Chapter 8: Mechanical Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do cracks that lead to failure form?
How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?

Ship-cyclic loading
from waves
waves.
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph,
Chapter 8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)

Computer chip-cyclic
thermal loading.
loading
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National
Semiconductor Corporation.)

Hip implant-cyclic
loading from walking
walking.
Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Callister 7e.
Chapter 8 - 1

Fracture mechanisms
Ductile fracture
Accompanied by significant plastic
deformation
Brittle fracture
Little or no plastic deformation
Catastrophic

Chapter 8 - 2

Ductile vs Brittle Failure

Classification:

Fracture
behavior:

Very
Ductile

Moderately
Ductile

Brittle

Large

Moderate

Small

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

%AR or %EL
Ductile fracture is
usually more desirable
than brittle fracture!

Ductile:
Warning before
fracture

Brittle:
No
warning
Chapter 8 - 3

Example: Pipe Failures

Ductile failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.
Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

Chapter 8 - 4

Moderately Ductile Failure

Failure Stages:
necking

Resulting
fracture
surfaces

void
nucleation

shearing
void growth
and coalescence at surface

50
50mm
mm

(steel)
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.

fracture

100 mm
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,
Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P.
Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.)

Fracture surface of tire cord wire

loaded in tension.
tension Courtesy of F
F.
Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
OH. Used with permission.
Chapter 8 - 5

Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture

brittle fracture

Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 6

Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated

Adapted from Fig. 8.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 7

Brittle Fracture Surfaces

Transgranular

Intergranular
(between grains)

4 mm

304 S. Steel
((metal))

(through grains)
316 S. Steel
(metal)

Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook",
Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650.
from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials
Copyright 1985, ASM
P k OH.
Park,
OH (Mi
(Micrograph
hb
by
International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R.
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
National Lab.)

Polypropylene
(polymer)
Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg,
"D f
"Defor-mation
ti and
d
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p.
303, John Wiley and
Sons Inc.,
Sons,
Inc 1996
1996.

160 mm

Al Oxide
(ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Failure Analysis of
B ittl M
Brittle
Materials",
t i l " p. 78
78.
Copyright 1990, The
American Ceramic
Society, Westerville, OH.
(Micrograph by R.M.
Gruver and H
H. Kirchner
Kirchner.))

3 mm

1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)

Chapter 8 - 8

Ideal vs Real Materials

Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
E/10

perfect matl-no flaws

TSengineering << TS perfect

carefully produced glass fiber

E/100

typical ceramic
0.1

materials

materials

typical strengthened metal

typical polymer

DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed...

-- the longer the wire, the
smaller the load for failure
failure.
Reasons:
-- flaws cause premature failure.
-- larger
l
samples
l contain
t i llonger flflaws!!

Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996.

Chapter 8 - 9

Flaws are Stress Concentrators!

Griffith Crack

1/ 2

a
m 2o
t
t

K t o

where
t = radius of curvature
o = applied stress
m = stress at crack tip
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 8 - 10

Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig

Fig. 8
8.8(b),
8(b)
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 11

Engineering Fracture Design

Avoid sharp corners!

max
Stress Conc
Conc. Factor
Factor, K t =
0
w
max

r,
fillet
radius

2.5

Adapted from Fig.

8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fi 8
(Fig.
8.2W(c)
2W( ) iis ffrom G
G.H.
H
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)

2.0

increasing w/h

1.5
1.0

0.5
1.0
sharper
h
fill
fillett radius
di

r/h

Chapter 8 - 12

Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips
A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
blunts the crack.
deformed
region
brittle

ductile

Energy balance on the crack

Elastic strain energy energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
this energy is released when the crack propagates
creation of new surfaces requires
q
energy
gy
Chapter 8 - 13

Criterion for Crack Propagation

Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (m)
exceeds a critical stress ((c)
i.e., m > c

1/ 2

2E s
c

where
E = modulus of elasticity
s = specific surface energy
a = one half length of internal crack

For ductile materials => replace s with s + p

where p is p
plastic deformation energy
gy
Chapter 8 - 14

Fracture Toughness Ranges

Metals/
Alloys
100

K Icc (MPa m 0.5 )

70
60
50
40
30

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

C-C(|| fibers) 1

Steels
Ti alloys
Al alloys
Mg alloys

Based on data in Table B.5,

C lli t & R
Callister
Rethwisch
th i h 8
8e.

20

Al/Al oxide(sf) 2
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4
C/C( fibers) 1
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3
Si nitr/SiC(w) 5
Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4
Glass/SiC(w) 6

10
7
6
5
4

Diamond
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride

0.7
0.6
0.5

PET
PP
PVC

Composites/
fibers

PC

<100>

Si crystal
<111>
Glass -soda
Concrete

PS
Polyester

Composite reinforcement geometry is: f

= fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
p = particles. Addition data as noted
(vol. fraction of reinforcement):
1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook
1
Handbook, Vol.
Vol 21
21, ASM Int
Int.,
Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
Waltham, MA.
3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
(1986). pp. 61-73.
4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc Vol.
Proc.,
Vol 7 (1986) pp
pp. 978
978-82.
82

Glass 6
Chapter 8 - 15

Design Against Crack Growth

Crack growth condition:
K Kc = Y a
Largest, most highly stressed cracks grow first!
--Scenario
Scenario 1: Max.
Max flaw
size dictates design stress.

design
d i

Kc

Y amax

fracture
no
fracture

--Scenario
Scenario 2: Design stress
dictates max. flaw size.

amax

amax

1 K c

Ydesign

fracture

amax

no
fracture

Chapter 8 - 16

Design Example: Aircraft Wing

Material has KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5
Two designs to consider...
Design A

--use same material

--largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure
f il
stress
t
=?

--largest flaw is 9 mm
--failure stress = 112 MPa

Use...

Design B

K Ic
Y amax

Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
KIc
= a = constant
Y
--Result:

112 MPa

9 mm

amax

4 mm
c

amax

Answer: ( c )B 168 MPa

B
Chapter 8 - 17

Impact Testing
Impact loading:

(Charpy)

-- severe testing case

-- makes
k material
t i l more b
brittle
ittl
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig
Fig. 8
8.12(b),
12(b)
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
8.12(b) is adapted from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J.
Wulff, The Structure and
Properties
p
of Materials,, Vol. III,,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

fi l h
final
height
i ht

i iti l h
initial
height
i ht
Chapter 8 - 18

Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy
Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...
(
)

Impac
ct Energy

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)
polymers
Brittle
tt e

More
o e Ductile
uct e
High strength materials ( y > E/150)

Temperature

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Ductile-to-brittle
p
transition temperature
Chapter 8 - 19

Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
Pre-WWII: The Titanic

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,

"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials",, (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Materials
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)

WWII: Liberty
y ships

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,

"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials",, (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Materials
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)

Problem: Steels were used having DBTTs just below

room temperature.
Chapter 8 - 20

Fatigue
Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top
bearing

bearing

motor

counter

flex coupling
t
tension
i on b
bottom
tt

Stress varies with time.

-- key parameters are S,

S m, and
cycling frequency

max
m

Adapted
p
from Fig.
g 8.18,,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 8.18 is from Materials
Science in Engineering, 4/E
by Carl. A. Keyser, Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper
S ddl Ri
Saddle
River, NJ
NJ.))

min

time

Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though max < y.

--responsible
ibl ffor ~ 90% off mechanical
h i l engineering
i
i ffailures.
il
Chapter 8 - 21

--no fatigue if S < Sfat

For some materials,

there is no fatigue
limit!

S = stress aamplitude

Fatigue limit, Sfat:

S = stress amplitude

Types of Fatigue Behavior

unsafe

case for
steel (typ.)

Sfat
safe
10 3

Adapted from Fig.

8.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e
8e.

10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure

unsafe
safe
10 3

10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure

case for
Al (typ.)

Adapted from Fig.

8.19(b), Callister &
R th i h 8
Rethwisch
8e.

Chapter 8 - 22

Rate of Fatigue Crack Growth

Crack grows incrementally

da
m
K
dN

typ. 1 to 6

~ a

increase in crack length per loading cycle

crack origin

Failed rotating shaft

-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
increases
crack gets longer
loading freq. increases.

Adapted
Ad
t d ffrom
Fig. 8.21, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
8.21 is from D.J.
Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail
Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)

Chapter 8 - 23

1. Impose compressive
surface stresses
(to suppress surface
cracks from growing)

S = stress a
amplitude

Improving Fatigue Life

--Method 1: shot peening

near zero or compressive m

moderate tensile m
Larger tensile m
N = Cycles to failure

--Method 2: carburizing

shot

putt
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress
concentrators.

Adapted from
Fig. 8.24, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e
8e.

bad
bad

C-rich
C
rich gas

better
better

Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 8 - 24

Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress () vs. time

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time
time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope /t)
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate)
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate.

Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 8 - 25

Creep: Temperature Dependence

Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary
primary

secondary

elastic

Adapted from Fig. 8.29,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 8 - 26

Secondary Creep
Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)

Qc

s K 2 exp

RT
n

strain rate
material const.

applied stress
Stress
s (MPa)

S
Strain rate
increases
g
with increasing
T,

activation energy for creep

( t i l parameter)
(material
t )

200
100
40
20
10

10 -2
10 -1
Steady state creep rate

Adapted from
Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
427C (Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
Handbook: Properties
538C and Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
ed., D. Benjamin
649C 9th
(Senior Ed.), American
Society for Metals,
1980 p
1980,
p. 131
131.))

1
s (%/1000hr)

Chapter 8 - 27

Creep Failure
Failure: along grain boundaries.
g.b. cavities
applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons,
Sons Inc.,
Inc 1987.
1987 (Orig.
(Orig source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)
Chapter 8 - 28

Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime

Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800C, = 20,000 psi

Ti
Time
tto rupture,
t
tr

20
10
data for

Strress (103 psi)

100

T (20 log t r ) L
function of
applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

temperature

S-590 Iron
12

16

20

24

28

(1073 K )(20 log t r ) 24 x103

103 L (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J.
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)

Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 8 - 29

Estimate the rupture time for

S-590
S
590 Iron,
o , T = 750C,
50 C, = 20,000
0,000 psi
ps
Solution:
Time to rupture, tr

T (20 log t r ) L
20

function of
applied stress
time to failure
fail re (rupture)
(r pt re)

temperature

10
data for

(1023 K )(20 log

g t r ) 24 x10 3

S-590 Iron
12

Ans: tr = 2890 hr

Stre
ess (103 p
psi)

100

16

20

24

28

103 L (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J.
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
Chapter 8 - 30

SUMMARY
Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and
d premature
t
failure.
f il
Failure type depends on T and :
-For
For simple fracture (noncyclic and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,,
- increased rate of loading.

- For fatigue (cyclic :

- cycles
y
to fail decreases as increases.

- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):

- time to rupture decreases as or T increases.

Chapter 8 - 31

ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:
Core Problems:
Self help Problems:
Self-help

Chapter 8 - 32