M.A., Institute of political Science, rhus, 1969.

4)

Hansen, P.: "Denmark and European Integration", Cooperation and Conflict, vol. 4, 1969, pp. 13-46.

In two subsequent articles written after Denmark's accession to the EEC

Hansen further contributed to and influenced the early study of Denmark's
relations to the EEC in the time after the enlargement of the European
Communities.5 Apart from the pioneerering character of these works and the solid
empirical information provided by them, they established the major questions that
came to occupy historians as well as political scientists in the time after their
publication. Their trail led in the direction of questions such as the problems of
small state behavior, the domestic factors informing European policy-making and
interactions between domestic and European policies.
The Historians
Like a slow train following an advancing army the historians have trailed after the
political scientists since Nielsson & Co. set out on their journey. For years the
historians were held up by a lack of archival documentation. The 1980s and early
1990s have brought a marked improvement after the introduction of a general 30year rule for accessibility of material deposited in the state archives. Historical
studies based on Danish state archives are now progressing and, if not catching up
with the political scientists in this field, at least diminishing the gap in time. The
time might actually soon arrive, when the results of the historians will begin to
exert influence on the considerations of the political scientists.
What can the historians offer as yet? Certain strands of insight, which might
render the Danish example interesting in the European research environment, are
beginning to make themselves visible in the work of the historians:
Firstly let us consider the connection between the postwar welfare state and
matters European. As a social democratic led economy with built-in welfare
structures and a heavy emphasis on full employment Denmark provides an
examplary case on how the Nordic welfare model related to EEC-integration. It is
a mistake to believe that this issue only rose in connection with the membership
campaign in 1972 and afterwards. Welfare and EEC-integration was not only
intensely debated in the 1950s, but also subject to expert investigations. The first
round of negotiations on Danish EEC-membership 1961-63 provides us with an
examplary case of the issues at stake.6 The Danish case has an extra quality in
that it reaches back to the beginning of the EEC and in that Denmark in the 1960s
went further than the other Scandinavians in the considerations on EECmembership.
A second aspect, where Denmark might be of general interest, is Denmark's role
5)

Hansen, P.: "Die Formulierung der dnischen Europa-Politik", sterreichischen Zeitschrift fr

Aussenpolitik, vol. 13, no. 1, 1973; Hansen, P.: "Adaptive Behavior of Small States: The Case of Denmark and
the European Community", Sage International yearbook of Foreign Policy Studies, vol. 2, 1974, London, p. 143174.

6)

For the role of welfare issues in Denmark's application for EEC-membership see: Laursen, J.: "The Great
Challenge. Denmark and the first Attempt to Enlarge the European Community, 1961-63", paper to the
conference: The Brussels Conference, 1961-63. The first Attempt to Enlarge the European Community, 17-19.2.
1994 Florence.

as a small state and its structural trade problems within the European and global
economy. Denmark in the 1950s offers an example of how a small, dependent
economy adapted to the internationalisation of the markets and used the
integration process and international organisations in her European policy. The
particular structural problems in Denmark's position in the European trade and
payments system in the 1950s and 1960s provides a valuable case study of the
political scientist Peter Katzenstein's theory about the special ability of the
European small states to adapt and respond to changes in the external
environment.7 The role of welfare, modernisation and economic adaption issues
could further be used as a test case of Alan Milward's theory about the role of
national policy objectives in the choice of states between interdependence or
integration as international strategies.8
A third interesting aspect of Denmark's role in the European integration process
is the position of the country in a two-sphere integration since 1945. A historicallybased knowledge of the political mechanisms of Nordic cooperation and a
comparison between the Continental and the Nordic modes of integration would
considerably help to come to a better understanding of the relationship of
Scandinavia to European affairs. Thanks to Denmark's participation in both
groupings, Danish Nordic-European relations might provide us with insights that
can help us to understand the crosscurrents in the relationship between the
European Community and the Nordic countries.
A fourth area, where the characteristics of Danish European policies might
contribute to a general understanding of European affairs, is the close links
between domestic and European politics. In few other European countries has the
making of European policy been so intricately intervowen with domestic politics - a
characteristic reflected among others in the special position of the parliamentary
Market Committee.9 Even though the EC issue is also an explosive one in other
countries (e.g. Great Britain), it has in Denmark almost become an integral part of
domestic politics, not only thanks to the many referenda on EC affairs, but also as
a tactical factor in the process of cross-party bargaining and in the struggle for
predominance between the main economic and social interests. In Denmark the
making of European policies can be followed not only as a process of interdepartemental decision-making, but also as a process of bargaining and tactics of
broad social and political gropings or "coalitions". But, some might answer, we are
dealing with considerations of the cool, rational minds of civil servants and
diplomats. Well no, actually, the sources inform us, that elite decisions are no
more and no less the result of a mixture of rationality, misunderstandings and
7)
8)

9)

Katzenstein, P.J.: Small States in World Markets, Ithaca, New York, 1985.
See the use of the Danish example in: Srensen, V.: "Between interdependence and integration:
Denmark's shifting strategies", in A.S. Milward et. al.: The Frontier of National Sovereignty. History and Theory
1945-1992, London 1993, p. 88-116, as well as the concluding remarks in: A.S. Milward: "Conclusions: the value
of history, Ibid, p. 191-192.
See below.

foggy concepts than those of ordinary men and women. 20th century historians
have developed the toolbox to deal with such phenomena.
From a more general point of view it should finally be mentioned that historical
case studies might be able to supplement studies in foreign policy decision-making.
Political science is very dependent on public sources and on the elusive mind of the
political actor or civil servant. The historians can rely on often rich and solid
internal documentation for the period up to the 1960s. They can also offer
precision tools for working with the minds and motives of historical actors on elite
and mass level - tools which have their roots in intellectual history and the history
of mentalits such as analyses of world views and belief systems.
Welfare and Small State
In the subject-matter of Denmark's European relations there are two potential
paths that can be followed: one focusing on the political concepts, orientations and
European ideas in Denmark and the other focusing on the political-economic and
diplomatic aspects of Denmark's European relations. Contrary to what one
perhaps should expect, the historians have not concentrated on "soft" approaches
such as a history of European perceptions or orientations in Denmark.
There is a manifest trend of focusing on the "harder" issues of economic
dependency and cooperation. This can to some degree be explained by the lack in
Denmark of grand European schemes based on political idealism and federalism
and the character of foreign policy images and traditions in the country. Idealist
foreign policy concepts tended to lie on an universalist and Scandinavian level in
Denmark; a characteristic not least anchored in the dominant Social-Liberal and
Social Democrat foreign policy line. It is in this tradition and in the political
currents of Labour and of the social-liberal movement that we must seek key
answers to the enigmatic Danish European policy. We, nevertheless, still await
the first historically-based analysis of the clash of ideas and political concepts in
Denmark between a Nordic, a universal and a Continental European orientation.
The case of the Social Democratic Party is well documented. H. Villumsen's book
on the European policy of the Social Democratic Party in 1945-49 abundantly
demonstrates that the Social Democrats looked to universal solutions in the UN
and to Nordic regional cooperation as their main aim; only towards 1948-49 did it
become clear that Denmark had to find European solutions to her economic
welfare problems.10 The tensions among Social Democratic academics in the choice
between Scandinavia and Europe 1945-63 are discussed in an excellent M.A. from
1989.11 The position of Danish Social Democracy towards European integration in
the period 1947-51 is described by the late Vibeke Srensen in great detail in her
Ph.D.-thesis. The issue is also described on a general level and over longer periods

10)
11)

Villumsen, H.: Det danske Socialdemokratis Europapolitik, 1945-1949, Odense 1991.

Schroeder, P.: Europa eller Norden? Socialdemokratiets akademikere og sprgsmlet om dansk
deltagelse i et internationalt konomisk samarbejde i perioden 1957-63, M.A. History, Kbenhavn Univ., 1989.

of time in several articles by the same author.12 All in all the European policy of
the Social Democratic Party is deservedly one of the most studied aspects of
Danish European policies. The dilemmas and conflicts between a Nordic
orientation vs. a European, between adaption to international markets and
domestic employment and between integration and national welfare strategies
have since 1945 up till today had an often divisive impact on this mass party. Not
only has this party been central in the quest to find majorities in the European
policy of Denmark, the European question has likewise played a central role in the
troublesome birth of new social democratic policies towards a modern welfare
state, problems of the international market and international issues.13 Seldom can
the link between European and domestic policy issues be studied so clearly as they
can in this case.
The focus on the economic interdependence problems of the small state Denmark
has been reinforced by a certain attention in the existing international literature
on the fate of Denmark in the framework of European economic cooperation in the
OEEC and with regard to the Coal and Steel Community. In William Diebold Jr.'s
two important books Trade and Payments in Western Europe and The Schuman
Plan14, Denmark occupied a prominent role as an example of a small economy
heavily affected by the conditions of trade and payments in the late 1940s and in
the 1950s. Also in Alan Milward's The Reconstruction of Western Europe as well as
in Wendy Asbeek Brusse's upublished thesis on West European tariff plans in the
1950s Denmark occupied a relatively important position.15 Denmark clearly
examplified some of the issues and problems in European economic cooperation in
the 1950s.
What will the coming of new, archive-based studies bring?16 Two voluminous
and important studies based on detailed archival research have followed up this
direction indicated in the international literature. It is one of the achievements of
these pioneer works to have demonstrated the extreme importance of European
economic diplomacy to Denmark in the postwar years. They make it abundantly
12)

Srensen, V.: Social Democratic Government in Denmark under the Marshall Plan, 1947-1950, Ph.D.
European University Institute, Florence, 1987; Srensen, V.: "Den skandinaviske model og Europa - dilemmaer
i dansk arbejderbevgelses holdning til Europisk integration 1950-1980" rbog for Arbejderbevgelsens
Historie, 1991, p. 13-48.

13)

See Haahr, J.H.: Looking to Europe. The EC Policies of the British Labour Party and the Danish Social
Democrats, rhus 1993; see also the journalist L. Olsen's lucid essay: "Den Stenede vej til Europa. Ivar
Nrgaard, Ritt Bjerregaard og Socialdemokraties EF-politik 1986-1993" Vandkunsten, 9/10, 1994, p. 315-339.

14)

Diebold, W. jr.: Trade and payments in Western Europe, 1947-51. A Study in Economic Cooperation, New
York 1952; The Schuman Plan. A Study in Economic Cooperation, New York 1959.

15)

Milward, A.S.: The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945-1951, London 1984; Asbeek Brusse, W: West
European Tariff Plans 1947-1957. From Study Group to Common Market, Ph.D. EUI Firenze, 1991.

16)

An introduction to some of the archives central to the history of European integration can be found in:
Laursen, J.: Fra Square de Mees til Piazza Edison. En rejse gennem De Europiske Fllesskabers arkiver",
Arkiv 1993, p. 127-140.

clear that European economic cooperation was a key issue in Denmark's economic
policy long before the coming of the EEC. They demonstrate how this problem has
been intricately linked with domestic political conflicts over economic and
industrial policies.
Leon Dalgas Jensen's Ph.D. can to a certain extent be seen as a continuation of
the studies of Denmark's bilateral economic dependency on Germany and the U.K.
in the first decades of the century.17 Jensen tends to see Danish foreign economic
policy as a continuation of the old bilateral dependency on Great Britain and to
stress the consensus among parties and interest organisations on the main lines of
foreign economic policies. In contrast to Jensen, Srensen has emphasized the
character of foreign economic policies as a battlefield, or perhaps better a
chessboard, showing the struggle between organised economic and social interests
over the diverging concepts of the future political economy of the country. It is,
thus, one of the achievements of Srensen's Social Democratic Government in
Denmark under the Marshall Plan, 1947-50 that she has shown that Denmark's
external economic relations was an issue with consequences for the overall
political and economic future of Denmark. She has also reminded us that Denmark
in the late 1940s did enter a multilateral European framework with the Marshallplan and the creation of the OEEC;18 a framework which became of overriding
importance to the overall economy and economic diplomacy of the country before
the coming of the EEC.
A prerequisite to an understanding of Denmark's policy towards the beginnings
of integration Jean Monnet style is to know more about Denmark's policy in the
OEEC and the intra-European trade and payments system in the 1950s. In ten
years, from 1948 to 1958, the OEEC and the European Payments Union set the
framework for the economies of the West European countries. The OEEC and the
many efforts to curb tariffs, currency restrictions and trade barriers strongly
affected the small economies and informed their attitudes to the later
developments of the EEC. We know too little about this European environment,
which provided the background and a first testing ground of the integration
process. Among the few exceptions are an article by Srensen and Ann-Christine
Lauring Knudsen's M.A. on Denmark in the OEEC. In the latter work Knudsen
pointed to the importance of the OEEC-framework for Danish economic diplomacy
and showed the tendency to shift the weight from pained bilateral relations over to
a multilateral framework.19
17)

Jensen, L. Dalgas: Politisk kamp om Danmarks importpolitik 1945-48, Ph.D. 1991, Institute of History and
Social Science, Roskilde University Center; see also: Jensen, L. Dalgas: "Denmark and the Marshall-Plan,
1947-48: The Decision to Participate", Scandinavian Journal of History, 14, 1989, p. 57-83.

18)

Srensen, 1987; Srensen, V.: "The Politics of Closed markets: Denmark, the Marshall Plan and
European Integration, 1945-1963, International History Review, vol. XV, no. 1, 1993, p. 23-45.

19)

Srensen, V.: "Denmark in the OEEC", in: R.T. Griffiths (ed.): Explorations in OEEC History, forthcoming,
Paris; see also the M.A. in progress: Knudsen, Ann-Christine. Lauring: Denmark in the OEEC., 1949-1956. A
Case Study of Limitations to Western European Economic Cooperation, M.A. Historisk Institut, rhus Univ.,
1995.

Early EEC-Relations
Strange as it may seem, Denmark's early policy towards the beginning of
supranational integration has been sparsely studied. Srensen's studies of
Denmark's response to the sectoral integration schemes such as the Coal- and
Steel Community and the "Green Pool" in the early 1950s marked a beginning.
These works continued the focus on economic strategies and problems, which
characterises much of the existing research.20 There are, as of yet, few studies
available on the response in Denmark to the political integration idea and of the
beginning EEC-integration in the mid-1950s such as the Messina-conference in
1955 and the negotiations on the Treaties of Rome in the intergovernmental
committee of the Six in Brussels 1956-57.
Hans Branner has recently raised the question whether Denmark's policy with
regard to ceding sovereignty to supranational integration in the early 1950s was
so negative as normally assumed and whether there is a continuity from this
period up to the 1970s. His answer is, undoubtedly correctly, that the Danish
policy was not originally clear-cut against ceding sovereignty to international
organisations. Instead, he argues that Danish policies towards e.g. the European
Coal and Steel Community examplified a more pragmatic stance to the integration
issue.21
This pragmatism is also recorded in Laursen's study of Denmark's response to
the Treaty of Rome and the European free trade negotiations within the OEEC.
From the outset Danish diplomacy did not oppose the strong institutions of the
EEC, as such. Laursen dates the crucial impact of the EEC-question on Danish
politics and diplomacy to 1957. Following the domestic discussion and decisionmaking it is pointed out that Denmark established close relations with the
emerging Community. The hindrance to membership did not come from matters of
principle with regard to sovereignty, but from Nordic complications and politicoeconomic considerations regarding welfare and the interests of Industry and
Labour.22
These studies point in the direction that Denmark's response to the integration
issue was informed by small-state economic problems and the concern to find the
best international framework for the modern, industrial welfare state that was
being built in the late 1950s and early 1960s. There is presumably little more to be

20)

Srensen, V.: "How to become a Member of the Club without joining: The Danish Policy with Respect to
European Sector Integration Schemes, 1950-1957", Scandinavian Journal of History, 1991, vol. 16, no. 2, p.
105-124.

21)

Branner, H.: "P vagt eller p spring? Danmark og europisk integration 1948-1953" in: Thomsen, B.T.
(ed.): The Odd Man Out? Danmark og den europiske integration 1948-1992, Odense 1993, p. 29-64
Branner, H.: "Danish European Policy since 1945: The Question of Sovereignty", in: M. Kelstrup (ed.):
European Integration and Denmark's Participation, rhus 1992, p. 297-327.

22)

Laursen, J.: "Mellem Fllesmarkedet og frihandelszonen. Dansk markedspolitik 1956-58", in: Thomsen, B.
N. (ed.): The Odd man Out? Danmark og den europiske integration 1948-1992, Odense, 1993, p. 65-87.

said on the matter of political concepts and sovereignty with regard to the
integration issue in Denmark in the 1950s. Studies of the 1960s will probably
establish the political and conceptual birth of Danish foot-dragging in European
affairs somewhere between the first conference on enlargement of the EEC, 196163 and the final entry of Britain, Denmark and Ireland into the Community in
1973.
Instead of focusing on the attitudes to European integration in the early phase,
it would probably be more interesting to ask how the coming of the EEC affected
Denmark's bilateral relations with e.g. Great Briain and with the Franco-German
axis. Relations with West Germany especially underwent a marked intensification
in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Again, closer collaboration between the
historians and political scientists might be fruitful. The historians' documentation
of how Danish diplomacy used the connections to West Germany on EEC-affairs
(and the other way around) could be combined with the current work of political
scientists to demonstrate the character and continuity of Danish-German
cooperation inside the EU.
Despite the fact that historical research is beginning to yield results, Nielsson
and Hansen's contributions are still the authoritative overall interpretations of
Denmark's early policies toward European integration. Two current research
projects - both initiated by the research-initiative under the Research Council of
the Humanities "Dansk politik under forandring, 1945-1985" - are, however,
concerned with overall interpretations of the two decades after 1945. The most
broadly interpretative is Hans Branner's study of the challenges to the nationstate
after 1945. The work is a survey of the different aspects of European cooperation
and the Danish response to the challenges from the OEEC, the Council of Europe,
sectoral integration projects (coal & steel, the "green pool" and the European army)
and the EEC. It is concerned with the basic conditions forming Danish postwar
foreign policy, its special features and particular Danish foreign policy concepts.
Its central pillar is the attitude and policy towards what became EECintegration.23
The project by J. Laursen is an archive-based study into the turning points in
the late 1950s and early 1960s in Denmark's European policy. The period from the
mid-1950s to 1963 is considered a decisive and formative period in the making of
the European policy of the country encompassing the impact of the market problematique, the challenge of the EEC and the decision to apply for EECmembership.24 This work traces European policy decisions on the diplomatic and
bureaucratic level, and in the making of domestic "coalitions" on the market issue.
It attributes a decisive influence on the early European policy to external factors,
domestic politico-economic struggles and to the policy of a new elite of "economic
23)

Branner, H.: Nationstaten udfordres. Studier i dansk Europapolitik 1945-1963, research-project under the
research-initiative: Dansk politik under forandring 1945-1985 under SHF. Work in progress.

24)

Laursen, J.: The Long Way to Europe: The Making of Denmark's European Policy, 1954-63, research
project under the research initiative: Dansk politik under forandring 1945-1985 under SHF.

10

mandarins" to modernise and adapt the Danish welfare state to the European
market.25
With the forthcoming research results by Branner and Laursen and with the
foundations established by especially Nielsson it would be fair to say that
empirical research has advanced well into the 1960s. Denmark's first application
for EEC-Membership, which occurred at the Brussels Conference on enlargement
of the EEC 1961-63, is by now mapped out in a chapter on this aspect in Nielsson
and with the contributions of Branner and Laursen.26 Laursen has pointed out
that four major issues were at stake in the first application in 1961: economic
modernization, welfare, Scandinavian relations and the power politics of
enlargement of the EEC. It was only confronted with the last of these issues in
1962 that the Danish elite began to confront the EEC as a political cooperation
project with consequences for overall political cooperation in Western Europe.27 A
Ph.D.-project is currently in progress at the University of Copenhagen on the
complex negotiations between Denmark, Britain and the EEC during the Brussels
Conference.28 The current "edge" of archive-based research is hovering just at the
edge of the 30-year rule for access to state archives.
Domestic and Foreign Policy
It is common that many of the works cited above in some way or other touch upon
the interactions between domestic and foreign policies. This is probably a research
field which will open up and attract attention from historians as well as political
scientists once a basic fund of knowledge has been established on Denmark's
position in the integration process. On the one hand, domestic patterns of conflict
and interests will undoubtedly be recognised increasingly as key factors forming
Danish foreign policy. On the other hand, however, the impact of European or
Nordic affairs on domestic politics will come to loom larger in our understanding of
the domestic political history, thus helping us to come to a more complex and
nuanced understanding of both phenomena.
It has for example been argued that the pursuit by Danish Social Democrats of a
Nordic defense alliance 1948-49 had the potential further dimension of also
strengthening the social democratic model in other fields.29 Another example of the
25)

Laursen, J.: "De nye mandariner i dansk markedsdiplomati. Jens Otto Krag og embedsmndene, 195362", Vandkunsten, 9/10, 1994, p. 145-170.

26)

Laursen, J.: "The Great Challenge. Denmark and the First Attempt to Enlarge the European Community,
1961-63", paper for the conference: The Brussels Conference. The First Attempt to Enlarge the European
Community, 1961-63, Florence 16-19.2. 1994; Branner, H: "Small State on the Sidelines: Denmark and the
Question of European Political Integration 1961-63" paper to the conference: Brussels Breakdown: Europe
Divided or Europe Saved? Cambridge Univ. Center of International Studies, 30.6. to 2.7. 1993.

27)

Laursen 1994.

28)

Dalby, P.: Britain, Denmark and the EEC, 1960-63, Ph.D. project Univ. of Copenhagen.

29)

Olesen, T.B. & K. Molin: "Security Policy and Domestic Politics in Scandinavia 1948-49", in: T.B. Olesen
(ed.): Denmark, Scandinavia and European Integration, 1945-1960 (forthcoming); Olesen, T.B.:
"Udenrigsminister i indenrigspolitisk klemme. Gustav Rasmussen som udenrigsminister 1945-1950",

11

interaction between foreign and domestic politics can be found in the decision to
enter EFTA in 1959-60 and the subsequent tariff reforms, which marked a turning
point for the influence of Agriculture and a defeat for the Liberal Party.30
As of yet no historical research projects have focused on the interaction between
domestic and foreign policy. This dimension is present in most historical research
on Denmark and European integration, but it might, however, well be that the
issue is poorly suited for isolated historical, archival research. Despite the
enduring and recurring interaction between European and domestic politics in
Denmark up to now we still lack overall studies of the continuity and changes in
this interaction since 1945.
The Nordic-European Frontier
Another aspect, which occupies a central position in existing historical studies, is
the complicated relationship between Denmark's participation in European
integration and her Nordic relations. Despite the fact that the problem is a
recurrent issue in many studies, the attention devoted to Nordic relations as such
must be characterised as astoundingly small. There is a substantial body of
literature on Nordic cooperation by the secretary general of the Danish delegation
to the Nordic Council, the historian, Frantz Wendt.31
Wendt's work is authoritative and of high quality, but layered on a general
synthesis level (with exceptions, e.g. an article about the Danish prime minister
Hans Hedtoft and the creation of the Nordic Council).32 If Wendt's work is a
goldmine of information on the working of Nordic Cooperation, it, however, also
often lacks analytical distance. It is not surprising that the work of this pioneer of
Nordic cooperation has a bias of Nordic idealism. However, coupled with strong
neglect by other Danish historians of the field, it has left us with extremely few
interpretations and analyses of intra-Nordic politics. We know all too little about
the areas of conflict as well as about cooperation and bilateral relations among the
Nordic countries. The entire political mechanisms, institutional features and the
history of the creation of the Nordic institutions such as the Nordic Council, the
Council of Ministers, cross-border cooperation of government agencies etc. is left
virtually untouched by empirical research in Denmark. One of the interesting
features of Nordic cooperation, namely foreign policy consultations, has practically
never been studied by Danish empirical research, even though the regular
meetings between the Nordic foreign ministers invites closer scrutiny, not least
(..fortsat)
Vandkunsten no. 9/10, 1994, p. 26-49.
30)

Laursen, J.: The Long Way to Europe.

31)

Wendt, F.: The Nordic Council and Co-operation in Scandinavia, Copenhagen, 1959; Wendt, F.:
Cooperation in the Nordic Countries. Achievements and Obstacles, Stockholm 1981; Wendt, F.: Nordisk Rd
1952-1978, Stockholm 1979.

32)

Wendt, F.: "Hans Hedtoft og det nordiske samarbejde", Nordisk Tidskrift fr vetenskap, konst och industri,
vol. 63, 1987, p. 451-475.

12

with a view to the possible working of a Nordic group within the EU.33 Here a rich
research field is waiting.
One of the major exceptions to this apparent disinterest in Nordic cooperation is
Niels Amstrup's significant article on the early efforts to establish a Nordic
common market. Here Nordic cooperation is distinctly set within a context of
intra-Nordic, domestic and international politics. The result is that external and
internal dynamics and barriers to cooperation stand out against the background of
intra-Nordic politics and its pattern of conflicting national interests and other
areas of conflict.34
The few other Danish contributions have been guided by the same spirit to seek,
not Nordic idealism and cohesion, but the politics and conflicts in the cooperation.
In a current research project the historian Thorsten B. Olesen has studied the
Scandinavian defense negotiations in 1948-49. Olesen's argument is that the
defense project is not only a key to a better understanding of Social Democratic
foreign policy concepts, but also of domestic parliamentary tactics.35 Similar
approaches have followed in contributions by Laursen and Srensen on the Nordic
common market plans. Nordic economic cooperation is here interpreted as a tool to
achieve economic modernisation in the 1950s and as a vehicle for Social
Democratic visions of the social and economic organisation of the Northern
societies.36
It is puzzling that so little attention has been devoted to the history of Nordic
cooperation from the point of view of archive-based research. It is a history with a
great number of myths and taboos. There is, furthermore, an existing Nordic
research tradition in the field. The journal Cooperation and Conflict has published
a multitude of articles on the subject from the 1960s onwards and Norwegian and
Swedish research has made its first strides in the field.37 The question is whether
33)

A few studies - primarily by other Scandinavians - of Nordic cooperation in the UN and other international
organisations can be found in the review Cooperation and Conflict.

34)

Amstrup, N.: "Nordisk samarbejde - myte eller realitet. Planerne om konomisk samarbejde fra 1945 til
1950" in: Nr og Fjern. Samspillet mellem indre og ydre politik. Studier tilegnet professor, dr.phil. Sven
Henningsen, Kbenhavn 1980, p. 155-177.

35)

Olesen, T.B.: Security Policy and Social Democracy in Denmark 1945-1949; project in progress under the
research-initiative "Dansk Politik under forandring, 1945-1985" under SHF; see also: Olesen, T.B.: "The Lesser
Evil. The Danish Social Democratic Party and the Decision to Join the Atlantic Pact 1948-49, working paper
rhus 1993; Olesen, T.B.: "Brdrefolk, men ikke vbenbrdre. Diskussionerne om et nordisk forsvarsforbund
1948-49", Den Jyske Historiker, no. 69/70, 1994, p. 151-178.

36)

Srensen, V: "Nordic Cooperation - A Social-Democratic Alternative to Europe?" in, T.B.Olesen (ed.):

Denmark, Scandinavia and European Integration, 1945-1960 (forthcoming); Laursen, J.: "Blueprints of Nordic
Integration. Dynamics and Institutions of Nordic Cooperation, 1945-72" paper for the conference: Approaches
to European Multilateralism, The Robert-Schuman-Centre 9.-10.5. 1994; Laursen, J.: "Fra nordisk
flesmarked til Helsingfors Konvention. Nordisk konomisk samarbejde, 1945-62" in Den Jyske Historiker, no.
69/70, 1994, p. 179-200.

37)

E.g. Haskel, B.: The Scandinavian Option. Oportunities and Opportunity Costs in Postwar Scandinavian
Foreign Policies, Oslo 1976; Strth, B.: Nordic Industry and Nordic Economic Cooperation. The Nordic
Industrial Federations and the Nordic Customs Union Negotiations 1947-1959, Stockholm 1978; Sogner, I.:
Norges holdning til nordisk konomisk samarbeid 1947-1957, M.A. Oslo Univ. 1992.

13

it is at all possible to understand the development of Denmark's EEC-relations in

the 1960s and 1970s without simultaneously sorting out the Nordic strands of
Danish foreign policy; and whether it is possible to understand the history of
Nordic cooperation without simultaneously beginning to focus on intra-Nordic
conflicts.
This holds particularly true for the 1960s and early 1970s. There are practically
no Danish studies of the complex of Nordic aspirations, European connections - on
bilateral as well as multilateral levels - and welfare and neutralist concepts that
marked Denmark's European policy in the time up to the final entry into the EEC.
Characteristically it was a British political scientist, Clive T. Archer, who wrote a
study on intra-Scandinavian relations and the relationship between the Scandinavians and the U.K. inside EFTA.38 Apart from that, an anthology and a
conference report constitute the main items on a booklist of Danish studies of
Nordic-European relations during the 1960s.39
Into the 1970s
That can we expect from empirical research on Denmark and Europe in the
coming years? What directions should historians and other empirical researchers
pursue? In the first instance, historians will have to finish their work of mapping
out the foundations of Denmark's European and Nordic policies, i.e. write the
history up to 1973. The period 1945-73 constitutes a separate era with its own
problems and issues. The membership negotiations constitute a natural conclusion
to the existing work on the initial phase of Danish EEC-relations and on e.g., the
first enlargement negotiations 1961-63. An empirical, historical analysis of
Denmark's role in the enlargement of the European Community 1970-73 (and the
ensuing transformation of Nordic cooperation) would be a natural closing chapter
to this phase of the research.
Some would argue that this can not be accomplished before the opening of the
archives. There is, however, no reason why historians should not ask for access to
archives before access is available under the 30-year rule. The archive practice in
recent years demonstrates increasing openness (security issues excepted) and
access should be pursued to its limits. Secondly, historians should shrug off the
notion that they can only work on the basis of a critical mass of archival
documentation. There is, in short, a life for the historian beyond the 30-year rule
and massive archival research. The second great task of the historians and other
empirical researchers in the coming years should, therefore, be to go into the post1973 period.
The methodological and documentary tools of the historians would undoubtedly
38)

Archer, C.T.: The Politics of the United Kingdom-Scandinavian Trade Relationship within the Context of
the European Free Trade Association, Ph.D. Aberdeen Univ. 1974.

39)

Thomsen, B.T. (ed.): The Odd Man Out? Danmark og den europiske integration 1948-1992, Odense
1993; Konferencen om "Danmark og den europiske integration i efterkrigstiden" p Christiansborg mandag
den 10. februar - onsdag den 12. februar 1992, Statens Humanistiske Forskningsrd, Copenhagen 1993.

14

contribute new knowledge of the 1970s and 1980s. In the end, however, the
historians should work with this period also in order to establish contact between
their research and that of political scientists, who do not consider these two
decades ancient history.
Among international historians working with the history of European
integration in the 1950s and 1960s there is a particular esprit de corps based on a
strong comparative tradition and the knowledge of rich internal documentation
from government, private or EEC-archives. Many have as their point of departure
an association with the research programme "Challenge and Response. The
History of European Integration" at the European University Institute in
Florence. As historical studies have advanced into the 1960s and tested the early
work of political scientists on the phenomenon of European integration, the selfconsciousness of historians has grown. At times the historians have felt a bit like
the Israeli army in 1967 advancing through Sinai and seeing the wrecked,
Egyptian equipment. This image, true as it might be in some respects for today's
understanding of the 1950s and 1960s, is, however, misleading. The advance of the
historians has least of all been characterised by speed, and the political scientists
have not fled the field, but abandoned it with a shrug. It is, nevertheless, correct
that there is a 20-30 year large nomansland between the research of historians
and that of political scientists in terms of time and issues. It should be one of the
most important future tasks of historians and political scientists to close this gap
so that the different approaches will be able to confront each other, exchange
criticism, cooperate and disagree.
Danish historians constitute no exception to their European colleagues, and it is
perhaps worthwhile to note that four of the historians mentioned above have been
associated with "Challenge and Response". But in contrast to some of the
international work, the early work of Danish political scientists has, as we have
seen, stood the test of time comparatively well. When the historians began
research on Denmark's European policy in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s they found
that authoritative works by a Hansen and a Nielsson already had colonised the
issue area. When the historians, in due time, arrive at the research field of
Denmark's European policy in the 1970s and 1980s they will also here find that
the political scientists have begun the colonisation and that there is a research
tradition which provides results and invites new questions from the historians.40
The great thing will therefore be to catch up with the prairie waggons on the
horizon and to get close enough to exchange shots.

40)

See: Srensen, C.L.: Danmark og EF i 1970erne, Kbenhavn 1978, and T. Swienty (ed.): Danmark i
Europa 1945-93, Kbenhavn 1994 for an overview over the period up til 1980/93; also: Dansk Udenrigspolitisk
rbog, 1979ff.

15

European Integration as a field of Study in Political Science

Knud Erik Jrgensen
Research on European integration has until recently been fairly undeveloped. The
unspoken assumption was that "reluctant Europeans" did not need to conduct such
research. Thus the Danish Society for European Research was activated as late as
the early 1990s. Centres for European studies still do not exist, although some are
in the planning stage. Only a few 'habilitation' theses have been written, whereas
the number of Ph.D. theses is somewhat higher. Research programmes initiated
by the Social Science Research Council in 1992 indicate a growing awareness of
the present unsatisfactory state of affairs.
What follows here is a survey of research conducted since the fall of the Berlin
Wall. By its very nature this survey cannot be exhaustive. However, we can say
that the period is generally characterized by endeavours to repair previous sins of
omission and to keep in step with Europe's turbulent development. Both tasks
were, naturally, a major challenge to a relatively small research community. The
latter were, moreover, split by commitments to empirical research, theoretical
debates and other topics. They were also faced with an ever-present tension
between broadly conceived European studies and narrow EU studies.
Research on the EC was a latecomer in Danish social sciences. A fact with both
advantages and disadvantages. To begin with, there were no specific intellectual
constraints except, of course, the general traditions of the various disciplines
themselves. Danish political science, for instance, has been characterized by a
pronounced behavioralism, yet of a soft, unorthodox, almost non-committal form
(Anckar 1991). Formal theories such as rational choice never really established a
stronghold in Scandinavia (cf. Nannestad 1993) and within international relations
studies Scandinavians have constructed their own scholarly identity (cf. Jnsson
1993). In law faculties positive law enjoyed an almost unchallenged monopoly. The
Rossian spirit is stil alive and kicking, meaning that approaches such as 'law-incontext' and legal polycentricity have been marginalized. Research on EC law,
with only a few exceptions, has been conducted at a general level with a focus on
constitutional law. The EC institutions typically received most attention,
sometimes of a critical kind (cf. Rasmussen 1986). The constitutional approach has
recently been supplemented with a focus on substantive law problems (e.g. Fej
1990; Nielsen 1992; Werlauff 1993). Furthermore, an incipient, but still underdeveloped interest in legal-theoretical issues has appeared (Rasmussen 1993). Only
time will show if the potential of this last approach will be successfully exploited.
Problematiques and Major Research Areas
General textbooks are now avaiblable for teaching in most issue areas. These
textbooks often include descriptions of the institutional infrastructure of the EU,
as well as including setting out recent institutional reforms. They also often
include accounts of EU policy-making. Textbooks can also include a kaleidoscopic

16

comparative historical analysis of nationstates and national political cultures

(stergaard 1992). A versatile booklet series on "Europeanization", published by
the Commission on Security and Disarmament (SNU), should also be mentioned
as an example of efforts to present research results in a broadly conceived public
sphere. Yet another example of this broad approach is Carsten Holbraad's longterm analysis, Danish Neutrality (1991), which is exceptionally relevant in order to
understand contemporary Danish foreign policy. In summary, there is a varied
assortment of general, descriptive accounts of European integration.
If, however, we take Donald Puchala's (1971) well-known story about the
elephant as our point of departure, which parts of the "whole" have Danish
scholars selected for investigation? First, we find a considerable number of studies
focusing on the EU's formal structures and institutional reforms. This interest can
be found in political science (Laursen 1992; Christoffersen 1992), in law studies
(Gulmann and Hagel-Srensen 1989, Rasmussen, 1994), and economics (strup
and Nedergaard 1992). Nedergaard's book (1994) on the organisation of the
European Union represents a welcome departure from the emphasis on formal
structures.
Second, typical research areas include, (i) Danish domestic EU policy, (ii)
relations between Denmark and the EU, and (iii) Denmark's position between
Scandinavia and Europe. In short, a significantly large number of studies focuses
on Denmark's co-ordinates on Europe's political and economic map. These
priorities can be seen as quite logical for scholars in a small country surrounded by
a very large outside world. It should also be expected that limited resources result
in an all-round knowledge. On the other hand we think we know Europe's and the
world's epicentre, and research on integration has been marked by a certain
ethnocentrism, although less extravagantly than might be expected. The Denmark-in-the-centre approach is prone to generate studies on Danish EU policy
(Petersen 1993; Kelstrup ed. 1992; Heurlin, 1994); studies on Danish attitudes
towards the EU (Petersen 1978; Andersen 1992; Siune 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994;
Nielsen, 1993; Worre, 1995); and studies on policy-making at the level of political
parties (Haahr 1992, 1993). It is somewhat surprising that the well-developed
tradition in party research has only produced a limited number of studies, and also
that the tradition has not been extended to include 'European-wide' parties.
The, at times, difficult relations between Denmark and the European Union
have - not surprisingly - also been high on the research agenda. Several general
studies have been published by political scientists (Lyck ed. 1992; Kelstrup ed.
1992), and by historians (Thomsen ed. 1992, Laursen 1994). The volume edited by
Lyck is part of a very useful series of books examining the costs and benefits of the
EC membership. I find it interesting that, with the notable exception of the Danish
contribution, foreign policy has been given a chapter in all the books of the series.
More specific studies typically focus on Danish lobbying and the adaption of
Danish interests to the European context (Bregnsbo and Sidenius 1993; Sidenius
1994). The policy orientation of political science is generally strong and research in
EU policy-making constitutes a new, but fast-growing research area, encom-

17

passing environmental policy (Andersen, 1995), educational policy (Beukel 1992)

and economic-monetary policy (Thygesen 1992; Plaschke 1992a, 1992b, 1994).
Similarly, inquiries into both the social dimension of the EU (Nielsen and Szyszczak, 1991) and regulatory policy-making in the EC have also emerged (Skjalm
1992).
The EU's external relations constitute an extensively researched area,
presumably because many first generation studies of the EU were written by
scholars within the field of international relations. General studies of the EC as an
international actor have been relatively numerous. One point of departure has
been Gunnar Sjstedt's model of actor capabilities (Pedersen 1989). Others
approach the issue through an empirical analysis of national and EU policies
towards Eastern Europe (Jrgensen 1991). Still others have analyzed the dual
functions of the EU in the new world order (Damgaard Petersen 1992). Finally,
the EU's status as both civilian power and superpower has been discussed. The
conclusion is that there is no deterministic logic of development concerning the
EU's international status. The EU is what we make of it (Laursen 1991).
For a long time the Nordic countries (Norden) constituted a particularly
important environment for Denmark. This can be ascribed to Danish membership
of two European communities (the EU and Norden). It is therefore hardly a
surprise that EU-EFTA relations have been followed closely. The relationship has
been thoroughly researched in several studies (Pedersen 1991, 1994). The dual
Danish membership leads to a relatively large interest in these relations,
including the implications of the 1995 northern enlargement with Sweden and
Finland. In political rhetoric Norden plays an important role as the quintessence
of the "good" society meaning that Nordic co-operation has been presented as an
alternative to European integration. Besides, Denmark has presented itself as a
bridgebuilder - epitomized in Erling Bjl's article Denmark Between Scandinavia
and Europe - bringing the EU and Norden together. The focus on EU/Norden is
also mirrored in other ways. A report, Norden in the New Europe (1991), was
published by the Nordic foreign policy institutes - mirrored thematically by a
report written by five Nordic peace researchers (Hettne et al., 1992). The
Copenhagen Centre for Peace and Conflict Research runs a permanent programme
on Norden and the Copenhagen Research Project on European integration (CORE)
has also conducted research on Norden in Europe (Tillikainen and Petersen, 1993),
while the Nordic Council of Ministers considers initiating a major comparative
research project.
If we move beyond the distinct Danish and Nordic aspects of the EU's external
relations, EU Ostpolitik has been a relatively popular topic. Some focus on
relations between the EU and East Central Europe (Skak 1993; Friis, forthcoming), whereas others have analysed Western European foreign policy-making as an
interplay between the Western European "big four" states and the EU. Research
on other EU external relations has been more scattered, indeed limited to the
volume by Nrgaard et al. (1993). EU relations with developing countries, the
Middle East, and Asia have been largely neglected. It seems to be difficult to

18

combine the strong Danish tradition in research on developing countries with that
on the EU. Among the EU's non-geographical external relations, the EU's role in
GATT negotiations (Nedergaard 1993) and at the UN has been described (Brcker
1990).
Socio-cultural research focuses primarily on identities, "mentalities" and the
discursive dimensions of European integration (Agger et al. 1990; Hedetoft 1993).
The intricate tensions between national identity and European integration have
been analysed (Wver et al. 1993). Here perceptions of integration as a threat to
traditional patterns of identity are analyzed. French and British discourses on the
concepts of nation, state and Europe has been thoroughly analysed (Holm 1993;
Larsen 1994). Discourse theory is also applied in a comparative study of France
and Germany (Wver, Holm and Larsen, forthcoming) and in a broader analysis
of discourse on 'Europe' (Wind 1992). Although Zetterholm et al. (1994) also adopts
a cultural approach it is explicitly reduced to national political and economic cultures. A somewhat broader approach is employed in an anthology which covers the
role of regions in Europe's political and cultural landscape (Srensen ed., 1995).
Theoretical approaches
European integration dynamics from the mid-1980s have generated several
reconsiderations of neo-functionalism (Tranholm-Mikkelsen 1991; Kelstrup 1992).
Therefore, neo-functionalism is widely perceived as a valuable cluster of assumptions and hypotheses. Lindberg and Scheingold's classic Europe's Would-Be Polity
(1970) is frequently used as a basis for research. It has been applied in studies of
the Single European Act and the Maastricht Treaty (Pedersen 1992; Petersen
1993). Similarly, Laursen (1992) provides a broad and useful overview of theories
that might help explain the making of the Maastricht Treaty. Yet, although neofunctionalism has thus been reconsidered and applied, there has been little
innovation. This reflects a general tendency to cling to the classic approaches to
regional integration. Universal theories such as neo-institutionalism, realism and
rational choice, have consequently been considered as having little relevance to
integration studies. Hence the limited attention given to new trends in research.
If realism is considered at all, its relevance to research on the EU is seen as
being either negative (misleading) or, at best, very limited. Realism has only been
applied in a few empirical studies of European integration, for instance the conditions for integration in Europe after the Cold War (Kelstrup et al., 1990). Among
the formal theories, rational choice has been applied by Laursen (1993) in an
analysis of the European Economic Area (EEA) regime.
Some studies proceed from the assumption that intra-European relations are no
longer international relations. They are seen as having been somehow
"domesticated". The logical consequence of this view is that traditional IR theories
are abandoned and replaced by (traditional) theories of comparative politics. The
broad framework of structural-functionalism has been applied in an analysis of the
EU's political system (Kelstrup 1993). In the article the possibility of including
other brands of system theory (Niklas Luhmann) is only touched on briefly. It is

19

David Easton's approach that play the main role. So whether Danes choose an
international relations or a comparative politics approach, they stick to the
conventional domestic/international distinction.
Yet, this very distinction is abandoned in a third theoretical approach. Here the
EU is analysed in a way which tries to dissolve various traditional, conceptual
distinctions, including state/international organisation and domestic/international.
Inspiration for this approach comes from, among others, Philippe Schmitter's
(1992) recent research on the EC and from John G. Ruggie's (1993) thinking about
a post-modern international system (Wver, 1991; Jrgensen 1993, 1995,
forthcoming; Nrgaard 1994; Wind 1994).
To sum up, Danish theoretical work can generally be characterized as being
concerned with reconsideration and application. The fact that pure theoretical
work hardly exists makes Danish scholars theory consumers, not producers.
Indeed, in studies on law and history we can note that explicit theoretical discussion is largely absent. It should also be said that these disciplines tend to
recognize and even regret their theoretical deficit. So far this regret has not
resulted in a change in emphasis and pleas for theory still outnumber responses to
the problem.
Kaiser (1966) has pointed out that social scientists do not, contrary to a common
belief, live in ivory towers. On the contrary, they are influenced by their surroundings and the problems on society's agenda. This is also valid, of course, for Danish
integration researchers. They are influenced by the prevailing scientific traditions
in their own world and they have also been influenced by controversies about the
direction of the turbulent European community, and the influence this may have
Denmark's identity in Europe.

20

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(ed.), Danmark i Europa (Copenhagen: Munksgaard).
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of Change in the European Community (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall).
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Nannestad, P. (1993) Paradigm, School, or Sect? Some Reflections on the Status of
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Nielsen, R. and Szyszczak, E. (1991). The social dimension of the EC (Copenhagen:
Handelshjskolens Forlag).
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Fremad).
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7-44.

22

Pedersen, T. (1994) European Union and the EFTA Countries: Enlargement and
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Rasmussen, H. (1994) EU-ret og EU-institutioner i kontekst (Kbenhavn: Karnovs
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Lars Lundqvist and Lars Oluf Persson, eds., Northern Perspectives on European
Integration (Stockholm: Nordrefo).
Siune, K. (1991) EF p Dagsordenen (rhus: Politica).
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Siune, K., P. Svensson og O. Tonsgaard (1994) - fra et nej til et ja (rhus: Politica).
Skak, Mette (1993) The EC Policy of the Visegrad Countries, in Nrgaard, Pedersen
and Petersen eds., op.cit.
Skjalm, Karsten (1992) EF som reguleringsmyndighed, Politica 24(3): 287-309.
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(Odense: Odense University Press).
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(Copenhagen: Copenhagen Political Studies Press).
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1948-1992 (Odense: Odense University Press).
Thygesen, N. (1992) European Monetary Integration (London: Longman).
Tranholm-Mikkelsen, J. (1991) 'Neo-functionalism: Obstinate or Obsolete? A
Reappraisal in the light of the New Dynamism of the EC', Millennium, 20(1): 1-22.
Wind, M. (1992) 'Eksisterer Europa?', in C. Srensen ed., Europa: Nation - Union - efter
Minsk og Maastricht (Copenhagen: Fremad).
Wind, M. (1994) 'Europa og den post-hobbesianske orden, Dansk Sociologi (December).
Werlauff, E. (1993) EC Company Law (Copenhagen: DJF Forlag).
Wver, O. (1991) Territory, Authority and Identity - The late 20th Century Emergence
of Neo-Medieval Political Structures in Europe (Copenhagen: Centre for Peace and
Conflict Research).
Wver, O. et al. (1993) Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe
(London: Pinter).
Wver, O., Holm, U. and Larsen, H. (forthcoming) The Struggle for 'Europe': French

23

and German concepts of State, Nation, and European Union Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press).
Worre, T (1995) First No, then Yes: The Danish Referendums on the Maastricht Treaty
1992 and 1993, Journal of Common Market Studies 33(2): 235-258
Zetterholm, S. ed. (1994) National Cultures and European Integration. Exploratory
Essays on Cultural Diversity and Common Policies (Oxford: Berg).
stergaard, U. (1992) Europas ansigter. Nationale stater og politiske kulturer i en ny og
gammel verden (Copenhagen: Rosinante).
strup, Finn (1992) The Development of the European Monetary System (Copenhagen:
DJF Forlag).
strup, F. and Nedergaard, P. (1992) Det konomiske samarbejde i EF (Copenhagen:
DJF Forlag).

24

Towards a European Union Constitutional Framework:

The Danish Constitution, the Vienna Convention and
Danish Legal Research
*

Henrik D. Hyer
Introduction

The aim of this paper is essentially threefold. First, to draw attention to specific studies
analysing the Danish and international requirements for ratifying treaties. Second, to provide a
survey of the trends and patterns of Danish legal research in the context of the developments
leading up to the Treaty on European Union (TEU). Third, to look ahead and in particular draw
attention to some of the problems that might have to be dealt with at the forthcoming intergovernmental conferences. The material is set out in three parts. Part one sets out the Danish,
European and international context in which the TEU was adopted. Part two aims at describing
and categorising the trends and patterns of Danish legal research that preceded the conclusion of
the TEU. Where appropriate, references are cited in such a way as to provide the reader with a
short abstract of the best of the Danish material available. The attached bibliography should
facilitate the finding of the individual works. Part three raises questions about future
developments in the era of European integration, in particular whether there is a need for a
European Union constitution. Although such an important question cannot be fully answered in
a short paper like this, let alone be answered by one person, the aim is to begin a discussion of
points that relate to the constitutionalisation of the European Union.

1.

The Danish Constitution, the Vienna Convention and the Treaty on European Union

There are certain requirements set out in the Danish constitution that have to be fulfilled before
41
Denmark can enter into Treaties. The limitations need only be touched upon here. The starting
point is s.20 of the Danish constitution which, with limitations, allows for the possibility of
42
entering Treaties. According to s.20 there are no absolute requirements for a Danish
referendum where sovereignty is surrendered. Where an attempt is made to surrender
sovereignty, either a majority of five sixths of the members of the Folketing or both a majority
of the members of the Folketing and a majority of voters in a referendum is required.
*
Researcher, European University Institute, Florence; Visiting Scholar, Boalt Hall School of Law, University of
California, Berkeley. The author would like to express his gratitude for the encouragemenet and helpful comments received on
an earlier draft of this article from Aileen McHarg, Harry McVea, Joo Rosas and Leslie Green. The author alone is responsible
for its content.
41
For a thorough exposition on the requirements set out in the Danish constitution see either Germer, Peter.
Statsforfatningsret II. p. 41-43 or Zahle, Henrik. Regering, forvaltning og dom. Dansk forfatningsret 2. p. 147-160.
42
Section 20.(1) Powers vested in the authorities of the Realm under this Constitution Act may, to such extent as shall be
provided by Statute, be delegated to international authorities set up by mutual agreement with other states for the promotion of
international rules of law and co-operation.
(2) For the passing of a Bill dealing with the above a majority of five-sixths of the Members of the Folketing shall be
required. If this majority is not obtained, whereas the majority required for passing of ordinary Bills is obtained, and if the
Government maintains it, the Bill shall be submitted to the Electorate for approval or rejection in accordance with the rules for
Referenda laid down in section 42.

25

How did these limitations impede Denmarks decision to ratify the TEU? After negotiations at
the Maastricht European Council meeting on 9-10 December 1991, the Heads of State or
Government approved the TEU and later signed it on 7 February 1992. The Treaty has, in
accordance with Article R of the Final Provisions TEU, to be ratified by the High Contracting
Parties in accordance with their respective constitutional requirements. A five sixths majority
was not obtained when the Danish Government submitted the TEU to the Folketing on 10
March 1992. Despite this, a majority of the members of the Folketing were still in favour of
passing the proposal. The Government therefore choose to preserve and stand by the proposal,
43
leaving the decision on whether or not it should be adopted to the Danish people. Danish
participation in the TEU was eventually agreed to after two successive referenda. The first
referendum was held on 2 June 1992 in which the Danish voters rejected the TEU by 50.7%,
necessitating a review of the future role of Denmark in Europe. In the resulting vacuum the
Lisbon European Council meeting on 26-27 June 1992 exerted political pressure on the Danish
electorate by reaffirming that the Community would continue its European venture with or
without Danish participation. Many interest groups formulated possible solutions to the Danish
situation. Although the political parties seemed to have different ideas, in the end a national
political compromise was reached. The compromise, Denmark in Europe, was presented to
the other eleven Member States at the Birmingham European Council meeting on 16 October
1992. It proposed opt-out clauses in areas where Denmark was concerned that it would be
44
surrendering sovereignty. According to Alan Philip, Hjalte Rasmussen and Anders Thorbl
43
The conditions of a referendum are set out in more detail in s.42 of the Danish Constitution which says: s.42.(1)
Where a Bill has been passed by the Folketing, one-third of the Members of the Folketing may within three week-days from the
final passing of the Bill request of the President that the Bill be subject to a Referendum. Such request shall be made in writing
and signed by the Members making the request.
(2) Except in the instances mentioned in subsection 7, no Bill which may be subjected to a Referendum, confer
subsection (6), shall receive the Royal Assent before the expiration of the limit mentioned in subsection (1), or before a
Referendum requested as aforesaid has taken place.
(3) Where a Referendum on a Bill has been requested the Folketing may within a period of five week-days from the
final passing of the Bill resolve that the Bill shall be withdrawn.
(4) Where the Folketing has made no resolution in accordance with subsection (3), notice to the effect that the Bill will
be put to a Referendum shall without delay be given to the Prime Minister, who shall then cause the Bill to be published together
with a statement that a Referendum will be held. The Referendum shall be held in accordance with the decision of the Prime
Minister not less than twelve and not more than eighteen week-days after the publication of the Bill.
(5) At the Referendum votes shall be cast for or against the Bill. For the Bill to be rejected a majority of the electors
taking part in the voting, however, not less than thirty per centum of all persons entitled to vote, shall have voted against the Bill.
(6) Finance Bills, Supplementary Appropriation Bills, Provisional Appropriation Bills, Government Loan Bills, Civil
Servants (Amendment) Bills, Salaries and Pensions Bills, Naturalisation Bills, Expropriation Bills, Taxation (Direct and indirect)
Bills, as well as Bills introduced for the purpose of discharging existing treaty obligations shall not be subject to a decision by
Referendum. This provision shall also apply to the Bills referred to in section 8, 9, 10 and 11, and to such resolutions as are
provided for in section 19, if existing in the form of a law, unless it has been provided by a special Act that such resolutions shall
be put to a Referendum. Amendments of the Constitution Act shall be governed by the rules laid down in section 88.
(7) In an emergency a Bill that may be subject to a Referendum may receive the Royal Assent immediately after it has
been passed, provided that the Bill contains a provision to that effect. Where under the rules of subsection (1) one-third of the
Members of the Folketing request a Referendum on the Bill or on the Act to which the Royal Assent has been given, such
Referendum shall be held in accordance with the above rules. Where the act is rejected by the Referendum, an announcement to
that effect shall be made by the Prime Minister without undue delay and not later than fourteen days after the Referendum was
held. From the date of such announcement the Act shall become ineffective.
(8) Rules for Referenda, including the extent to which Referenda shall be held on Faeroe Islands and in Greenland,
shall be laid down by Statute.
44
As to the binding effect of the Danish opt-out clauses see: Philip, Alan; Rasmussen, Hjalte and Thorbl, Anders.
Redegrelse for de Vigtigste Retlige Sprgsml Vedrrende Forholdet Mellem Rom-Trakaten, Maastricht-Traktaten og

26

the Danish opt-out clauses are binding under international law, in particular the rules set out in
45
the Vienna Convention. Without going into detailed arguments the reasons were essentially
46
twofold. First, the clauses apply "exclusively" to Denmark; and secondly, when Denmark
made known its reservations it sought the consent of the other eleven Member States to these
47
clauses. Having secured these two points, and with the safety net of the Vienna Convention to
fall back upon, the Government felt sufficiently confident to recommend adoption of the TEU.
In the referendum that followed on 18 May 1993 a majority of the Danish people voted in
favour of joining the European Union. The forthcomming inter-governmental conferences will
undoubtedly start new discussions with regard to the Danish opt-out clauses.

2.

Danish Research on Legal Aspects of European Integration

Scope and limitation

What were the trends and patterns of Danish legal research leading up to the TEU? For the sake
of clarity. The second part of this chapter aims at dividing Danish research on legal aspects of
European integration into six categories. First, research relating to the European Unions Legal
Foundations, the Institutional Framework and Enlargements is surveyed, in particular the legal
basis of the Community system, the institutions and bodies, the inter-institutional relations and
the financing of the Community. Second, the European Unions External Relations. Third, the
European Unions large Internal Market and its many different aspects such as: Freedom of
movement of persons, goods, services and capital; intellectual property; competition policy;
public procurement; removal of fiscal frontiers; company law; industrial policy; transport policy
and energy policy. Fourth, the European Unions Common Economic and Social Dimension
including: Environment policy; social policy; consumer and health policy; common agricultural
policy; common fisheries and forestry policy. Fifth, the European Unions Economic and
Monetary Dimension. Sixth, the other dimensions of European Union co-operation. At least
48
two groups of work cannot easily be categorised within such a framework. One group touches
(..fortsat)
Edinburgh-Konklusionerne. Questions of subsidiarity, national sovereignty, the increasing dependence of the European Union
and the character of the Danish legal system as compared to that of the European Union will always be of great interest in a small
country, where the population is deeply split on the subject of whether or not the country should continue to contribute to further
European integration. Not surprisingly the two Danish referenda on the TEU gave rise to a number of questions. Was the timing
correct? See: Zahle, Henrik. Suvernitets-overladelse: tidspunktet for overladelsen. Was the powers that Denmark gave away
not underplayed? See: Koch, Henning. De underspillede suvernitetsafgivelser. Is the Danish welfare system in danger of
collapse? See: Birckner, Heine. EF-unionen og kommunerne - er velfrdssamfundet truet? EF-lovgivning og folkestyret. Skatteog afgiftspolitik. Offentlige udbud. The relationship between the Danish Constitution and European integration, see: Krarup, Ole.
Grundloven og Unionsretten.
45
Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties. Done at Vienna, May 23, 1969. Entered into force, Jan. 27, 1980. U.N.
Doc. A/CONF.39/27 at 289 (1969), 1155 U.N.T.S. 331, reprinted in 8 I.L.M. 679 (1969).
46
Edinburgh European Council, 11 and 12 December 1992. Conclusions of the Presidency, Part B. [OJ C 348,
31.12.1992, p.1.]
47
In the Edinburgh conclusions it is stated that "... the European Council has agreed on the following set of
arrangements ...". As the acceptance is made in the beginning of the Edinburgh conclusions it therefore covers not only the three
annexes but also the other documents on for example openness, transparency and an effective application of the principle of
subsidiarity.
48

Works that concern European integration but cannot easily be categorised within the framework of this article are, for

27
49

on two or more categories at the same time. Another, the miscellaneous group, falls outside
the scope of the six categories. It is not the aim of this paper to analyse those works that fall
outside the scope of the six categories identified. Consequently purely theoretical work would
therefore fall outside its scope. The most important works that touch on two or more categories
at the same time will be dealt with before going into the six subsections. The first of these is
Gulmann and Hagel-Srensens textbook EU-ret, on European Union law, which is a book that
50
every Danish law student has studied before leaving university. The book analyses the most
important parts of European Union law such as the legal foundations, the institutional
framework, the internal market and competition law. The book gives an excellent introduction
to European Union law and includes references to case law. The second work of a general
51
nature is called EU-Karnov and is essentially a huge encyclopaedia on European Union law.
EU-Karnov includes almost every area of European Union law. Its structure is characterised by
its short and precise introduction to the topic, followed by relevant legislation at the top of each
page and direct references to the case-law underneath. These two works are both of a general
character and cannot easily and without repetition be fitted into the six categories mentioned
below.

2.1. The European Unions Legal Foundations, the Institutional Framework and
Enlargements
Historically the legal format of European Union integration rests upon treaties which have been
changed over time. First, when Robert Schuman proposed, on 9 May 1950, to place the FrancoGerman steel production under a common high authority it was a political starting point for the
establishment a European institutional framework. On 18 April 1951 the ECSC Treaty was
52
signed. The ECSC Treaty set up a European institutional framework with a High Authority, a
Parliamentary Assembly, a Council of Ministers, a Court of Justice and a Consultative
53
54
Committee. Second, on 25 March 1957, the EEC and EAEC Treaties were signed together
with the "Convention on certain Institutions common to the European Communities". The EEC
(..fortsat)
the convenience of the reader, marked with an asterisk in the attached bibliography.
49
See, for example: Rasmussen, Hjalte. Denmark; Rasmussen, Hjalte. EC-Community Legal Approaches to Economic
Unification; Gjrtler, Peter. Community Law in Denmark, 1987-1988; Hedt-Rasmussen, Inger. Grundlggende EF-ret; HedtRasmussen, Inger and Grnfeldt, Charlotte. Kompendium i grundlggende EF-ret; Nielsen, Poul Runge. EF-rettens kilder i de
nationale retssystemer; Peytz, Henrik; Levinsen, Kirsten and Bast, Karen-Inger. EF-rettens informationskilder; Peytz, Henrik;
Skadhauge, Jeppe and Zerman, Per. EF-rettens informationskilder.
50

Gulmann, Claus & Hagel-Srensen, Karsten. EU-ret.

51
Molde, Jrgen; Gulmann, Claus; Mikaelsen, Laurids; Jacobsen, Christian Boye; Hagel-Srensen, Karsten; EUKarnov.
52
Treaty Establishing the European Coal and Steel Community, (ECSC). According to Article 97 the ECSC Treaty was
concluded for only fifty years.
53

Treaty establishing the European Economic Community, (EEC).

54

Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community, (EAEC).

28

and EAEC Treaties set up separate Commissions and separate Councils but the ECSC, EAEC
55
and EEC shared the same Assembly and Court. Third, on 8 April 1965 the Merger Treaty was
56
signed because of the inconvenience of having certain institutions triplicated. The Merger
57
Treaty established joint institutions in the form of a single Council and a single Commission.
58
Fourth, after the enlargements of the Community from six members to nine members in 1973,
ten members in 1981 and twelve members in 1986, the next step was the establishment of the
59
Single European Act of 1986 (SEA), which came into force on 1 July 1987. Fifth, the
establishment of the Single European Market was then followed by the TEU which was signed
on 7 February 1992.
The TEU consists of 'three pillars'. The first pillar is the Community pillar, which is based on
the ECSC, EAEC, EEC, as modified mainly by the SEA. The first pillar creates one Community
instead of three separate Communities. The second pillar is concerned with the common foreign
and security dimension. The third pillar deals with justice and home affairs. Whereas the first
pillar could be described as the EC-pillar because of its supranational character, the second and
third pillars are different in that the Member States have decided to co-operate on a specific
inter-governmental basis. The three pillars are bound together by a 'roof' consisting of the
Preamble and a set of Common Provisions that sets out the overall goals of the European
Union.
Allocation of functions between the Member State level and the European Union level under the
60
TEU is to be approached in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity. Subsidiarity was
introduced by the eleventh provision of the Treatys Preamble and Article B of the Common
Provisions. This principle is defined in more detail in Article 3b par.2 of the first pillar and in
Article K.3 par.2(b) of the third pillar. When subsidiarity appears in the context of the first pillar
it is defined as set out in Article 3b par.2, but in the context of the third pillar it is used as a lex
specialis provision that only applies to the specific case of 'joint action'.

55

See: Article 1-4 of the Convention on certain Institutions common to the European Communities.

56

Treaty establishing a Single Council and a Single Commission of the European Communities.

57
Treaty Establishing a Single Council and a Single Commission of the European Communities (Signed in Brussels on 8
April 1965). [OJ No 152, 13 July 1967, p. 2.]
58
Greenland, which is associated with Denmark, entered together with Denmark in 1973 but left in 1985 following a
referendum held in 1982.
59
The SEA made provision for the establishment of the Court of First Instance. The institutional changes and the
division of jurisdiction between the European Court of Justice and the Court of First Instance is discussed in the following
writings: Due, Ole. The Court of First Instance; Vesterdorf, Bo. Ny kompetencefordeling mellem EF-domstolen og Retten i
frste instans; Vesterdorf, Bo. Retten i 1. instans; Vesterdorf, Bo. De Europiske Fllesskabers ret i frste instans - efter to rs
virke; Vesterdorf, Bo. Indfrelse af en 1. instans ved De Europiske Fllesskabers Domstol and Zerman, Per og Levinsen,
Kirsten. UIA/Advokatrdets konference om sagsbehandling ved EF-domstolen og den nye 1. instans; Mller, J. rstrm. The
Nordic angle III: The single European Act - a Danish view.
60
See generally on the principle of Subsidiarity: Snyder, Francis in collaboration with Somsen, Han and Hyer, Henrik
Duedahl. Subsidiarity: An Aspect of European Community Law and its Relevance to Lesbians and Gay Men.; Hkonson, Tore.
Subsidiaritet, et nyt modeord?; Jacobsen, Christian Boye. Subsidiaritetsbegrebet i EF-retten.; Hagel-Srensen, Karsten. EFretten og nrhedsprincippet.

29

The three pillars are based on a set of Final Provisions, Article L of which limits the jurisdiction
of the European Court of Justice (ECJ). One of Europes leading writers on the ECJ, Hjalte
61
Rasmussen, has critically researched the jurisprudence of the ECJ. Rasmussen brought into
doubt the objectivity of the ECJ through his evaluation of the ECJs judgements. In relation to
the constitutionalisation of Europe one could mention cases in which the ECJ decided that
Community law was superior to national law, where the ECJ decided to give direct effect to
62
provisions of Community law, or where the ECJ stated that fundamental rights form an
integral part of Community law, thus further bolstering constitutional protections afforded to
63
inhabitants of Member States. Rasmussen focused on the fact that the Treaty is a framework
with gaps. The ECJ has played an important role in filling in these gaps, but Rasmussen has
questioned the extent to which this is an objective or a political exercise.
The rest of the institutional framework such as the Council, the European Council, the
Commission, the European Parliament, the Ombudsman, the Committee of the Regions, the
Economic and Social Committee, the ECSC Consultative Committee, the Court of Auditors and
the European Investment Bank have all received only peripheral attention in Danish legal
64
research. Similarly, Danish legal research on the financing of Community activities, together
65
with fundamental rights in the Community, has been relatively limited.
After the establishment of the TEU the European Union increased from twelve Member States
to fifteen Member States. Austria, Finland and Sweden accepted the invitation to become new
66
members of the European Union, while Norway chose to remain outside, having turned their
61
Rasmussen, Hjalte. Between Self-Restraint and Activism: A Judicial Policy for the European Court; Rasmussen,
Hjalte. On Law and Policy in the European Court of Justice; Rasmussen, Hjalte. Folkestyret og domstolenesprvelsesret;
Rasmussen, Hjalte. Dommerskabt og politikerskabt Jura i EF; Rasmussen, Hjalte. EF-Domstol og EF-Retlig innovation. It will
be relevant in this place also to mention the writings on the European Court of Justice and its rulings by: Philip, Allan. Ogs
domstolenes grnser er ved at falde; Krarup, Ole. Det juridiske babelstrn - om EF-rettens kreative dynamik; and Jrgensen,
Peter. EF-domstolen skal samle de flles retsider. The focus is on the Advocate General in the following articles: Borgsmidt,
Kirsten. The Advocate General at the European Court of Justice A Comparative Study., and Hagel-Srensen, Karsten. I r fr
Danmark sin frste generaladvokat ved EF-domstolen.
62
Petri, Jens. EF-rettens krav om forrang for nationale regler; Walse, Per. Om EF-direktivers direkte anvendelighed
og forrang for dansk lovgivning and Werlauff, Erik. Om direktivers virkning og forrang.
63

Case 4/73, J. Nold, Kohlen- und Baustoff-grosshandlung v. Commission [1974] ECR 491.

64
However, the most important institutions and committees are mentioned in the general background reading of the
European Community by Gulmann, Claus & Hagel-Srensen, Karsten. EF-ret; Fej, Jens. Det indre marked, handelspolitikken
og de nye konomiske-monitre institutioner. The changes in inter-institutional relations after Maastricht have been analysed by:
Rasmussen, Hjalte. Forskydninger mellem institutioner - eller Den institutionelle balance i EF - efter Maastricht; Svensson, JanErik. EF-Kommissionen - Nu og i Unionen; Svensson, Jan-Erik. Rdet - Nu og i Unionen.
65
Christensen, Peter. Finansieringen af EF-budgettet and by the same author Den retlige regulering af EF's finanser.
Rasmussen, Hjalte. EF-menneskerettigheder skal ogs overholdes.; Srensen, Jrgen Steen. EF-rettens menneskerettigheder
som retskilde i national ret; Wachenfeld, Margrethe G. Mentalt syges menneskerettigheder i Europa.
66
In the Austrian referendum of 12 June 1994 a total of 81,27% of the population voted. A majority of 66,36% voted in
favour of accession and 33,61 against. After the Austrian Supreme Court had cleared the way for EU entry the Austrian
Government gave its endorsement for the agreement on Austria's accession to the European Union. This was approved after
ratification by the Parliament on 11 November 1994. Finland and Sweden accepted on respectively the 16th October and 13th
November 1994.

30
67

second invitation down on 27 November 1994. As a result the Acts concerning the Conditions
of Accession and the adjustment to the Treaties had to be re-negotiated.
This section has stressed mainly three features of European integration. The first aspect, is the
legal foundation which consists mainly of treaties. The second point, is the allocation of
functions through the principle of subsidiarity. The third element, concerns the enlargements of
the European Union. The forthcoming inter-governmental conferences might challenge all three
aspects. First, steps might be taken to create the basis for a European Constitutional framework
in accordance with the Resolution on the European Parliament's guidelines for a draft
68
constitution for the European Union. Second, the allocation of functions has according to the
principle of subsidiarity been restricted to a division of concurrent powers between the Member
State level and the European Union level. In that respect the Committee of the Regions has
required a change in the concept of subsidiarity so as to encompass regional and local
69
authorities. Third, new states are likely to be invited to join the European Union.

2.2. The European Unions External Relations

The European Unions relationship with other International Organisations and Institutions
such as the Council of Europe, the United Nations or with other Countries and Regions such as
the European Economic Area, the Commonwealth of Independent States, Israel, Canada, Japan,
70
etc., has received very little attention in Danish legal writing.
The creation of the common customs tariff established a split between those who belonged to
the customs union and those who did not, i.e., Fortress Europe. The common customs tariff
and the creation of the internal market were one of the cornerstones that helped the European
Community to be recognised as a negotiator in international organisations. The size of the tariff
together with the size of the market meant that many countries outside the Union were more
than willing to negotiate agreements with the European Community. At the moment, those
countries who have their main trading partners within the European Union are, for the same
reason, queuing up to become members. Not only can new States compete better if they are
members of the Union but they are likely also to benefit from the European Unions Common
Agricultural Policy and regional policies, etc. Not surprisingly, countries like Turkey, Cyprus,
Malta, Poland, Hungary and others are considering the possibility of becoming members of the
European Union, while Slovakia and the Chech Republic are planning to submit applications
for membership. The large internal market has a sort of magnetic effect on its surroundings.

67
In Norway 87,9% of the voters cast their vote in the election. Although it turned out negatively the percentage of no
voters were reduced since 1972.
68
Resolution on the European Parliament's guidelines for a draft constitution for the European Union. [OJ C 231 of 17.
September 1990 p. 91].
69

The Reuther European Community Report. 16 November 1994. Committee of the Regions Subsidiarity.

70
An exception, however, is Ruth Nielsens doctoral thesis which cover also the relationship between European
Community labour law and International labour law . See: Nielsen, Ruth. Arbejdsgiverens ledelsesret i EF-retlig belysning.
Studier i EF-rettens integration i dansk arbejdsret., Chapter XV, p. 397ff; Goldin, Torben. The effect the European judicial
system will have on the practice and the law of the EES-Countries. On the common commercial policy see: Groesmeyer, Lise
and Wichmann, Julie Maria. Romtraktatens art. 113.

31

2.3. The European Unions large Internal Market

The question of the adaptation of the large internal market and the problems surrounding it has
received a great deal of attention from Danish scholars. The common market was, loosely
speaking, defined as a single market with fair competition. Later the SEA turned the market into
an area without internal frontiers in which the free movement of goods, persons, services and
71
capital is assured i.e., an internal market. However, the large internal market has even wider
implications. It encompasses not only competition policy, free movement of persons and
72
removal of technical frontiers, but also, for example, an industrial policy, a policy for energy,
73
transport, enterprises and a fiscal policy.
Internal Market
To promote the idea of an internal market the Communities made particular use of two tools,
74
namely the Commissions 'White Paper' and the SEA. The White Paper explained the main
obstacles to the functioning of the internal market and proposed a detailed legislative
programme to overcome these barriers. The SEA provided the necessary legislative framework
to complete the internal market. In particular it changed the requirement of unanimity voting
within the Council to a rule of qualified majority voting. An example of research done in
relation to the internal market is Poul Runge Nielsens Ph.D thesis which analysed how
freedom of services and freedom of establishment operate in relation to European banking
75
law. The second banking Directive introduced a single Community authorisation meaning that
a bank which had set up in one Member State could establish itself, or provide services, in any
other Member State. Runge Nielsens study focuses on whether the second banking Directive
does in fact fulfil its own aims and how the second banking Directive is to be interpreted. The
book also makes for interesting reading because of its clear exposition of, for example, the
76
contextual method of interpretation that is used in developing European Union law.
71

EEC Article 8a

72

Thuesen, Elisabeth. Fjernsyn i EF - tjenesteydelse eller kulturformidling.

73
Transportation policy, see: Nrgaard, Jrgen. Present and Future Transportation Principles within the EEC;
Bredholt, Jrgen. Skibsfartspolitikken indenfor EF; Bredholt, Jrgen. EF-samarbejdet om sfartslovgivning, internt og eksternt.
74

Commission Communication on the completion of the internal market COM(85) 310 final

75

Nielsen, Poul Runge. Services and Establishment in European Community Banking Law.

76
More specific areas in relation to the free movement of persons such as the area of mutual recognition of
qualifications and the right to study within the Community see, Jrgensen, Ellen Brinch. Gensidig anerkendelse af
erhvervsuddannelser i EF-retten and the same author in Lige adgang til uddannelser for alle EF-borgere. Freedom of
movement for workers, see: Andersen, Niels Ole. Free Movement of Labour within the Nordic Countries and within the
European Communities. Free movement of services, such as insurance services, see: Adolphsen, Erik. Frie tjenesteydelser i EF ogs indenfor bilforsikring; Kogsbll, se. Forsikringer og EF; Kogsbll, se. 3. livsforsikringsdirektiv p vej; Jacobsen,
Christen Boye. 2. skadesforsikringsdirektiv; Samuelsson, Morten. Forslag til rdsdirektiv om tjenesteydelser; Tnnesen, Claus.
Tredjelandes adgang til EF's indre forsikringsmarked; Tnnesen, Claus. EF's 2. livsforsikringsdirektiv mske afklaret inden
rsskiftet. On the right to establishment or the right to provide service see: Peytz, Henrik. Advokaterne og EFs indre marked and
Ring, Niels Anker. Gensidig anerkendelse af statsautoriserede revisorer. Free movement of goods, see: Kjlbye, Lars. Handel
med hindringer EF-traktatens artikel 30; Kendal, Catherine M. og Spliid, Ulrik F. Begrnsninger i den frie bevgelighed af
levnedsmidler, begrundet i hensynet til menneskers liv eller sundhed. As intellectual property rights could be used as a means of
hindering the free movement of goods this topic is often dealt with in relation to the internal market. See generally on the
question of intellectual property and copyright protection: sterborg, Lise Dybdahl. Forlngelse af patenttiden. Supplerende

32

Competition Policy
In relation to competition policy there has been no shortage of Danish books, articles and
77
research reports. Fej's comparative survey of EC and US monopoly law and markets
represent, in my view, the highest level of research that a Danish comparative and
interdisciplinary researcher has achieved. The ideological starting point is that in both the EC
and US, hampering, restriction or distortion of competition is prohibited where this would
unfavourably affect trade between the relevant jusisdictions. However, US and EC authorities
deal with monopoly law in different ways. For example, the American approach is that some
restrictions hamper competition so badly that they are prohibited per se. This is the case of
horizontal prize fixing and market sharing. By contrast agreements that are not prohibited per se
are dealt with individually in accordance with the rule of reason. Fej criticises, on the one
hand, the American way of prohibiting certain things per se and, on the other hand, finds that
EC authorities deal with certain agreements too restrictively. What makes the book interesting is
not only the legal analysis of monopoly law and markets but also its contextual approach in
analysing the different considerations and interests behind the law and legal practice.
Furthermore the book draws on a considerable amount of theoretical and economic reasoning to
78
support its conclusions.
(..fortsat)
beskyttelsescertifikat for lgemidler and sterborg, Lise. To diplomatiske konferencer om det kommende EF-patentsystem status 1990; Schnning, Peter. EF's direktivforslag om edb-programmer; Schnning, Peter. Ophavsretten i det indre marked;
Schnning, Peter. EF-harmonisering p ophavsomrdet. The emphasise has mainly been on the protection software e.g.
Andersen, Mads Bryde. EF-direktiv om ophavsret til edb-programmer; Andersen, Mads Bryde. EF: Ophavsret til edbprogrammer; Bender, Hanne. Direktivforslaget om ophavsretsbeskyttelse af edb-programmer; Schwanenflgel, Ditlev. Sidste
udkald i det europiske softwareslag; Schnning, Peter. EF - direktivet om retlig beskyttelse af edb - programmer. Public
procurement, see: Nrgaard, Jrgen. Koncessionspolitik og koncessionstildeling i EF-retlig belysning; Poulsen, Sune Troels.
ES-aftalen og offentligt tildelte koncessioner. Liberalisation of capital movements, see: Farup-Madsen, Flemming.
Valutaliberaliseringen og EF's indre marked; Valutaliberaliseringen og dens konsekvenser.
77
An analysis of these questions can be found in: Fej, Jens. EF-konkurrenceret; Konkurrenceret og EF's indre marked;
Koktvedgaard, Mogens. Lrebog i konkurrenceret; Gomard, Bernhard. Konkurrencelovgivning. Nyere udviklinger indenfor
konkurrenceretten; Hansen, Jrgen Hammer. Dansk konkurrencelovgivning p trsklen til Det Indre Marked; Hansen, Marc og
Dyekjr-Hansen, Karen. Kommissionens meddelelse om samarbejde med nationale domstole i konkurrencesager; Hansen, Marc
og Tams, Susanne. EFs regler om antidumping; Kjlbye, Lars. Konkurrencebegrnsende aftaler; Nissen, Morten Fadum og
Jespersen, Christian Tang. Afgrnsningen af det relevante marked i EF-konkurrence and Slvkjr, Evan. Competition law.
Denmark and EC membership evaluated. On the specific aspects of competition law, see: Fej, Jens. Konkurrencebegrnsning
ved know-how-licensaftaler. Har EF-lovgivningen rykket Danmark ned i 2. division, nr det glder mulighederne for at deltage
i den teknologiske udvikling?; Andersen, Ulrik og Mikkelsen, Jes Anker. EF maritim konkurrenceret; Boesgaard, Jytte.
Transportomrdet set i lyset af EF's konkurrenceret and Boesgaard, Jytte. EFs koncurrenceregler inden for landbruget;
Schovsbo, Jens Hemmingsen. Konkurrencebestemmelserne i EF-Traktaten og ophavsretsselskaberne; Shefet, Dan.
Kommissionen for de Europiske Fllesskaber mod IBM - en studie i edb-retlig konkurrenceret; Vesterdorf, Bo. Klager over
konkurrenceretskrnkelser indenfor EF-retten. On procedural aspects, see: Due, Ole. Verfahrensrechte der Unternehmen im
Wettbewerbsverfahren vor der EG-Kommission. Merger and it's effect on competition is also a topic analysed in many works.
See: Lett, Jesper. Fusionskontrol i Danmark og i EF; Andersen, Ann. Grnseoverskridende fusion indenfor EF; Boesgaard,
Jytte og Gulmann, Claus. Den nye EF-forordning om kontrol med virksomhedssammenslutninger; Hvelplund, Kirsten. Moder/datterselskabsdirektivet og fusionsdirektiv. Hvad betyder vedtagelsen for Danmark?; Mersing, Erik Mohr. Nye EF-regler om
fusionskontrol; Stenholdt, Sren. Fusioner og virksomhedsoverdragelser i Europa i skattemssig belysning and Steen, Niels
Christian. Fusionsdirektivet. Lovforslaget om tilfrsel af aktiver; Pedersen, Ejvind. Fusionskontrol og konkurrenceregler;
Zerman, Per. Nyt forslag til fusionsdirektiv.
78
Fej, Jens. Monopoly law and Market. Studies of EC Competition Law with US American Antitrust Law as a frame of
reference and supported by basic market economics.

33

Fiscal Policy
Fiscal disparities are a hindrance to the effectiveness of the internal market and therefore the
79
objective of the harmonisation of tax law is the removal of fiscal frontiers. It is worth bearing
in mind that the tax provisions in Articles 95 to 99 refer only to indirect taxation. Issues relating
to direct taxation can be found in work done by Karsten Engsig Srensen and Poul Runge
80
Nielsen. Articles 100 to 102 represent the legal basis for direct taxation but deal only with
approximation of laws. The authors seem to argue in their legal analysis of the ECJ's case-law
that although Articles 100 to 102 only deal with approximation of laws, the ECJ's case-law
shows that direct taxation is important in relation to the internal market if it has a discriminatory
effect.
Policy for Enterprises
The Community is developing a policy in relation to small and medium-sized enterprises and a
81
scheme in relation to company law. Werlauff's book on EC-company law contains an
exposition of the extensive and complex rules in the area of company law - which the
82
Community has already carried through or on which it is presently working. Instead of

79
For taxes, rates and dues reference should be made to the following articles: Gimsing, Kurt. Nye vsentlige EF-regler
for den direkte beskatning; Thoft, Torben. Arbejdet i EF med harmonisering af de direkte skatter; Olsen, Erik. Norden og
skatteharmoniseringen i EF. En introduktion; Olsen, K. M. Myndighedssamarbejde i EF - told og afgift; Meldgaard, Henrik.
Skattereformer i EF-landene - en oversigt; Meyer, Michael og Rattray, Christina J. EF's voldgiftskonvention til undgelse af
dobbeltbeskatning; Hoffritz, K. Punktafgifterne i EF; Sneum, Jonna. EF - Direkte skat. Det indre marked; Hpner, Finn.
Samarbejde mellem skattemyndighederne i EF; Bjerre-Nielsen, Sren. Harmonisering af virksomhedsbeskatning i EF; Blou,
Dorte. Afgiftsharmoniseringen i EF and Borgsmidt, Kirsten. Skatter og afgifter i det indre marked. The following articles are
concerned with VAT: Dekov, Erik. Justeringer af toldloven og momsloven som flge af EFs indre marked 1.januar 1993;
Dekov, Erik. Moms af varer og ydelser over landegrnserne; Hansen, Benny Hjortkr. Moms i EF's indre marked; Hansen,
Benny Hjortkr og Hansen, Bjarne Lykkegaard. Moms over grnserne. I hvilket omfang skal ydelser til og fra udlandet
momses i Danmark?; Krewald, Mogens. Det Indre Marked og momssystemet; Legaard, Niels. MOMS - Det indre marked and
Thomsen, Aage Brink. Moms i Europa. Meldgaard, Henrik. Skattereformer I EF-landene - en oversigt
80
Srensen, Karsten Ensig and Nielsen, Poul Runge. National skatteret og EU-Retten - om EU-Domstolens prvelse af
nationale skatteregler.
81
Loftlund, Knud. Tegningsretten efter 1. selskabsretlige direktiv; Olsen, B. Niemann. EFs 8. selskabsdirektiv; Nielsen,
Mette Winther. Skal de danske insider-trading regler ndres?; Jensen, Erik and Riis-Jrgensen, Karin. Europiske konomiske
Firmagrupper; Peytz, Henrik. Europiske konomiske Firmagrupper. En nydannelse i EF-retten; Schlter, Johan. Aktieklasser
i EF-retten; Svensson, Jan-Erik. Europiske virksomhedssamarbejder - de gode og de onde.
82
Werlauff, Erik. EC Company Law. The common denominator for business undertakings in 12 states and Werlauff,
Erik. EF-Selskabsret. 12 staters flles virksomhedsret. Other works written by: Werlauff, Erik. Udviklingen i europisk
selskabsret. I, II, III, IV og V; Werlauff, Erik and Srensen, Karsten Engsig. Koncernreglernes internationale udstrkning;
Werlauff, Erik. Selskabsretlig loyalitetspligt - udvikling gennem EF-retten; Srensen, Karsten Engsig and Werlauff, Erik.
Udenlandske moderselskaber; Srensen, Karsten Engsig and Werlauff, Erik. Enkeltmandsselskaber - udkast til EF's 12.
selskabsdirektiv. Other discussions of commercial and company law seen in a European context can be found in: Iversen, Bent;
Nrgaard, Jrgen; Wegener, Morten og rgaard, Niels. Lrebog i dansk og international erhvervsret; Srensen, Karsten
Engsig. Samarbejde mellem selskaber i EF; Srensen, Karsten Engsig. Etableringsretten for selskaber i EF; Levinsen, Kirsten.
Danske virksomheders samarbejde med andre virksomheder inden for EF; Mandrup, Kirsten og Thomassen, Leif. Selskabsretlige aktiviteter i Det indre Marked. Aktuel orientering om gennemfrte og isr igangvrende aktiviteter p det selskabsretlige
omrde inden for EF; Meyer, Michael og Kristensen, Finn Mller. Europiske konomiske firmagrupper - en status; Nielsen,
Finn Elkjr. Europiske konomiske firmagrupper and Schaumburg-Mller, Sten. Europiske konomiske firmagrupper - en
ny juridisk ramme for erhvervssamarbejde i EF; Werlauff, Erik. EF-forbud mod stemmeretsbegrnsninger; Werlauff, Erik and
Schaumburg-Mller, Per. Europisk insiderret.

34
83
describing the Directives one by one Werlauffs book starts with the creation of the company,
going on to analyse the organisational and economic problems that a company might encounter
and finishes off with the dissolution of the company. It is left to the reader to conclude whether
companies will be in a better or worse position to compete with companies from non-EU
countries if they can take full advantage of the large internal market. The book draws the large
picture of how EC company law has developed and leaves the reader with a useful tool with
which to delve further into the detailed legislation.

2.4. The European Union Common Economic and Social Dimension

Social Policy
The ECSC, EAEC and EEC Treaties contain a number of binding social provisions which could
be seen as laying down the cornerstones for the creation of a common European social policy.
84
For example, the right of free movement for workers, the right of social security for migrant
85
86
workers and the right to equal pay for men and women. The TEU increased the powers in
the social and employment spheres by aiming at ensuring a high level of social protection, a
raised standard of living and quality of life, and economic and social cohesion and solidarity
87
among Member States. New areas of co-operation are also envisaged in the agreement on
88
social policy concluded by eleven Member States.
In Danish research Ruth Nielsen is a central figure not only in the debate on gender and sex
89
equality but also for example in the field of labour law. Nielsens thesis, a European law
perspective on the employers right to manage, contains an analysis of the development of EC
90
labour law and the principle of free movement of workers. Special emphasis is placed on the
prohibition of discrimination on the ground of nationality as expressed in Article 7, and on
Article 119, concerning equal pay for equal work irrespective of sex. Nielsen concludes that in
83

A description of the different directives has been made in: Werlauff, Erik. Europisk Selskabs Ret.

84

EEC, Article 48.

85

EEC, Article 51.

86

EEC, Article 119.

87
See: EEC Article 2. Research on social policy of the European Community can be found in: Kristiansen, Jens. EF's
sociale dimension i praksis and Jakobsen, Helle. Den sociale dimension og lige muligheder. Employment issues takes up a
portion of the research produced, reference should be made to; Bruun, Jrgen Rnnow. Lige ln i Danmark; Conradsen, Inger
Marie. Rimelig ln i retlig belysning; Schultz, Lisa Ibenfeldt. Social sikring ved beskftigelse i udlandet; Krarup, Ole. EF
arbejdsret. Integration eller disintegration?; Harlang, Christian. EF-Unionen & dansk arbejdsret. Ansttelses- og arbejdsretlige
aspekter ved Maastricht-arbejdsmarkeds-aftalen ("Den sociale dimension") and Harlang, Christian og Kristiansen, Jens. EFarbejdsret p vej mod stbeskeen.
88

See: Protocol on Social Policy. The Agreement is appended to the protocol.

89
Nielsen, Ruth. Arbejdsmarked og sociale forhold; Nielsen, Ruth. Arbejdsmiljret; Nielsen, Ruth. EF-Arbejdsret;
Nielsen, Ruth. The Contract of Employment in the Member States of the European Communities and in Community Law;
Nielsen, Ruth. EF's betydning for vrnet af grundlggende rettigheder i arbejdslivet; Nielsen, Ruth. Judiciel aktivisme i EFarbejdsretten; Nielsen, Ruth og Szyszczak, Erika. The social Dimension of the European Community.
90

Nielsen, Ruth. Arbejdsgiverens ledelsesret i EF-retlig belysning. Studier i EF-rettens integration i dansk arbejdsret.

35

the Defrenne-III case the ECJ has gone beyond these specific provisions to hold that there is a
general principle of non-discrimination in Community law. The thesis goes on to discuss the
way in which the case-law of the European Court of Justice has affected the development of
Danish labour law. Nielsen grounds her work on Alf Ross' theory of legal realism and develops
it in the labour law context.
Gender Studies and Ethnic, Cultural and Sexual Minorities
Hanne Petersens doctoral thesis, on labour law with a special emphasis on the position of
91
women, contains two very interesting and innovative pieces of work. The first book analyses
womens 'formal' position in collective labour law while the second book is built on a number
of interviews with women who work in all-female environments in the public sector. These
interviews focus on the interaction and conflicts between women's paid and unpaid work. The
clash between those two kinds of work is described as 'informal law'. Petersen finds that
womens legal position to a large degree is regulated by informal law. It therefore becomes
important to analyse what part informal law plays within the legal system and in legal theory. In
doing so, Hanne Petersen makes use, inter alia, of legal anthropology and legal sociology. More
particularly in relation to European integration Hanne Petersen has, in two articles, analysed
92
Community law's influence on the position of women in Danish labour law. Not only will it be
interesting to follow the developments in relation to gender studies but also in relation to
93
cultural, ethnic and sexual minorities.
Consumer Policy and Health Policy
Although Denmark is, rightly or wrongly, thought of as being a Member State with a high
degree of health and consumer protection, Danish legal research in this area is relatively
94
limited. The need to strengthen the position of consumers in the Community was recognised
by the SEA and further developed in the TEU. Article 100a par.3, introduced by the SEA, states
that the Commissions proposals for legislation to accomplish the internal market are to contain
a high level of health and consumer protection. In order to meet an increasing demand for
consumer protection Title XI was included in the TEU.
Environmental Policy
The European Communities published a survey of public opinion on environmental protection
in 1992, which showed that 85% of those polled considered that combating pollution was an
95
important objective. Environmental protection and control of pollution have certainly been on
91
Petersen, Hanne. Ledelse og Loyalitet: Kollektiv Arbejdsret i den Offentlige Sektor, and Informel ret p kvindeardejdspladser: En Retsteoretisk of Emperisk Analyse.
92
Petersen, Hanne. EF og kvinderne med srlig henblik p arbejdsmarkedsreguleringen and Petersen, Hanne.
Kvindeperspektiver p EF's arbejdsmarkedslovgivning. Det indre markeds indflydelse p kvinders beskftigelse.
93
Snyder, Francis in collaboration with Somsen, Han and Hyer, Henrik Duedahl. (Chapter 8) Subsidarity: an Aspect of
European Community Law and its Relevance to Lesbian and Gay Men.; (Chapter 9) The Community as Employer. Staff
Regulations: an Aspect of European Community Law and its Relevance to Lesbians and Gay Men.; and (Chapter 10)
Conclusions of Chapters 8 and 9. In: Waaldijk, Kees and Clapham (eds.) Homosexuality: A European Community Issue. Essays
on Lesbian and Gay Rights in European Law and Policy. See also: Nielsen, Ruth. EF og kvinder - arbejdsretlige aspekter.
94
The European Community consumer protection policy is discussed in: Wallberg, Knud. Forbrugerbeskyttelsen i EF's
indre marked; Dahl, Brge. Forbrugeromrdet, den offentlige sundhed; and Mgelvang-Hansen, Peter. Consumer Protection in
Transnational Relations. The EEC Approach.
95

Europe. Eurobarometer: Europeans more and more anxious about environment. Environment 19 June 1992 No 389.

36
96

97

the Danish and European agenda. The European Environment Agency is placed in Denmark
and the Danish Commissioner Ritt Bjerregaard was given the portfolio on environmental
matters in the newly appointed Commission.

2.5. The European Union Economic and Monetary Dimension

The Report of the Delors Committee, as modified by the TEU, provides that Economic and
Monetary Union is to be established in three phases. The first phase started in July 1990 at the
same time as the liberalisation of capital movements. The second phase began on 1 January
1994 and is to have three main features. First, that Member States will endeavour to avoid
98
excessive government deficits. Second, that Member States will ensure the independence of
99
100
their central banks. Third, a European Monetary Institute will be established. The third
101
phase, in which Denmark has an opt-out clause, is meant to start on 1 January 1999 at the
102
latest. At this stage a European Central Bank will be established and the ECU is meant to
become a currency in its own right. Introducing a single currency would mean that speculation
with the monetary compensatory amount will disappear together with the fragmentation in
the internal market. This will mean, for example, that travellers will no longer have to bear the
transaction costs of changing money from one currency to another and it will be unnecessary for
business to insure against currency fluctuations within the European Union.

2.6. Other Dimensions of European Union Co-operation

Common Foreign and Security Policy & Justice and Home Affairs
The TEU introduced two new areas of co-operation. First, the provisions on common foreign
103
and security policy, which are placed in the second pillar of the TEU. Article J.4, envisages
that in due course co-operation in this area will lead to a common defence policy which in time
96
See generally: Pagh, Peter. Unionstraktat og miljet; Miljgarantien i EF-retten; Farlige stoffer og EF-retten; EFretten og affaldsproblemerne; EF miljret. See also: Nielsen, Sren Seerup and Pedersen, Martin Dahl. Genanvendelse af affald
i EF-retlig belysning; Wenzel, Birgitte Refn. Ansvar for forureningsskader and Basse, Ellen Margrethe og Jrgensen, Jesper.
Miljaftaler - en ny mde at sikre fleksibiltet p?
97

The European Environment Agency was established through Regulation 1210/90. [OJ L No 120 11.5.1990].

98

EEC Article 109e par.4.

99

EEC Article 109e par.5.

100

EEC Article 109f.

101
Edinburgh European Council Conclusions. [OJ C 348, 31.12.1992, p.1]. See also: Philip, Alan; Rasmussen, Hjalte
and Thorbl, Anders. Redegrelse for de Vigtigste Retlige Sprgsml Vedrrende Forholdet Mellem Rom-Trakaten, MaastrichtTraktaten og Edinburgh-Konklusionerne.
102

EEC Article 109j par.4.

103
With regard to the Danish opt-out see: Edinburgh European Council Conclusions. [OJ C 348, 31.12.1992, p.1]. See
also: Philip, Alan; Rasmussen, Hjalte and Thorbl, Anders. Redegrelse for de Vigtigste Retlige Sprgsml Vedrrende
Forholdet Mellem Rom-Trakaten, Maastricht-Traktaten og Edinburgh-Konklusionerne.

37

may lead to a European army. In that respect the Western European Union will be assigned a
104
special role within which Denmark will have only observer status. The second new area of
co-operation is the provisions on justice and home affairs which are set out in the third pillar of
the TEU, and in relation to which Denmark does participate fully. In the third pillar certain areas
are to be regarded as matters of common interest. This means essentially that co-operation is at
an inter-governmental level but takes place within the single institutional framework. The new
areas for co-operation are, broadly speaking, concentrated on the issues of combating crime and
105
free movement of non-EU nationals. Vagn Greve became a pioneer in the field of combating
EU-crime partly because of his involvement in the European Commissions Comparative
Law Study Group and more particularly through his analysis of the relationship between
106
Community law and Danish penal law. Greve also analysed the prospects for co-operation
107
between police forces of the Member States.

3.

The people's Europe: Towards a European Union Constitutional Framework?

The inter-governmental conferences have the power to initiate developments in European

integration. The forthcoming inter-governmental conferences will presumably address some of
the most challenging questions in post-war Europe, the ultimate aim of which is to create a
108
harmonious, peaceful and democratic European Union.
Although the characteristics
mentioned in part two indicate that the European Union already has a constitutional framework
109
of sorts, in that the institutions have powers and the citizens have rights, the treaties do not
yet mirror the kind of powers and rights that would normally be found in a constitution based on
democratic consent.
Powers
The division of powers in the first pillar of the TEU identifies seventeen fields of Community
110
competencies. These powers are, or will be, handed over to institutions that are not directly
elected by the people of Europe as a whole. In other words the institutions suffer from a
democratic deficit, first because small countries are overrepresented in the Council; second,
because the people of Europe are not represented in the European Parliament in proportion to
104

Research on foreign and security policy see: Harhoff, Frederik. Den flles forsvars og udenrigspolitik.

105
Examples of which can be found in: Rehof, Lars Adam. Unionsborgerskab, Unionens menneskeretsforpligtelse,
fremmedret samt udviklingspolitik; Vedsted-Hansen, Jens. Flygtningestatus og opholdsgrundlag; Bdtcher-Hansen, Jens;
Dittmer, Martin Andre; Federspiel, Jacob og Srensen, Niels Bang. Familiesammenfring i EF-retten.
106

Greve, Vagn. Trk af den danske strafferet i EF-perspektiv I. Ansvarslrens almindelige del.

107
Greve, Vagn. Strafferet og politisamarbejde. International penal law is included in: Waaben, Knud. Strafferettens
almindelige del I. Ansarslren. 256 p and Waaben, Knud. Strafferettens almindelige del II. Sanktionslren.
108

See generally TEU, Article N par. 2 which refer back to the objectives set out in Articles A and B

109
The European Union has at this stage failed to define a group of people as being citizens of the European Union, i.e.
the Danish opt-outs. See annex 3 of the Edinburgh European Council of 11 and 12 December 1992 where it is stated that:
Nothing in the Treaty on European Union implies or foresees an undertaking to create a citizenship of the Union in the sense of
citizenship of a nation-State. The question of Denmark participating in any such development does, therefore, not arise.
110

TEU, Part Three, Community Policies Title I - XVII

38

their numbers without regard to the state where they reside, and third, they do not have the right
to choose their own Government. Furthermore, the institutions lack openness and transparency.
Civil servants from the Member States meet within the Council to make deals on legislation
which their respective ministers later adopt in closed Council meetings. These criticisms are
some of the issues that will have to be dealt with over the next many years.
Rights
European integration has, in its current form, added certain fundamental rights to those set out at
111
the Member State level. In the Nold case of 14 May 1974, for example, the ECJ stated that
fundamental human rights were an integral part of the general principles of the law which it
112
upholds. A joint declaration on fundamental rights was adopted a short time after the Nold
113
114
case. Subsequently a joint declaration against racism and xenophobia was adopted. The
preamble of the SEA states that the contracting parties are:
[D]etermined to work together to promote democracy on the basis of the fundamental rights
recognised in the constitutions and laws of the Member States, in the Convention for the Protection
of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the European Social Charter, notably freedom,
equality and social justice.115

In addition, other fundamental freedoms have been achieved which can be protected through the
116
117
ECJ. These include, for example, a prohibition against discrimination based on nationality;
118
119
a right to freedom of movement for workers; a right to social security for workers; a right
120
121
a freedom to provide services;
a right to equal pay for men and
of establishment;
111
See generally: Rasmussen, Hjalte. The European Community Constitution. Summaries of Leading EC Court Cases;
Nielsen, Ruth. Protection of fundamental rights.
112

Case 4/73, J. Nold, Kohlen- und Baustoff-grosshandlung v. Commission [1974] ECR 491.

113
Joint Declaration by the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission on fundamental rights, of 5 April
1977. [OJ C 103/1, 27.4.1977]. The following declaration was adopted:
"1. The European Parliament, the Council and the Commission stress the prime importance they attach to the
protection of fundamental rights, as derived in particular from the constitutions of the Member States and the European
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms." (Convention signed in Rome on 4 November
1950)
"2. In the exercise of their powers and in pursuance of the aims of the European Communities they respect and will
continue to respect these rights."
114
Joint Declaration by the European Parliament, the Council, the representatives of the Member States, meeting within
the Council, and the Commission against racism and xenophobia, of 11 June 1986. [OJ C 158, 25.6.1986]
115
This statement has now been 'upgraded' and inserted into the TEU; it is no longer 'just' mentioned in the Preamble but
also in Article F of the Common Provisions
116

EEC, Article 173 and 177

117

EEC, Article 6. See also: Nielsen, Ruth. Racediskrimination p det danske arbejdsmarked i EF-retlig belysning.

118

EEC, Article 48.

119

EEC, Article 51.

120

EEC, Article 52-58.

39
122

women. Supranational rights have, in other words, become complementary to national rights,
although they are not the kind of rights that would normally be found in a constitution.
The development of the European Union has thrown up a number of problems that cannot easily
be dealt with within the existing limitations due to the spill-over effects of economic
integration. For example, what remedy would be available if processed personal information
123
was misused by the European Union institutions? What remedy would be available if the
institutions constrain free speach or the right of assembly, etc.? Legal constraints of that sort
might well create a public demand for the constitutionalisation of the Union.
Conclusion
Part one of this chapter briefly displayed some of the research that analyse the requirements to
transfer sovereignty through treaties. It was found that one of the underlying principles of
European integration is that its legitimacy should be based on the consent of the people. Article
R of the TEU gives the people of the European Union the right to consent according to the
constitutional requirements of their own Member States. The constitution of each Member State
determines whether it should be the representatives of the people alone that consent to transfer
sovereignty or both the representatives and the people that consent. Part one showed that the
Danish constitution contains no absolute requirement for a Danish referendum when
sovereignty is to be transferred. Attempts to surrender sovereignty require either a majority of
five sixths of the members of the Folketing or both a majority of the members of the Folketing
and a majority of voters in a referendum. The TEU was used as an example to illustrate that the
Danish constitution does make a difference when the Danish people disagree with the
arrangements into which their government has entered. In particular it shows that when the
fundamental principles of the European Union are being shaped through the inter-governmental
conferences then the European Union is not yet in a position whereby a majority can impose
such changes on everyone. In other words the Member States can adopt a pick and choose
policy which, if carried out correctly will be binding according to the Vienna Convention.
The European Union issues involves matters of great complexity, many of which has still to be
resolved. Danish legal scholarship has an important role to play in keeping voters informed
about Europe. As part two demonstrated, Danish legal interest in European issues is
unquestionable and is spread over a wide variety of research areas. Those areas thoroughly
researched from the time of the SEA until the TEU consist of the legal foundations of the
European Union and the large internal market, which include topics like competition policy,
removal of fiscal frontiers and company law. However, there seems to be little interest in areas
such as industrial policy, transport policy and energy policy. With regard to the common
economic and social dimension the research falls, broadly, into three categories, namely social
policy, consumer and health policy and environmental policy. Only a little work has been done
in relation to education, youth and culture, regional policy, common fisheries policy, common
(..fortsat)
121

EEC, Article 59-66.

122

EEC, Article 119.

123
Dataprotection & law see generally: Blume, Peter. Personbeskyttelse er stadig et retspolitisk brndpunkt;
Registreringslovgivning: Danmark og EF; Persondata over grnserne; EF og beskyttelsen af persondata; International
persondataoverfrsel; Direktivudkast om registre.

40

forestry policy and the common agricultural policy. Again there are gaps when it comes to the
European Unions external relations law and policy, e.g., the Community relations with other
countries and regions and third world development policy. Although there has been a lot of
research done, part two reveals that it is very difficult for legal scholars to keep pace with
developments in European integration. It is interesting to note that gaps were to be found in
relation to all areas where Denmark asked for opt-outs, e.g., defence policy, economic and
monetary integration and European citizenship. This leads us back to European integration
based on the consent of the electorate. If scholars ignore or fail to make known to the electorate
important European integration issues, the democratic process may suffer. Denmark could
unwittingly find itself heading towards either a federal European Union constitution faster than
it might ideally like or lag behind with a pick and choose policy leading to a two speed
European Union.
Part three drew attention to some of the problems that future inter-governmental conferences
will have to take account of such as the democratic deficit and the lack of openness and
transparency. It also drew attention to the risk of establishing procedures that might infringe
people's privacy without there being an adequate means of redress. The Resolution on the Draft
Constitution shows that the European Parliament would like to have a European Union
constitution. Although the Resolution is merely a political statement one should not
underestimate its importance in the run up to the forthcoming inter-governmental conferences.
Is the European Union heading towards a constitutional framework? On the one hand the
European Union has size, that is, the treaties have created a Fortress Europe or a jurisdiction
within which European Union law can be applied. Within that jurisdiction the ECJ has claimed
that European Union law has supremacy over national law. But the European Union still needs
scope because at present the European Union cannot independently regulate its fundamental
principles and furthermore as thing currently stand those fundamental principles do not apply to
all Member States within the jurisdiction of the European Union.

41

124

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43

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Specielt om rdsdirektiv om Retsbeskyttelse af Bioteknologiske Opfindelser, Com (88) 496 final, 17
October 1988. (Hovedreferat fra 20. nordiske mde for industriel retsbeskyttelse. Diskussion NIR 1989 p
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Kristiansen, Jens. EF's sociale dimension i praksis. UfR 1992 p 320-26.
Kristoffersen, Sonny. EF-direktiv om tjenesteydelsesansvar. NFT 1991 p 303-310.*
Kvam, Jarle and Nielsen, Michael Kirkegaard. EF-stridige registreringsgebyrer. TfS 1993 p 98-100.*
Legaard, Niels. MOMS - Det indre marked. SR-Skat 1991 p 428-430.
Lett, Jesper. Fusionskontrol i Danmark og i EF. RoR 1988 nr. 11 p 40-41.
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1990 nr. 3 p 37-40.
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och EG-harmoniseringen av skatter och avgifter. Fredrag och inlgg vid NSFS seminarium i Fredrikshavn i
november 1989. NSFS skriftserie nr. 23, Stockholm 1990 p 35-48).
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1 p 34-38.
Molde, Jrgen; Gulmann, Claus; Mikaelsen, Laurids; Jacobsen, Christian Boye; Hagel-Srensen, Karsten.
EF-Karnov (1993), Karnovs Forlag.
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Nielsen, Henrik Karl. EF-retten og medlemstaternes folkeretlige forpligtelser. UfR 1993 49, p 457-463.*

45

Nielsen, Jesper. Fjendtlige virksomhedsovertagelser - "Hostile takeovers" og EF. Inspi 1991 nr. 2 p 3-4.*
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46

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nr. 3 p 58.*

47

Shefet, Dan. Kommissionen for de Europiske Fllesskaber mod IBM - en studie i edb-retlig konkurrenceret.
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49

About the authors

Johnny Laursen (b 1958). Ph.D. University of Aarhus 1992 (thesis about the
Decline of the Weimar Republic). Research Fellow for the Research Initiative
'Continuity and Change and contemporry Danish Politics'; 1991-1993 Research
Fellow at the European University Institute, Florence; 1993-1994 employed at the
Center for Cultural Research, University of Aarhus; lecturer at the History
Department and at the European Studies Programme. 1995- Associate Professor
in the History Department at Aalborg University. He has published aricles on
Danish policies towards Europe, European history, Nordic cooperation. He is
currently working on a book on Danish policy towards Europe.
Address: Johnny Laursen, History Department, Aalborg University, Fibigerstrde
5, DK - 9220 Aalborg, Denmark; Phone +45 9815 4211 ext. 2406; Fax +45
98153298; e-mail laursen@i4.auc.dk
***
Knud Erik Jrgensen (b 1954) Assistant Professor at the Department of Political
Science, University of Aarhus; he was in 1993-1994 a Jean Monnet Fellow at the
European University Institute in Florence; Most recent publications include "EC
External Relations as a Theoretical Challenge. Theories, Concepts, Trends" in
Frank Pfetsch ed. Pan-Europe and International Relations. Theoretical Approaches
and Empirical Findings (Mnster - Hamburg: Lit Verlag 1993); and "Beyond
European Leviathans. Differentiating Layers of International Transformation", in
Nils-Arne Srensen ed. Cultural Diversity and European Integration Since 1700
(Odense: Odense University Press 1995). Main research interests are European
governance and international relations theory.
Address: Knud Erik Jrgensen, Department of Political Science,
Universitetsparken, Dk - 8000 Aarhus C; phone +45 8942 1342, fax +45 8613
9839; e-mail kej@ps.aau.dk
***
Henrik D. Hyer (b 1963) Grew up in Denmark, Africa and India; holds a
Cand.Jur., University of Aarhus and a LL.M from King's College, London
University. He prepares a Ph.D. thesis at the European University Institute
(Florence); has made several joint publications under the auspices of the European
Human Rights Foundation. He is currently a Visiting Scholar at the University of
California, Boalt Hall School of Law.
Address: Henrik D. Hyer, European University Institute, Villa Schifanoia,
121, Via Boccaccio, I - 50133 Firenze, Italy; E-mail hoyer@datacomm.iue.it - and

50

hoyer@uclink2.berkeley.edu