Practical Crop Protection (1994)

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PRACTICAL CROR PROTECTION

was developed by the Soil and Crop Management Branch of Alberta Agriculture,
Food and Rural Development. Practical Crop Protection is a revision of the Guide to Crop
This publication
Protection in Alberta, 1988, Part
II
Non
Editor
Michael
J.
Dorrance
Diseases
leuan R. Evans
Insects
Jim W. Jones
Michael G. Dolinski
Weeds
Denise Maurice
Walter Yarish
Shaffeek Ali
Dan Cole
Other Contributors
Bill Witbeck
Myron Bjorge
Keith Price
Chemical.
Published by:
Food and
Rural
Development
Publishing Branch
7000
113
Canada
Street,
Edmonton, Alberta
T6H 5T6
Gerard Vaillancourt
Graphic Designer: John Gillmore
Editor:
Copyright
the
Queen
1994. All rights reserved
by her Majesty
in tne right of Alberta.
on pp. 56, 63, 69 and 71 excerpted

from Weeds of Canada, 1955 and are reproduced
with the permission of the Minister of Supply and
Services Canada, 1993.
Line drawings
No
part of this publication
may be
reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical

photocopying, recording, or otherwise without
written permission from the Publishing Branch,
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development.
ISBN 0-7732-6058-7
Printed February 1994
CONTENTS
Preface
vi
Strategies for implementing or enhancing
22
biological control
Steps involved
Introduction
in
biological control of
Basic concepts
Weed
Weed
management
Prevention
weeds
Biological control of insects
and equipment
soil
Prevent spread through feed and manure
new weeds
your
fields
Field Scouting
30
30
scout fields
Scouting timetable
30
Scouting frequency
30
What
30
to look for
4
for scouting
30
4
Field
scouting timetable
31
32
Scouting patterns
Prevention of Insect Pests
27
Why
The tools needed

in
26
Practise fence line and iieadland control
Prevent spread with
harm beneficialinsects
Practices that
Prevent weed seed formation
24
sanitation
Handling
23
Biological control of
Integrated pest
weeds
Basic information to aid
Basic
in
scouting
weed scouting
32
33
Disease Prevention
Basic insect scouting
34
Quarantines and inspections
Basic disease scouting
35
Quarantinable diseases of concern to Alberta
Weed
36
Disease-free certified seed
Control
Sanitation
10
Weed
Pesticides
10
Choosing weed control measures
37
10
Weed management
38
11
Management
Minimum
tillage
and zero
tillage
Crop rotation
Crops commonly used
for rotations
12
36
biology
in
specific crops
of specific
weeds
Bladder campion
Canada
thistle
40
40
41
Seed Selection and Treatment
14
Chickweed
43
Use
14
Cleavers
44
14
Comspurry
45
Seed storage
14
Cow
46
Insects
14
Dandelion
Rodents
14
Field
bindweed
48
15
Flixweed (wild millet)
49
Green
foxtail
50
Hemp
nettle
51
resistant varieties
Seed treatments
Seed testing
for control of disease
certificates
cockle
47
Seeding and Fertilization
16
Rates
16
Kochia
52
Depth
16
Lamb's-quarters
53
Timing
16
Leafy spurge
54
Seedbed preparation
17
Narrow-leaved hawk's-beard
56
Fertility
17
Night-flowering catchfly
57
Lime
17
Quackgrass
58
Crop placement
18
Redroot pigweed
61
Crop selection
18
Russian
62
Physical Control Of Pests
ig
Harvest practices
19
thistle
Scentless chamomile
63
Shepherd's-purse
66
Smartweed
annual
67
perennial
68
Sow-thistle -perennial
69
SmartweedTillage
20
Grazing
21
Trap strips
21
Fire
Stinkweed
71
Stork's-bill
72
Tartary buckwheat
73
Toadflax
74
21
Principles of Biological Control
22
White cockle
76
Background
22
Wild buckwheat
77
Digitized by the Internet Archive

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2015
https://archive.org/details/practicalcropproOOdorr
33
Wild mustard
78
Grey speck, manganese deficiency
Wildcats
79
Net blotch
133
Powdery mildew
133
Insect Control
82
Rusts
135
Biology
82
Scald
Assess the
potential for insect
damage
Economic thresholds
83
Management
88
of insect pests
Alfalfa looper
88
Alfalfa weevil
88
Army cutworm
89
Beetwebworm
91
Bertha
Canola root maggots
94
Clover cutworm
95
Dark-sided cutworm
96
Diamondbackmotli
97
European corn borer
98
-Clear-winged
102
-Migratory
103
-Pacl<ard's
105
-Two-striped
106
Greenbug
106
Lygusbugs
107
Pale
Prairie grain
Redbacked cutworm
113
Red tumip beetle
114
Sweetclover weevil
116
Wheat stem sawfly
117
Disease Control
120
Symptoms
138
Stem smut
140
140
streak
leaf
141
spot
141
mosaic virus
142
injury, winterkill
144
Diseases of oilseeds
Aster yellows
144
Blackleg, canker, dry rot
144
Blackspot, alternaria black spot, grey leaf spot
Clubroot
146
Downy
mildew, angular
leaf
147
spot
147
Fusarium
148
wilt
148
rot
Grey stem, white
leaf
149
spot
149
Pasmo
Root
rot,
brown girdling root
rot,
root rot
complex
Sclerotinia,
Seedling
stem
blight,
rot,
rot
156
Stem break and browning
156
Verticillium wilt, leaf mottle
157
Diseases of forage legumes
158
Common
20
121
Crown
Disease development
122
IMon-chemical seed treatment
22
Chemical seed treatment
22
158
158
Methods
122
of seed treatment
Mycoparasitism
123
leaf spot,
rot,
pseudopeziza
leaf
spot
leaf spot,
160
stagnospora
leaf
spot and root
rot
complex
60
Leaf proliferation
161
Powdery mildew
161
Sooty blotch, black blotch
162
Target spot, stemphylium
162
Verticillium wilt
162
23
123
Interference
59
159
root rot
Downy mildew
Grey
General control measures for viruses
55
Staghead, white rust
120
Non-living (abiotic) causes of disease
50
151
sclerotinia wilt, head rot
damping-off, root
Black stem
Living (biotic) causes of disease
150
Rust
Bacterial wilt
of disease
46
Frost and heat canker of flax
Grey mold head
Ill
wireworm
37
Smuts and bunt
Winter
110
Pea aphid
138
Wheat
108
westem cutworm
glume blotch
Sharp eyespot
Tan spot, yellow
101
Flea beetles
Grasshopper
leaf blotch,
Take-all
92
armyworm
136
Septoria complex, speckled
82
Viral
163
diseases
Diseases of cereals
124
Winter crown root rot snow mold
Anthracnose
124
Yellow
164
Aster yellows
124
Bacterial blight
125
leaf
blotch
Diseases of pulse crops
64
65
126
Barley stripe, fungal stripe
26
Appendixes
I66
Barley yellow dwarf virus, red leaf of oats
27
Barley cultivar resistance to specific diseases
66
Bluedwarf
127
Wheat
67
Oats cultivar resistance to specific diseases
68
Rye
68
68
69
Barley stripe mosaic virus
virus, crinkle
Browning root
rot,
Cephalosporium
Common
(BSMV)
pythium root
rot
28
128
stripe
root rot, seedling blight, damping-off
cultivar resistance to specific diseases
Triticale cultivar resistance to specific
29
diseases
Copper deficiency
130
Canola cultivar resistance to specific diseases
Ergot
131
Alfalfa cultivar resistance to specific
Fusarium head
blight, scab, pink
tombstone scab
mold, white heads,
132
diseases
170
PREFACE
During the past decade, media attention has increasingly
listed
above are directly related
focused on pesticide issues. These issues include residues in
tices.
Future practices will require
food, ground water contamination, wildlife damage, habitat
to obtain control.
loss
and bystander exposure.
Some
by improved practices
dealt with
and handling of
pesticides. In other cases a reduction in the use of
cides
may be the only answer. They cannot be

we need to educate the public about."
some
Many
pesti-
dismissed as
tion.
nation from at least one pesticide.
community
less than in the
ing
it
that
practical,
United States. This book
in Alberta is
is
wishing
Another concern
is
to pest
cycle and
is
rely
by
While pesticides and
also linked
now know
production tools,
that overuse of either causes problems.
The
their reasons, farmers
weaknesses
more information. These
knowledge of the
that
may be
pest, its life
exploited for control
on prevention
if
they are to be successful. Proper crop
and rotations are of cardinal
importance.
exposed without vegetative cover.
tillage are essential
require
a detailed
selection, cultural practices
poor crop rotations and practices such as summer fallow
that leave the soil surface
its
Whatever
weeds, insects and diseases by integrated
purposes. Chemicals can be used to retrieve a situation

where pests are out of control. Non-chemical methods must
problems.
the erosion of large areas of farmland
to control
methods require
dedicated to keep-
excessive and incorrect tillage practices. Erosion

to
are concerned about pesticide costs or exposure.
management techniques
much
way, while providing commercial farmers with

economical solutions
Some
ket for "organic" foods.
some contamiCanadian data are less com-
However, we know contamination
farmers have expressed an interest in reducing or
Other farmers wish to take advantage of a developing mar-
wells and four per cent of private wells contain
plete.
together
eliminating the use of chemical pesticides in crop produc-
"things
In the United States of America, 10 per cent of
new methods used
These methods must be environmentally
sound and sustainable.
of these problems can be
in the use
to current pest control prac-
General principles are reviewed in the introductory part of

the text while details on controlling specific pests follow in
we
each appropriate section.
issues
vi
INTRODUCTION
This book
about solutions to weed, insect and disease
is
Basic Concepts
problems associated with large scale prairie agriculture.

The emphasis is on a sustainable approach to integrate
Alberta.
many
and a
or
There are thousands of species of plants and animals
control measures into a profitable operation.
all
Many books on
"integrated pest management", "alterna-
seem
tive agriculture" or "organic agriculture"
on small scale farms with practices closer
to
It is
to focus
We have
gardening
most pest control operations kill many non-target organisms. Tillage, pesticides and even crop rotations kill
non-target species. Any habitat change will kill or dis-
focused on the commercial producer
and emphasize an approach applicable
to large-scale
place
operations.
but
Our approach
is
not organic, pro-pesticide, anti-pesticide,
anti-tillage or anti-fertilizer.
approach to
all
We favor a common
sense
rotations, preventive measures, biological control,
species to control pest buildup.
row spacing,
in fertility, seeding technique,
tions
lish strong plants that
to
be careful about what
we
and
kill
acciden-
Destruction of the predators and parasites of our
greater than before. This
is
why
numbers even
application of broad
spectrum pesticides has been described as a pesticide
and
treadmill. This term refers to the treatment of pests
The
the accidental mortality of their predators.
practice
plant popula-
and use of well-adapted varieties will help
species. Lethal control is often unavoidable,
pests can cause a resurgence of the pest in
immune crop
Good agronomic
many
we do need
tally.
of the above and embrace the use of crop
careful selection of resistant varieties or
not desirable to destroy plants and animals unless
they are causing or likely to cause damage. However,
than to the large scale production practised on the

Prairies.
in
Most are beneficial, some are occasional pests

few are always in conflict with human interests.
ulation usually recovers faster than
another pesticide application
to estab-
can withstand pest damage and
need
a reoccurring
is
its
pest pop-
predators and
required. This
may
to apply pesticides to the point
cause
where
compete with weeds. Pesticides should be used as needed

Do not rely on pesticides as the
the pest eventually develops a resistance to the pesticide.
only control. Proper application of cultural, biological
Fortunately, there are
and chemical controls are more cost effective and will be
target mortality.
with care and attention.
less likely to
damage
cides at times
beneficial species.
nerable, use
modern agriculture, good farm practices are combined

with good government and community programs. Because
In
seed cleaning plants are expensive,

for every farmer to
that agents
own
it
cides only
when
more
when
many
practices that decrease non-
We can use less pesticide,

specific pesticides
and apply
necessary. This will also save
and delay the development of
does not make sense
apply pesti-
beneficial organisms are less vulpesti-
money
resistant pests. Integrating
the use of pesticides with cultural and biological con-
one. Biological control requires
planned, systematic approach

P.M. or Integrated Pest Management.
trols in a
be collected, screened and made available by
I.
known
is
as
governments. Integrated pest control in today's world

includes techniques that operate on a larger scale than a
With
which control techniques

may be used have also moved beyond the farm level.
Regulation often determines which control may be used.
of chemicals
single farm unit. Decisions about
Regulation
may
also be the only
effective control of
some
way
pests).
still
makes
soil
may produce
(in the
absence of
The farmer must constantly balance short-term
term profits and other considerations. Recently, better

tools
are
have been developed
to assist in
making these
decisions.
allow efficient large-scale
The concept of threshold populations helps producers
production.
decide
In the 1990s, pest controls
effects
versus long-term considerations, cash flow versus long-
effective. Increasingly the
required to prevent pest buildup, slow or stop the develop-
ment of resistant pests and
effects. Tillage
lower yield or a less desirable product
to achieve uniform,
is determined by regulators and most

by the consumer. A variety of methods
on the adverse
remain aware that any control
measure can have adverse
control decision
importantly
we must
vulnerable to erosion. Resistant varieties
pests. In other cases, co-operation
between neighbors will be most
attention currently focused
must be
effective, safe, environ-
when
pests have increased to a level
where con-
measures are economically justified. Field scouting

techniques have been developed to measure pest poputrol
mentally sound and sustainable.
Of course
they must also
be economically viable.
lations so that threshold tables
This book provides a broad strategy for pest management
and techniques for managing specific
pests.
may be
used. Better field
guides enable producers to easily identify pest species.
New publications
To apply an
for identification of beneflcial species
integrated approach requires an understanding of the
are being developed. Finally, better
underlying concepts of pest management, knowledge of
tems
appropriate techniques and the ability to adapt those tech-
in detail.
niques to unique situations.
are
now
available. This
record keeping sys-
book describes these
tools
Integrated Pest Management

Many pest control programs rely on the use
a farm
of chemical pesti-
are too
The normal procedure is to identify pests in the field,

estimate the potential damage and decide whether to apply a
cides.
why
the pest buildup occurs.
insecticides, for example,
may
complex
to
remember without
complete than relying upon memory.
by outside resource people.
Broad spectrum
the help of written
It
is
more
reliable
and
can also be analyzed
We suggest you consider using a
record keeping system, either manual or electronic, to ease the
damage populations of
also
usually based on events of the previous or earlier
records. Recorded, organized information
pesticide. This process fails to anticipate pest buildup or
understand
is
growing seasons. The combination of events and treatments
job of collecting, organizing, and analyzing records.
beneficial species, contributing to the development of sec-
ondary infestations of the original pest species and occasional-
Creating a set of field records requires that data be gathered in
ly, different pest species.
an organized
way and
recording
operations and treatments on a field by field
Integrated
management considers
the overall
management of a
Indeed the objective
is to
you know what
to
look
kind and variety,
for. Start
by
tillage, pesti-
cide applications, etc. Supplement this information with obser-
prevent the pest out-
vations and measurements that you take and record. Rainfall,
breaks from ever occurring.
hail storms, floods
management combines chemical,
Integrated pest
that
basis. Include fertilization, crop
pest species, not just the control measures used during destructive outbreaks.
all
biological,
record. Finally
and other natural events will be part of the
you will conduct specific operations
in the
mechanical and cultural controls together in a production sys-
field.
tem. Preventive measures and treatments are employed as
fertilizer misses, soil
needed. Treatments are not employed on a scheduled basis but
patchiness or other patterns. Next you will check in detail for
This will include an overview to check for seeding or

problems, wind row effects, erosion,
are used only in response to the situation identified during pest
weeds, insect damage, sick or dying plants and you will iden-
monitoring. The treatments are selected for least disruption of
tify
the natural environment because natural pest control agents
scouting chapter has detailed directions on
and record pests present and
their densities.
how
The
to
field
do
this.
often provide the best and certainly the cheapest form of pest
Pest populations
control.
may
develop resistance after repeated expo-
sure to an effective control measure: naturally resistant pests

In Alberta
we
often overlook what
is
probably our most
important natural method of pest control
are left to repopulate the area each time a control
severe weather.
After
Many pests cannot survive Alberta winters. Consequently, we

have many fewer pests than our southern neighbors. Farmers
can exploit
this natural control to a larger
occur in which the mutant
degree by making a
our crops from

will refer to
cooling stored grain to
fall tillage to
used.
is
become
induced mutation can
entirely or partly resistant to the
control. This type of resistance is difficult to predict because
occurs
many disease organisms. Throughout this book

many control practices designed to take
advantage of our weather.
is
generations the entire pest population can
resistant. In other cases a natural or
few management changes. Similarly, our dry climate protects
we
many
at
random. Resistance
is
cides. Pests either develop resistance or partial resistance to an
effective practice or the pest will decline or
A few examples are:
all
cases, however, resistance in pests
become
extinct. In
must be combated
through a strategy of rotating control practices, preferably
kill insects,
unrelated practices.
tillage
expose weed roots to freeze-drying over winter,
The use of resistant

foliar fungicides,
conducted in hot, dry weather to deprive weeds of
buildup.
Integrated pest control systems involve not only monitoring
why
the
pests are there. Perhaps the crop rotation presents the pest an
maybe the most resistant variety is not being

those new weeds get on your farm in the first
place? Maybe the cause was you. In addition to simply controlling pests when they appear, the farmer using I.P.M. must conopportunity or
used.
How did
stantly monitor, plan
and analyze. This requires a good knowl-
we must
edge of pest biology and trends. To analyze trends,

have data; a I.P.M. program requires the farmer
ent and
more extensive records than has been
Record keeping
is
keep
to
differ-
the custom.
time consuming and repetitive.
Its
value
is
often not immediately apparent. Unlike spraying or other control

all
measures
it
it
does not seem urgent, so
must be planned. As you begin
tion records
you
to
to
ensure
it
is
done
at
keep detailed produc-
will notice different responses to planting
dates, fertilizer input, disease, herbicides, previous crops in the
rotation
varieties
combined with crop
rotation,
seed treatment and tillage to bury infected
crop residue, in combination or rotation, can prevent disease
moisture and disrupt their normal growth.
pest populations but also attempting to understand
and other practices. The pest situation
in a field or
it
not a unique response to pesti-
on
WEED PREVENTION
Preventive control involves
stall the
measures taken
all
more
to fore-
introduction and spread of weeds. Although pre-
tial
ventive measures will reduce infestations, no program
can eliminate the wide variety of weed species on a given

piece of land. Success of a preventive program varies
effective the cleaning technique, the less the poten-
for infestation.
1986
1989 weed survey
in
Alberta identified the
sources of seed used by the average producer.
with the weed species and the amount and constancy of

effort that
you devote
Table 4. Source
to prevention.
Crop
grown
Weed
present in about 80 per cent of

Alberta municipalities. However, through a combination
is
of sanitizing techniques,
chamomile
free.
some
municipalities are
They accomplished it through

some basic principles:
the per-
The
when the weed was not

when there were only
sanitation process started
present in the municipality or
for various crops
Other
Seed
Elevator
Seed
grower
agent
company
unknown
Wheat
73
12
11
Barley
62
21
15
Canola
10
41
27
Oats
53
35
67
11
18
33
weed seeds comes from

The sources of these seeds are
"home grown" and "other farmers". Alberta has a good
record of sanitation because 98 per cent of this seed was
The
several small infestations.
seed used by farmers
Fall rye
sistent application of
Farmer
Sanitation
Scentless chamomile
of
greatest potential source of
seed that
Complete control and subsequent monitoring and concontinued on the infested sites for up to ten years
is
not inspected.
trol
subsequently cleaned
after the original infestation.
Extensive awareness campaigns were launched to

alert residents to the potential
were provided
to
rather than hide
newspaper
and other forms of
problem. Incentives
co-op seed cleaning plant (64%) a
to report the
articles, letter stuffers,
booths
local elevator (6%).
With
on farm (6%), or
the elevator system,
which
in the
the exception of the "on-farm" and

are primarily designed for dock-
age removal, the available cleaning systems remove the
problem
Information was disseminated by
landowners
it.
at a
private commercial plant (15%),
majority of weed seeds.
at local fairs
Pedigreed seed, while not weed
publicity.
free,
comes with a certifinumber of
cate of analysis that identifies the species and
Scentless chamomile
ed"
list
may be
weed seeds found
elevated to the "restrict-
within a municipality, providing the munici-
pality with the authority to destroy
any known
seed standards
site.
the fewer
Since the major source of chamomile seed

seed, the awareness
ed
at
is
in a seed sample.
ply a certificate to buyers

is
shown
Table
target-
Maximum number
5.
of
5.
An
example of the
The higher
weed seeds
users of forage seed, producer's right-of-ways,
for
the grade,
500 grams
Total
Canada Registered
and other water bodies,

campaign of picking, bagging and disposal through
Canada Registered
incineration or land filling occurred.
Table
forage
and control measures were
In areas near irrigation canals

a
in
Seed dealers must sup-
request.
weed seeds allowed.
managers, pipeline operators, and others.
upon
Canada
Certified
Canada
Certified
#13
#13
of crop
seed
Total
weed seeds
other crops
#2
#2
10
25
All control operations scheduled to occur before the
Canada Common
#1
10
onset of seed production.
Canada Common
#2
20
These standards apply
to barley,
buckwheat,
50
lentils, lupine, rye,
sain-
Preventive programs can also be implemented on an indi-
foin, etc.
vidual farm, and can start with several basic steps:
and
Weed Free Seed

Any weedy plant in a seed
Prevent Weed Seed Formation

A weed can produce a few hundred to several thousand seeds
field
poses the risk that some
With minor variations, they also apply to wheat, canola,
flax,
oats.
depending on the species and the growing conditions. These
weed seeds
will find their way into the crop-seed supply

even with the best cleaning techniques. However, the
seeds add to the soil seed bank and will cause problems for
producers. Table 6 outlines the
number of weed seeds
that
can be prevented from entering the
soil
tarps reduce unnecessary loss of a valuable product.
through timely
removal of weeds.
Table 7 shows the net loss of grain and associated weed seeds
Table 6. Seed production capacities of selected weeds
km
10
after a three-ton truck travelled
at
80 km/hour.
Approximate number
common
of grain
7,200
12,000
cover
Buckwheat, wild
1,200
200,000+
Chamomile, scentless
Loss
7.
MothnH nf
Knv
IVIdllwU
V/l U%JA
Barnyard grass
Chickweed,
Table
per plant
S( ieds
of
Wiilllllllwll IICllllw
while
transport
in
Mot loce
Crop
Bushels
lb
Full tarp
Barley
Level box with baffle
Barley
95
2.0
17.2
34,000
Level box only
Barley
825
Kochia
14,600
Oats
95
3.0
Lamb's-quarters
72,000
Level box only
Oats
745
23.2
green
Foxtail,
2,300
Medic, black
2,000 -3,500
Mustard, wild
Canola
160
3.2
Level box only
Canola
1,125
22.5
250
Oats, wild
117,000
Pigweed, broadleaf
Plantain, broadleaf
ob,UUU
Purslane
52,000
Shepherd's-purse
38,500
Prevent Spread Through Feed and Manure

Weed
seeds
may remain
viable after passing through animals,
resulting in contaminated manure. Screenings used for feed
Smartweeds
3,000
should be finely ground, cooked or pelleted to ensure destruc-
Sow thistle
10,000
weed seeds. Poultry are most effective

weed seeds as their crops grind the seeds.
tion of all the
in
destroying
In order
250
Spurge, leafy
700
Canada
Thistle,
of decreasing effectiveness are sheep, horses, swine, and catStevens, 0. A. 1932. American
J.
Prevention of seed production
Mowing some weeds

weeds with
different
is
Botany
is
M9:784-794.
tle,
as
Table
an important control strategy.
by mowing and simply continue

the
8.
weeds seeds
after passing through livestock
Percentage of viable seed passed by
Sheep
Calves Horses
fields
Hogs Chickens
22
21
14
15
16
Smartweed
Peppergrass
20
bindweed
must
Sweet
be conducted before seed production. Extremely weedy crops
weeds go
8. Viability of
slightly affected
mower. Tillage of fallow
can be cut for forage before the
Table
and produce seeds
to flower
Field
below the height of
in
Weed
an effective control; however, other
growth habits are only
shown
clover
to seed. If viable
seeds exist, the feed should be put up for silage because seed
Harmon and
viability is usually destroyed in the ensiling process.
Once
Practise Fence Line and Headland Control

Fence
lines
insects
and
may
sary as long as they do not act as a refuge for

pests. If fence lines,
vated wastelands helps to control weeds.
Table
Industrial equipment, seed
is
from one area

it
is
86
Sweet clover
68
22
Pepperweed
34
Smooth dock
and used farm machinery are the
to another. Place a tarp
22
1934.
J.
American Soc. Agron. 26(9):762-767.
clean areas.
Handling
worst offenders. Equipment should be cleaned before moving
when
(months)
3
2
4
Klien,
the
% Viability
84
bindweed
Harmon and
responsible for
cow manure upon
after storage
before burial
Smartweed
move with farm
Long distance transport

new weeds to previously
soil.
in
Prevent Spread With Soil and Equipment
the introduction of
time
delay
nesting birds to raise their broods.
seeds and vegetative parts of plants
breakdown depends on
weed seeds
% Viability
or intensive grazing until late July, to allow ground
equipment and
9. Effect of length of
Kind of seeds
Field
Weed
rate of
the temperature of the manure. If the
frozen or cold, the seed will live longer.
is
viability of various
or grazing unculti-
If possible,
American Soc. Agron. 26(9):762-767.
weed seed and
our climate and growing conditions, and
Mowing
J.
insect
them with native plants and grasses
thus are competitive with weeds.
mowing
weeds or
headlands and roadsides are sources of
infestation, try planting

that are adapted to
manure
not be neces-
1934.
manure, however, the
the type of
and headlands serve as habitat for beneficial

wildlife. Disturbing these sites
in
Klien,
over grain and
transported. In addition to preventing
Your Fields
Prevent seed production by removing the plant and seed
spread.
in
Have
soil
weed
New Weeds
weed
the
identified
by a professional.
head.
Bag and bury
viable seed or destroy the seed
through incineration.
If the plant is a perennial,
destroy the root system by
physical, chemical or mechanical means.

(discs) rather than tearing (cultivator)
nial
weeds
Use
cutting
equipment on peren-
to prevent root spread to areas that are not
infested.
Check
infestation sites before harvest to insure
seed has
set.
Monitor
sites for three to four years to
re-infestation
avoid
from vegetative parts or seed
germinate in the
no more
that did not
first year.
PREVENTION OF INSECT PESTS

Tillage protects crops against
some
insects. Properly
before seeding, after harvest or during
summer
populations of insect pests that spend part of their

or stubble. Elimination of
weeds through
timed
Soils that are crusted
tillage
mer fallow
fallow will reduce

life
moths.
cycle in soil
Some
summer and
fall.
Fallow
summer
and inclement weather.
weedy growth should be worked
insects such as grasshoppers,
fields that
to reduce
fallow.
cut-
by allowing volunteer growth

Seed 10-14 days
form
a crust
from early August
to
not cultivate, graze or disturb the soil in any
period. Pale western

soil
to reach 3-5
cm before
cultivation.
after cultivation.
cutworm can be prevented from producing eggs by
letting the soil
Do
in
eggs in weedy
herbicide treatment of new green growth, the food source for

nymphs of grasshoppers, grubs of red turnip beetles and larvae of
cutworms. Cutworm larvae can be starved before spring seeding
egg production by
worms.
Pale western
weed growth
to lay their
Newly-hatched insects may be starved by cultivation or with a
have volunteer
army cutworms and red-backed
by red-backed cutworm
If the provincial insect forecast indicates a significant risk
August because these moths prefer
insects are attracted to host plants during their egg-laying
period in late
or
to predators
September on sum-
late July until late
of red-backed cutworm infestations, destroy
tillage will starve insects
in the spring or during fallow periods, prevent egg-laying or
expose overwintering insects
from
will prevent egg-laying
cutworms
Control weeds throughout the period
mid-September.
way during
when grasshoppers
hatch.
Monitor summer fallow and crops regularly even though an
initial
this
hatch of insects has been controlled, because
lay eggs in soft, dusty soil; if the
species
has even a slight crust, the moths will not lay their eggs.
may
some grasshopper
hatch during a period as long as six weeks.
DISEASE PREVENTION
Many disease problems can be prevented by simple and common sense management practices. Attention to the following
practices will save labor and
money
Quarantines and Inspections

To
they prevent a disease
if
from becoming established.
Use disease-free
Do
borne.
seed.
residue.
plant products.
Many
may
is
These regulations are intended
to prevent the
A plant disease introduced to a new area is more likely to cause
and multiply on the crop
an epidemic and major yield losses, because crops grown
virulent blackleg of canola.
area will not likely have any resistance to the disease.
persist
Such an example
number of regulations
govern the movement of plants and
to
introduction of plant pests and restrict their spread.
plant diseases are seed-
not introduce seed-borne diseases onto your
land where they
protect our agricultural industry, a
have been developed
in that
Seed-borne diseases can often be detected with a labora-
The goal
tory test, as for example, blackleg of canola and bacterial ring rot
of potatoes. Test your seed for seed-borne dis-
when
eases, especially
the seed
prevent the introduction of

already present in
new
diseases.
Canada but
Some
are under an
active quarantine; for example, the golden cyst
not from your farm.
is
is to
may be
diseases
nematode of
potatoes in Vancouver Island and Newfoundland.
Grow
disease resistant varieties
Sometimes
a resistant variety
whenever
may
possible.
In response to the possible introduction of potentially devastat-
not have as high a
ing diseases and other pests. Agriculture Canada has developed a
yield potential as a non-resistant variety, but the yield loss
Plant Pest
of a susceptible crop to a disease will more than cancel

this
any yield advantage.
moth
field practices that prevent diseases
ing.
Disc under or bury infected crop residue to encourage
mind
tices.
Never allow
A current example of the use of
the action being taken against the Asian gypsy
infestations
around Vancouver, British Columbia.
Embargoes
the best soil conservation prac-
become firmly
a pest species to
is
from reproduc-
Use
decay, keeping in
Emergency Manual.
manual
Embargoes exclude
estab-
to enter.
lished.
which
plant material on
Embargoes may operate only
a disease
at certain
year. Table stock potatoes intended for domestic use
Practice effective
and weeds
weed
control to
remove volunteer crops
is
may be
As an example,
eases of cereals will not persist in a legume crop,

teer cereals
is
known
not
only
Columbia root-knot nematode.
to
occur
Canada. Therefore seed
in
may not be imported from

known to be present.
potatoes for commercial use
where
dis-
if
present; for example,
This organism
an effective pest
deterrent because the rotation prohibits the carryover of
diseases from one year to the next.
may
regions of the United States, where a specific disease organism
that are alternate hosts of crop diseases.
and weeds. Crop rotation
likely
be imported during the winter and early spring from certain
Diseases can persist from one year to the next on volunteer crops
is
times of the
the
nematode
is
regions
volun-
and alternate hosts of cereal disease are con-
trolled. Ineffective
weed
Inspection
control can negate the effects of
At a
crop rotation.
port of entry (land, air or sea) or at the point of origin (for
example, bulbs from Holland), plants and plant products are
Scout your fields to identify

infection rates. If
new
you note the
diseases and to monitor
start
inspected to detect infested or infected material. If plants cannot
of a disease buildup,
be treated
take immediate action to control the disease, salvage the
either
crop by cutting the worst areas for forage or take other
measures as required.
If
an overall disease buildup
retumed
is
Always
moving
good
practise
to a
new
sanitation.
contaminating pest organisms, the material will
to its
Canada and
to enter
pomt of origin. Flower bulbs imported from Europe
are subject to mspection.
noted, consider a rotation into a non-susceptible crop.
to kill
be destroyed or denied permission
Flower bulbs from Holland
may
carry
disease organisms such as the potato cyst nematode that could be
of consequence to Canadian agriculture
Clean equipment before
near potato
if
the bulbs are
grown
fields.
field.
Treat seed with fungicides or fungicide/insecticide combinations which offer
and some insect
low cost control
for
many
Controlled entry
diseases
Plants and plant products are allowed to enter
pests.
that disinfection or
Many
preventive practices are a minor nuisance to do but
they can save major problems
later.
fumigation treatments will
pest or disease present
The recommendations
seed of a
known
Canada provided
kill all
cultivar that has
been multiplied
mentioned here are only a sample. Think of things you can
another country
do on your farm. For example, you should purchase seed
with fungicide or fungicide combmations before
from areas
Canada.
that are free of the pests that are not present
on
your farm.
durmg
stages of any
m the consignment. For example, cereal

the fall and winter
(built-up) in
months must be
it
may
treated
enter
exist
Post-entry and intermediate quarantine stations
as
These stations are used for the transfer of vegetatively

propagated materials. Only small
They
enter.
are
grown
in an
lots are
governing importation of cereal grain from areas such
Mexico and
where the fungus
India,
ease not only affects yield but
permitted to
is
is
present.
The
dis-
detrimental to the quality of
grain for food, feed, seed or export intentions.
approved quarantine area and
thoroughly inspected for diseases and other pests over a

period of months or years before they can be offered for
This
sale.
is
bud wood
Columbia root knot nematode (M. chitwoodi)
done routinely with apple, cherry and grape
This nematode primarily affects potatoes but
could carry diseases not present in Canadian
that
alfalfa, field
orchards.
peas and root vegetables.
Canada. The nematode
is
present in
many
it
also attacks
not found in
It is
areas of the
United States and consequently importation of plants, plant

parts or soil
Public awareness and information dissemination
present
Often the general public unknowingly transports plant diseases, insects, weeds,
weed seeds
or vertebrate pests.
is
from those areas where the nematode disease
is
prohibited.
It is
important that the travelling public be aware of the danger
Golden cyst nematode (Globodera rostochiensi)
posed by the introduction of new destructive pests into
This nematode affects potatoes, tomatoes and related plants
Canada.
and
imports that could be contaminated, such as potatoes.

pest
is
present in the country, spread
restricting
ple,
movement
is
is
found only in eastern Newfoundland and on Vancouver
Island, B.C.
Canada has a number of diseases that are under quarantine

measures. These diseases are controlled by restricting
or
more
may
It
dormant
persist in a
state in the soil for 15
years.
If the
prevented by
Potato wart (Synchytrium endobioticum)
of the pest from that area; for exam-
dwarf bunt of wheat which occurs only
in
This disease
Ontario and
Not only
British Columbia.
is
found only
in
Newfoundland and Labrador.
are the potatoes under quarantine restrictions but so
are vehicles, machinery, construction equipment, sand, soil,
sod, used bags, sacks and covers that could have had contact
with contaminated potatoes.
Quarantinable Diseases of Concern to Alberta

The North American Plant Protection Organization
(NAPPO)
regularly meets to identify pest problems of con-
cern to Canada, the United States and Mexico.
NAPPO
Other quarantinable diseases
regu-
Other nematode pests and diseases of agricultural conse-
larly publishes a newsletter that discusses pest concerns, pes-
ticide use
and biological control procedures of interest
North American agriculture.
NAPPO
quence are potato and soybean cyst nematodes, black stem
to
rust of oats, verticillium wilt of alfalfa,
leaf spot of ginseng {Colletotrichum panaciola), tobacco blue
mold {Peronospora
Plant Protection Division,
Room 4109, K.W.
crown
rust of wheat,
information can be
obtained from the
tabacina),
PVYj^
virus of potato and
white rot of onion (Sclerotium cepivorum).
Neatby Building,
Agriculture Canada,
The Federal
Ottawa, Ontario,
Protection Act in 1990, prohibits importation as well as propa-
KIA 0C6
gation, sale or
FAX: 613-995-6833.
for crop diseases. This includes seeds of all species, hybrids
renamed the Plant
Plant Quarantine Act,
movement of plants
that serve as alternate hosts
and horticultural varieties of the Berberis, Mahonia,
Mahoberberis and Rhamnus genus, which are susceptible
Dwarf bunt
of
wheat
This disease of winter wheat
Tilleta
is
found
controversa)
in
Ontario and the
inter-mountain valleys of southern British Columbia.

es yield and quality reductions. Grain
stem
It
Amendments
caus-
to the
and crown
from these areas does
officials
may now
who wish
this disease.
to
rust of oats.
renamed Plant Protection Act make
enforcement of penalties more
not enter either internal or export markets because of embar-
goes placed on
rust of cereals,
practical. Agriculture
Canada
minor infractions
to those
issue tickets for
to plead guilty.
This will avoid courtroom proceed-
ings that could be long and costly.
Agriculture Canada conducts campaigns, directed to the trav-
Flag
smut
This disease
years
is
elling public, not to bring
of cereals [Urocystis agropyri)

not found in Canada.
It
can persist for
out of country.
many
Bring
m the soil. Importation of cereal seed into Canada is
restricted
it
One such
back plant or animal material from

instance
Back. This pamphlet
lists
is
the brochure titled
and allowable plant or animal materials
by plant quarantine regulations.
into
that
in
from the United States but not potatoes.
Karnal bunt of wheat (Neovossia indica)
be imported from any country into Canada.
This disease does not occur in Canada. Strict regulations
If prohibited material
may be
Canada. For example fresh root crops or citrus
brought
Don't
the prohibited, restricted
brought
may be
Citrus may
needs to be imported into Canada such
as potatoes
from Europe, then the importer has
to
meet
the fol-
lowing requirements.
The importer must be
a researcher affiliated with a recog-
The importer must
first
Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci)
White
and insects
The shipment must be routed

Ottawa
at
covered
in the Agriculture
Canada,
The Province of Alberta Agricultural
directly to the Plant Health
that are the cause of
problems
mam-
in agricultural production
such as pocket gophers and magpies.
for post entry quarantine.
Importation of apple, cherry, pear, plum, grape and other
com-
Disease-free Certified Seed
mercially propagation material into Canada that are not certified

free of viruses or other designated quarantine diseases
shipped to the Saanichton Plant Quarantine Station

British Columbia.
that are not
Pests Act also includes declared nuisances, birds and
mals
Division
of onions {Sclerotium cepivorum)
Plant Protection Act.
obtain a permit from the Federal
Permit Office.
rot
The Agricultural Pests Act of Alberta includes many diseases
nized research establishment.
Here the material
eliminate plant diseases, which
may
is
at
Use seed
must be
that is
sound and
free
from weed seeds,
sclerotia,
ergot bodies, smut or bunt balls, or infested or infected debris
Sidney,
that could harbor disease spores.
indexed and treated to
the major
take three years or longer.
means
Contaminated seed
to spread pests over long distances
is
one of
and
intro-
duce new pests onto the land. Seed can be sent for disease
Importation of true seed of most plant species into Canada
is
testing to Agriculture
generally unrestricted, except for specified agricultural seed

crops. Importers
must obtain an import permit before import-
Wheat and
Barley and rye;

Oats,
tests
may be
triticale;
sorghum and
millet
Routine tests performed for seed-borne diseases
1.
Crop
from the following countries

Mexico and
Sample size
(Numbers of seeds)
Disease
only: Afghanistan, India, Iraq, Lebanon,
Pakistan;
on
available
request.
Table
for the diseases listed in Table 1 are
performed on a routine basis; other
ing the seeds listed below:
Canada, Seed Biology Laboratory, Seed
Borne Disease Unit. Tests
Cereals
All
Corn;
Soybean;
Wheat
Surface borne smuts and bunt
,000
Helminthosporium spp.
,000
Glume
1,000
blotch
Fababean (Vicia faba);
Fusarium
1,000
Peanut (Arachis hypogaea);
Loose smut
1,000
Net blotch
1,000
Leaf stripe
Loose smut
1,000
Barley stripe mosaic virus
5,000
Head smut
,000
,000
,000
Chocolate spot
,000
Aschochyta
,000
,000
Barley
All species of trees and shrubs;
All species of aquatic plants;
Ginseng.
Note: There are also import requirements

of alfalfa
seeds (Medicago
sativa) but
in
Grasses
regard to the importation
a permit
is
not required.
Brome grass
Pulse crops
Permits to import any of the above listed materials must be

obtained before the shipment arrives in Canada.
Under
Peas
Ascochyta
Fababean
Aschochyta
blight
blight
the provincial Agricultural Pests Act, Alberta
Regulation 406/86, the following diseases are declared to be

Lentils
pests through Alberta:
blight
Anthracnose
Bacterial ring rot {Corynebacterium sepedonicum)
Field
bean
Blackleg of canola (the virulent strain) (Leptosphaeria
Chickpea
maculans)
Columbia
river root knot
Dutch elm disease {Ceratocystis ulmi)
Dwarf bunt
Fireblight and the causal bacterium {Erwinia amylovora)
(Tilletia
Soybean
Flag smut of cereals (Urocystis agropyri)
Golden nematode (Globodera rostochiensis)
Head smut of com {Spacelothecia

Karnal bunt
Flax
controversa)
Bacterial blight
30,000*
Anthracnose
Ascochyta
1,000
blight
,000
Oilseeds
nematode {Meloidogyne
chitwoodi)
,000
Bacterial blight
5,000
Phomopsis
1,000
blight
Stem break
,000
Anthracnose
,000
Pasmo
,000
Alternaria
,000
Forage legumes
Alfalfa
reiliana)
Verticillium wilt
10,000
Bacterial wilt
0,000
*For certified or commercial beans submit 2 kg of seed; for

foundation seed, submit 4 kg.
{Tilletia indica)
Potato wart {Synchytrium endobioticum)
Include
all
pertinent information with the sample including, grow-
er's
name, where grown,
cate
(when
yield or quality. Insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses,
CSGA grower number and crop certifi-
applicable), lot or other identifying numbers, etc.
Samples should be submitted
to:
Seed-Borne Disease Unit,
rodents can
all
of pest that
is
weeds and
be pests. Pesticides are categorized by the kind
controlled:
Fungicides
kill
or control fungi.
Herbicides
kill
or control weeds.
Insecticides kill or control insects.
Rodenticides
Laboratory Services Division, Bldg. #22

Agriculture Canada
Central Experimental
Farm
KIA 0C6
Ottawa, Ontario
Federal and provincial regulations govern the licensing, sale
A private plant disease diagnostic clinic located in Brooks,

Alberta
now
offers
many
kill rodents.
and proper use of
of the plant disease diagnostic ser-
all pesticides.
the use of pesticides
is
The
federal act governing
the Pest Control Products Act,
vices formerly offered by only the federal and provincial
administered by Agriculture Canada. This act governs the
governments.
registration, labelling
and classification of
ucts. Pesticide products
all
pesticide prod-
range from restricted chemicals that
can be administered only by appropriate licensed operators
Sanitation
to products that
Sanitation includes
may be used by
individuals for lawn
weeds
and insect repellents.
used to reduce or eliminate
all activities
the presence of pests in the field and storage facilities as
Provincial legislation governing the use of pesticides, the
well as prevent their spread to healthy plants and plant
Alberta Environmental and Enhancement Act
products.
is
adminis-
by Alberta Environmental Protection, Pesticide

Management Branch. Under this act, pesticides are grouped
tered
cm
Burial of disease-infected crop residue at least 5
deep by
up
discing or deep cultivation prevents fungal spores produced
into four categories
and licensed
on the surface of crop residue from being released
tor classes. Alberta
Environment administers study courses
air to infect
growing
plants. Tillage
into the
and examinations so
promotes the decay of
in
to
12 specific opera-
that pesticide operators
may
qualify to
use one or more classes of pesticides.
crop residue and root systems. This shortens the time disease organisms can survive on host material.
Disease spores
may be
manure or feed
materials.
present in
soil,
Movement
plant residue, hay,
Minimum
of these can result in
Minimum
both long and short distance spread of disease. Alfalfa hay
sales. Take-all
infested field to a clean field
maximizes disease potential by allowing
diseased crop residue to remain on the soil surface. However,
moved province-wide
of wheat can be moved from an
infected with verticillium wilt can be
through hay
and Zero Tillage
Tillage
tillage
rusts
and smuts of wheat are not affected by zero or mini-
mum tillage because rust spores are moved in by winds from
by soil-contaminated harvest
on the seed.
the United States and smuts are borne in or
equipment.
If
A complete and thorough harvest of all forage in a field

reduces the re-infestation of forage fields; the
new growth
tion of all handling
when
equipment and storage
facilities.
This
new
must become a plant breeding
genetic resistance
is
is
here
must change. Resistance
non-existent
The consequences of minimum tillage
we might have
on
to
priority, but
to
irrigated land.
include the following:
seed
brought on to the premises.

If
coupled with continuous cropping
resort to fungicidal control, particularly
requires a thorough disinfec-
prevents the contamination of uninfested seed or
tillage
leaf diseases
will be relatively free of disease.
The presence of some diseases
minimum
to stay, disease control strategies
Septoria glume blotch or tan spot occurs in dryland
wheat, then the only disease control alternatives are turning
loss of a cultural disease control,
an increase in plant diseases,
possible use of foliar fungicides,
breeding crops (cereals) resistant to leaf diseases and root
research on fungicide efficacy (application rates, timing
under the straw or a crop rotation. Turning under the straw

in
continuous wheat reduces the abundance of the fungus-
infested straw
on the
level that results
soil surface.
The lowered inoculum
mid
in the
weed
species that are prevalent,

rots,
from cultivation may delay the buildup of
disease by one to three weeks. If this disease delay occurs

in
change
to late July at the critical
and
post-flowering stage, the
yield increase due to cultivation could range
from 10
to
25
costs),
development of disease forecast systems.
per cent. Similar yield increases could occur in barley crops

if
cultivation
is
used
to delay scald
Minimum
and net blotch.
soil
it
Pesticides
Pests are living organisms that cause
or zero tillage conserves soil moisture, reduces
erosion and lowers labor and fuel costs. Unfortunately,
may
increase certain
weed and
disease problems or cause
a shift in the pests that are present in the field.
damage and
loss of crop
10
once every
Crop Rotation
Crop
rotation
is
ly for
farm pest problems. Annual weeds can be controlled through
weeds
the use of forage crops, while perennial
when annual
gal and bacterial diseases are controlled
are controlled
improves the condition of the
planted in a particular field
may
The
rotation.
The short-term
to select crops in response to
crops that are resistant to
an important part of disease
Disease considerations
2.
crop rotations
Should not be
Disease
firn\A/n
ai ici
^1 uvvi r)ftpr
risk
pests.
Barley,
to select
wheat
A short rotation also
allows the growing of crops responsive to herbicide applications that control a variety of weeds. Short rotations
or nothing to enhance the soil unless a green
do
wheat
Barley,
Corn
Scab (head
Fall rye
Ergot
Sugar beets.
Rhizoctonia
Flax
is
peas,
lentils.
summer
Longer-term rotations can include perennial crops such as
fallow
Rhizoctonia (rust where
Flax
weed and
rust susceptible varieties
pest cycles but also enhance the soil. Longer-term rotations
more
change
difficult to
in response to the
require careful planning and preferably a
rot
blight)
little
manure crop
forage legumes and grasses, which not only break
Leaf diseases, root
included as part of the fallow.
are
Rgssoh
rotation allows the producer
market conditions and
some
in
so-called short rotations

Crop
fallow.
is
soil.
include a cereal crop or two, an oilseed and perhaps
summer
are identified, their
management.
rotation
Table
There are two types of
symptoms of disease. When they
cropping sequence. Cropping sequence in which crops are
by the lag time
good crop
reduce disease lev-
Crops must be watched close-
significance should be evaluated for the following year's
crops are planted. Insects and residue-borne fun-
between susceptible crops. As well,
three, four or five years, to
els in heavily infested fields.
an extremely important tool for reducing
are grown)
market and
mixed farm opera-
Fall rye
tion.
Rye
Ergot
Wheat, barley
Ergot
Canola, mustard
Sclerotinia, rhizoctonia,
Rotational control can eliminate or reduce disease levels in a

field.
By growing
Canola and
crops that cannot be infected, disease
sive crops depends

in the
absence of
on a disease organism's
its
ability to survive
host crop. Crop rotation
effective against short-lived soil
is
rapeseed
Blackleg
Sunflowers,
Sclerotinia
Lentils
Sclerotinia
Sunflowers
Sclerotinia, Verticillium,
Canola, rapeseed
Sclerotinia
mustard
organisms will die out. The number of years between succes-
particularly
and residue-borne diseases.

Sunflowers
downy mildew,
Short-lived diseases
The
and mustard
effectiveness of crop rotation as well as the suggested
time interval between crops will vary with the disease.

Effective control through crop rotation
is
Lentils
Sclerotinia
Field peas.
Ascochyta, bacterial blight
only possible with

Field
diseases that are specific to their hosts (for example, flax
and sunflower
rusts) or diseases that survive only
plant tissue or
its
peas
Fababeans
on living
residue (for example, scald of barley). For
these diseases, fairly short rotations are usually effective.
However, infectious spores

crop residue and
Crop
may
also
are often
blow
in
Sugar beets,
Rhizoctonia
alfalfa, flax.
Pythium, Fusarium
Sunflowers,
Sclerotinia
produced for years on
from adjacent
rotations are not effective unless
management
rust
Beans,
fields.
lentils
lentils,
accompanied by other
canola.
rapeseed, beans
practices such as plowing under or deep tillage
fababeans, mustard
of the crop residue, controlling volunteer seedlings and
weeds, and not growing susceptible crops adjacent to the

Sugar beets
previous year's stubble.
peas
Flax,
Potatoes
Rhizoctonia
Rhizoctonia, Fusarium
tuber rots
Long-lived diseases
Crop
rotation
becomes
less effective
Rating:
when
disease-causing
organisms are not host specific, produce long-lived spores

or can survive for
many
years in the
soil.
High
Moderate
Low
risk of
severe disease development.
risk of
risk of
Examples of
these include verticillium wilt of alfalfa, sclerotinia white
mold of canola, and
Canola in the Peace region should not follow fescue
root rots of barley, canola and wheat.
because the high organic content and moisture holding
For these diseases, long crop rotations are useful in reduc-
capacity of the sod increases the amount of root rot in the
ing, but not eliminating, the populations of the disease-
canola.
causing organisms. Susceptible crops can only be grown
The high organic content of
the sod will tie-up
available soil nitrogen needed by soil micro-organisms for
11
the sod breakdown. Fertilizer levels
compensate for
this
must be adjusted
spring seeding.
to
Weeds
that germinate later in the season
such as green foxtail and shepherd's-purse,
temporary nitrogen deficiency.
may
increase
if
a field is repeatedly seeded in the spring. Spring-seeded
Factors that must also be considered
when planning crop
annual forages are an alternative to perennial forages,
rotations in a field are:
on weedy
especially
Annual forages should be cut
land.
before weeds flower, to prevent formation of viable seeds.
weed
possible herbicide residues,
soil fertility,
history,
Legumes
Leguminous cover crops prevent
erosion, fix nitrogen in
the soil, reduce the need for nitrogen fertilizer, loosen the
subsoil,
volunteer growth from the previous crop.
improve
soil structure
and organic matter, smother
weeds, and starve insects and diseases of non-legume
Volunteer growth
may
crops.
cause serious competition and
seed separation problems as well as supporting the
growth of plant diseases.
Crop rotation
Underseeding or companion seeding
assists in control of insects
by continually
changing their food supply and living conditions.

rotation that alternates
The principle of underseeding or companion seeding is to

crowd weeds out. For example, planting clover beneath
A crop
cereals provides strong competition for weeds. After cereal
between susceptible and immune
harvest, the clover can be used as forage or green manure.
crops will discourage the buildup of pest populations. For
Companion seeding means growing several varieties at the

same time, such as a grass and a legume, mixed grains, or a
silage mix of peas and oats. These plantings ensure a vari-
example, wireworms can be controlled almost completely

if
cereals are rotated with a non-grass crop.
As
cereal and
broad-leaved crops tend to have different insect pests,
and
light
soil
nutrients to the detriment of weeds.
ferent cereal crop can eliminate certain host-specific
Barley thrips and wheat midge, for instance, infest
pests.
barley and wheat (respectively)
more severely than other
Row
cereals.
crops
Summer annuals, like wild oats, are usually a problem

when spring grains are grown continuously or in rotation
with summer fallow. Problems with summer annuals can be
is sometimes enhanced by growing differmixed populations. Examples include underseeding cereal with clover, a grass-legume hay combination, mixed grains, or a silage mix of peas and oats.
Insect populations in such plantings are normally more
complex and thus more stable, providing a better balance
between pests and their natural control agents.
Crop
and use
ety of habitat for beneficial insects
rotation will discourage their buildup. Switching to a dif-
rotation
ent crops in
reduced by using row crops such as sugar beets, potatoes,

field corn,
peas and beans.
spring grain crops such as
The use of fallow
in a rotation is controversial.
fallow contributes to soil erosion and

for areas
where moisture
native practices for
is
is
Summer
barley.
Row
planning a rotation with
common
alter-
fall rye,
winter wheat, or early
crops that are unrelated to
and grains are helpful
appropriate only
very limited. Even then,
When
row crop compatible with the climatic

conditions in your area. As a good rotation for weed control, include both summer row crops and winter or early
grain crops, select a
common
oilseeds
in preventing the buildup of
many
insects and diseases.
weed control are encouraged. It is

weeds by using crop rotation and
preferable to combat
Perennial forage crops
crop competition.
Perennial forage crops or pastures seeded with intro-
Despite the problems associated with fallow,

important role in breaking the
insects.
weeds
The
life
it
duced grasses effectively reduce populations of annual
plays an
weeds and some
cycle of diseases and
are well
known. However, fallow has been prac-
tised so long in southern Alberta that
many
eliminate annual weeds almost completely.
The forage stand must be left for a number of years to

allow buried weed seeds to rot. Some weed seeds will
beneficial.
Crops Commonly Used For Rotations

Spring-seeded annual crops
The
first
flush of
weeds can be destroyed by
Once perenmowing and competition will
suppress weeds. Eventually, vigorous competition will
of our current
example
annual weeds and cutworms). Breaking the normal
may be
Annual weeds must be con-
nial forages are established,
pests are those that have adapted to fallow (for
fallow-crop rotation
insects.
trolled during the seedling stage of the crop.
benefits of fallow in controlling perennial
stay
dormant and germinate when the forage stand
ken.
The
first
because the
year after breaking a forage stand
field will
sures are not taken.
tillage before
12
careful
bro-
if prompt control meamanagement, none of the
be re-infested
With
is
is critical,
weeds
grow
that
in the year after
watched carefully
breaking should ever pro-
duce seed. This land can remain clean for many years.
Leaving parts of a
ond cutting or
and
Some
birds.
nial grasses, especially crested wheatgrass,
compete
Table
is
may
much
additional top growth. Alternatively, the forage can
combined greenfeed and summer fallow operation may be effective. Seed greenfeed early
in the spring. Then till after the infested crop has been used for
In the wetter parts of Alberta, a
pasture, hay or silage.
was sown
Perennial
weeds per square yard

after arass was sown
Year
low before
The
reduction
100
Enhance the benefits of crop
100
that will discourage local pests.
61
Toadflax
187
108
27
27
27
17
100
93
70
63
54
53
48
49
Canada thistle
bindweed
some
pest
damage, or
Fall-seeded crops
some
it is
weed
in
grow them.
practical to
varieties
further north than winter wheat, but
killed
by snow mold fungi
in the
late into April.
United States
control pro-
Fall rye will
much
cover remains
grow
even rye can be
Peace region when snow
These crops give early season
weed seedlings and their early harvest date

partial summer fallow for the balance of the year.
competition to
This two-pronged approach provides for control of both annu-
and perennial weeds.
Winter annual weeds are a problem
weeds emerge with
the crop and
the spring, the winter annual
in fall-seeded crops.
form overwinter
in the
These
rosettes. In
weeds flower and produce seed
Some
long before the crop can be harvested.
can be controlled
winter annuals
crop by using 2,4-D. Others must be
controlled by rotations.
In the year of establishment of a perennial crop,
can be as simple as
mowing
or cutting before
weed
control
weeds go
to
contribute to the feed value of hay; after they are
cut the crop will gain a competitive advantage.
Perennial crops should be
left
down
for three to five years.
This allows time for the crop to compete against weeds and
number of buried weed
seeds.
Weed
control must
immediately follow breaking of sod because the dormancy of
many
seeds will be broken and they will germinate as soon as
the soil
is
plowed.
Greenfeed
Greenfeed crops can be used when weed infestations are very
heavy and profitable cereal production

are generally used because they
make
is
questionable. Oats
better
hay or silage than
The greenfeed crop should be cut or thoroughly

grazed before the weeds bloom. By cutting at this time, the
other cereals.
greenfeed will be free of weed seeds and a population of
weeds
will
rotation
by selecting
varieties
Pick a variety suited to the

to withstand
cases) than the pest does, and so avoids damage.
have been bred
wheat
stem sawfly and most of the
and winter wheat are effective
grams where
deplete the
fal-
Kirk.
Some
Weeds
summer
perennials have
select a variety that matures earlier (or
instance, solid-stemmed
seed.
begin to
when
growing conditions, and thus vigorous enough
later, in
From Paulynchenko and
al
to
Variety selection
sow
enables a
is
depleted their root stores of nutrients.
112
Fall rye
strategy
the seed-set of annuals and
Per cent
thistle
Field
A sec-
out
Table 3. Effect of crested wtieatgrass on density of perennial weeds

of
for regrowth.
be turned under for both green manure and weed control.
3.
Number
good
better
The competitive ability of crested

compared with several perennial weeds in
Before grass3
is
be necessary to prevent weeds from
peren-
than perennial legumes.
wheatgrass
the weather
producing seed because seed production can take place with-
and unharvested provides a
field in forage
lasting habitat for beneficial insects
if
tillage
have been harmlessly grown
out.
Weeds must be
13
is
to resist insect attack.
For
varieties are resistant to
alfalfa
grown
in the
resistant to spotted alfalfa aphid.
wheat
western
SEED SELECTION AND TREATMENT

There
ly
no
is
substitute for
adapted cultivars
that suit
newer
is
good
seed.
The
your specific growing requirements.
varieties
some of the
ment and a water soak treatment. The physical treatments

do not protect seeds against soil-borne organisms.
selection of regional-
of utmost importance. Select varieties
Many
of the
The hot water treatment
have agronomic characteristics that exceed
older varieties.
Use
requires adequate steam or hot
water, accurate thermometers, water tanks or vats, and dry-
a proper crop rotation and
ing
ensure that succeeding crops will not serve as a host for future
facilities.
This treatment method has been used primari-
ly to disinfect small lots or batches of crops
disease problems.
that require
low seeding
with small seed
rates.
All water soak treatments require the seeds to be soaked
Use Resistant Varieties
in
The use of resistant varieties of crops is the most efficient and

cost effective means of disease control. There is no additional
water
at least
two hours and subsequently kept under
anaerobic or near anaerobic conditions for one or more

days.
cost of operation,
and
little
no hazard
to the
farmer or the environment
or no disease carryover in the crop residues.
These methods have not been used extensively because
Resistance to specific disease can be through
is difficult to
it
control the temperature and duration of
treatment.
early maturity that permits plants to escape the infection
period
Chemical treatments
common
endurance and vigorous growth that permits the plants to
Chemicals are the most
mature despite the presence of disease and
seed treatment.
Many
excellent chemicals are available. In conjunction with
natural resistance to infection

ical characteristics that
from
structural or physiolog-
mechanical treatments, chemicals are the most effective con-
prevent infection.
trol
of seed-related diseases. Follow label instructions and
use the proper safety measures
when handling any
of these
products.
Seed Treatments
for Control of Disease
Mechanical treatments
Mechanical treatments remove infectious materials
are
mixed with
seed.
Seed processing
is
Seed Storage
that
Deterioration of stored seeds by fungi
an integral part of
by drying seeds
to a safe
the technology that transfers the genetic engineering of the
dry place. Seeds that contain too

plant breeder into
inert material
improved seed. Contaminants such as
and off-sized seed influence
how
ble to invasion
drill
and
plants. Insect
infestations contribute to storage problems.
much
moisture are susceptiin turn
may
well seed
and disease
As
controlled primarily
by storage disease fungi which
spread throughout the
flows through the seed
is
moisture content before storage in a
lot.
Pockets of moist seeds can occur in
low moisture content seeds due
to roof leaks, insect activity
well, other
and moisture translocation. Heating
contaminants such as seed from weeds and other crops and
is
mold invasion of the seed and not an
likely to
be the effect of
indication of seed deteri-
varieties affect production of crops if they are not

oration.
removed.
Fumigation to control insects usually has no
detectable effect on storage fungi.
Research on large, medium and small seed has consistently
shown
that large seeds are the
most productive. Small seed
has higher levels of disease (for example, smut) as well as
Insects
reduced vigor. Yield tends to increase with the use of large
Stored seed
seed.
stored grain and grain products. Weevils puncture the seed
is
attacked primarily by those insects that destroy
coat and destroy the endosperm while other stored-product

Table 10. Effect of seed size on yield of soft white winter wheat
in
potential of seed
Bushels/acre
Seed Size
Hyslop
McDermid
Stephens
embryo. In either case the germination
insects attack the
Oregon
is
greatly reduced or destroyed.
Fumigation of seed and seed handling equipment can help
Yamhill
to
control insects.
Large
77
80
76
78
Ungraded
73
78
74
75
Rodents
Rodents destroy thousands of pounds of seed every year.
Physical treatments
Physical treatments are used primarily to
deep
in the seed.
The main methods
kill
Much
pathogens
of the loss comes from the seed they scatter and foul,
not what they eat.
are a hot water treat-
14
The
best
way
to control rodents is to
keep
them out of seed storage
areas. Cleanliness inside
and outside
storage areas helps keep rodents away. Rodents can be elimi-
nated with traps, baits or fumigation.
Seed Testing Certificates

A valuable guide for purchasing seed is a seed testing certificate.
The document
been graded
in
is
available with every lot of seed that has
Canada. Seed testing certificates should be
examined before making
a final decision about
which seed
lot
to purchase.
The seed
testing certificate contains the following information:
seed testing certificate number
crop certificate number
seed sealing number
crop kind
grade
amount and name of prohibited primary and secondary

noxious weeds, other weeds and seeds of other crops
percentage pure seed, other crops,
weed seed and
inert
matter
germination percentage
place and date of analysis and
name of the seed
analyst.
15
SEEDING AND FERTILIZATION

Strong, healthy crops have a competitive advantage over
weeds, but crop species vary
in their ability to
Table 11. Average seeding rates
compete.
Region
Alberta
in
Barley
Wheat
Canola
bu/ac
bu/ac
bu/ac
Perennial crops, after the year of establishment, provide
competition for weeds, particularly annual weeds. Fall
1.25
1.25
2-5
rye and winter wheat compete well because they resume
1.25
1.25
2-5
1.75
1.25
5-6
1.75
1.25
5-6
1.75
1.75
5-6
1.75
1.75
5-8
growth
in early spring before
weeds have emerged.
Cereals are generally the best annual crop competitors.
Barley
is
more competitive than spring wheat. Canola
is
most competitive oilseed with flax being the poorest.

Crops such as lentils, peas and beans are generally poor
competitors, owing to low plant populations and slow inithe
tial
growth. Varieties also differ in competitiveness. For
example, the semi-leafless pea variety Tipu
Depth
com-
is less
Planting shallow into moisture will encourage rapid crop
petitive than Century in areas infested with wild mustard.
emergence. This will prevent weeds from emerging before the

crop.
Crops have some defense mechanisms
to deter pests;
Weeds
emerge before the crop cause
that
emerge
greater yield losses than those that
many can withstand a certain amount of pest damage

when they are well nourished and healthy. Crops are susceptible to disease when they are stressed or poorly nour-
Table 12.
Some recommended seeding
Crop
cm
Cereal, lentils
Canola, flax
.3 to
and packing will establish a vigorous stand. Avoid seed-
Forage grasses, legumes
.3 to
ing too early; cold soils will retard seedling growth and
Peas, beans (large seed)
6 to
ished.
A well-prepared seedbed in good fertile
enable crops to resist

benefits the crop
make
many
more than
pensate for
some
where
it
the weeds. Shallow seeding
the crop susceptible to disease.
to establish early
soil will
pests. Place fertilizer
Heavy seeding
plants being lost to pests.
tion, so fertility is
rates
A vigorous
doubly important
if
Timing
pest problems are
Crops seeded shallow into
warm
(5C or warmer), moist soils
germinate and emerge quickly and evenly. Tillage
anticipated.
seeding will destroy

the
is
most vulnerable stage of growth, and
weed
By
seedlings emerge, a variety of special seeding practices
seeding
Moisture
when
the soil
is
both
warm and
is
with up to 10 per cent in moist
Rates
25 per cent greater than normal will help
Early seeding
is
sometimes used so
when
canopy. Heavier seeding rates of cereals allow a margin
advantage of early seeding of a
damage from post-seeding
tillage.
However,
itself for
weeds such
possible. If the infestation
is
soil conditions.
vulnerable to frost in the
when
is that
the
field scouting
program
as wild oats,
and plant
Till
which
Early spring tillage
fall.
Choose an
variety to minimize yield losses caused
patchy,
delayed seeding
in susceptible areas is a possible
A thorough
growing variety
after
weed
seedlings emerge. Late-planted crops usually yield less and are
can compensate for a certain degree
of seedling mortality by insects, especially in wheat
control option.
fast
weeds such
to control
encourages weed germination.
doubling the seeding rate
advanced
as aphids and green foxtail.
Use delayed seeding
areas.
is
that crops are
grasshoppers, cutworms and wireworms hatch. Another
germinate under cool
wireworm damage
compared
moisture. For this
reason, heavy seeding should not be practised in very dry
rates
wireworms can
in dry soil
crop matures before the development of late season pests and
under extremely dry conditions, heavier seeding rates

cause the crop to compete with
sown
soil.
crops compete with weeds by providing a lush crop
Heavy seeding
moist, the crop
especially important. For instance,
destroy up to 95 per cent of a crop
for crop
or before
gets a head start and establishes itself before the pest does.
have been developed.
at rates
at
seedlings and give the crop a head
start.
because many insects emerge from hibernation just when
Seeding
depths
competition for weeds will also com-
crop can carry more insect damage without yield reduc-
The seedling
to
significantly
after.
is
when moisture
is
to
Do
not use
to time seedling
emergence
occur after a destructive insect stage has passed. For
instance, if a
heavy cutworm infestation
can be delayed
16
frost.
extremely hmited.
Delayed seeding may also be used
required.
early maturing crop or
by
until the
cutworm
is
expected, seeding
larvae have stopped feeding.
also possible to reduce sawfly
because the stems of young plants are not developed
enough
to egg-laying
be attractive
to
Phosphorus promotes root development and allows crops
damage by delaying seed-
It is
ing,
to
compete more effectively with most weeds. Weeds such as

green foxtail respond to nitrogen
female sawflies.
fertilizer applications thus
reducing the crop's competitive advantage. Generally, under

Certain risks are associated with late seeding. If spring weather is cold
wet and cool conditions, the use of fertilizer
and wet, pests will be delayed right along with the

tool in
crop. Late seeding results in lower yields, and early maturing
weed growth because
lates
must be
varieties usually yield less. This loss of yield
an effective
the fertilizer
readily available to
is
bal-
the weeds, as well as the crop.
anced with the expected cost of control and the
is
promoting crop growth. Broadcasting nitrogen stimu-
reliability
Banding
fertilizer is
more
of
advantageous to the crop.
predicting insect damage.
Improper
Disease development
temperature
is
at
is
by the date of planting,
affected
Placing too
planting and depth of planting. If Tobin canola
seedling blight increases markedly. Seed treatments will be of

stress
if
the soil is
cause crop problems.
or nitrogen fertilizer with the
below 5C
from too
little
ceptible to disease.
and dry.
ways
(burning)
salt
This reduces the plant stand and yield. Crops under
effect.
help in reducing seedling disease
much phosphorus
seed will damage tender seedlings by a simple
planted too early or too deep, the incidence and severity of
little
may
fertilization practices
soil
or too
Good
much
become more
fertilizer
plant nutrition
sus-
one of the best
is
to avoid disease problems.
Consider the choice of
fertilizer.
For example, the number of
Seedbed Preparation
sugar beet plants affected by seedling blight {Rhizoctonia
A firm, well-packed seedbed maximizes soil moisture contact
solani) can double
with the seed. This promotes uniform seeding and seedling
opposed
when ammonium-type
nitrogen
is
used as
to nitrate-type nitrogen.
emergence. Before seeding, the seedbed should be firm
enough so
sole
on
that heels sink
Soil fertility affects the vigor of both crops and weeds.
no deeper than the thickness of the
weeds use
normal work boot. This will also provide better
depth control with the seed
plants. If
fertilizers as effectively as or better than
most of the weeds
Many
crop
are suppressed or killed
by
tillage
drill.
or herbicides, the extra vigor given to the crop by fertilizers

will
make
the crop plants better able to resist disease.
Fertility
High
Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are the major
because most crop varieties were developed
macro-nutrients essential to crop production.
N and P limit
lower levels of
crop yields in most regions and a few areas are low in K. Soil
of
tests identify the levels
Sulphur (S)
is
nutrient levels in the soil can lead to crop lodging
fertilizer inputs.
New on the
to
regulators that can dwarf naturally tall-growing crops, reduc-
all soil nutrients.
ing their tendency to lodge.
an essential element. Where sulphur levels are
deficient, yield losses will result in crops
such as canola with-
Lime
out the addition of sulphur. Sulphur deficiency occurs in

patches, most often on
sulphur-deficient soil
Gray Wooded
is
soils.
stunted, with yellowish
leaves, red discolorations
and poorly
Certain diseases tend to be associated with alkaline and acid
Canola on
filled or
soils.
cupped
For example, alkaline
soils favor take-all of
empty seed
Alfalfa does best in well-drained soils with a
corrected by applying fertilizers that contain sulphur.
6.5 to 8 (neutral to alkali soils).
Copper (Cu) deficiency has been
identified
on sandy
soils
susceptibility of alfalfa to disease

raise this crop. In soils of
known as melanosis in wheat, where

Wheat varieties such as Park, Biggar
contributes to a condition
and Roblin appear
to
be very susceptible
to this condition.
high organic soils in west-central Alberta,
Cu
deficiency
associated with low yields of barley. Research

find economical
ways of adding
available
Cu
is
pH
range from
At pHs of 6 and lower, the
reduced vigor, poor nitrogen fixation, poor winter survival and
and
with a high organic matter content. Copper deficiency
the grains fail to form.
wheat,
while acidic soils favor clubroot in canola.
pods. Soil tests identify sulphur levels and deficiencies can be
soils
cope with
scene are growth
On
pH
5 to
both are able to
fix nitrogen at
Alberta, alfalfa
is
is
grown on
make
6,
low
soils
it
grow
pH
uneconomical
to
alsike or red clover;
levels. In northern
around
pH
6,
but great care
taken with inoculation of the nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium
is
underway
meliloti bacteria,
which do not normally
thrive well in soils of
to
this
to soils to cor-
pH. In neutral
soils, the alfalfa
well and can persist for
rect these conditions.
many
nitrogen-fixing bacteria do
years in the absence of alfalfa
plants.
Other micro-nutrients that have occasionally been identified

as deficient are
(in
canola and
fa)
and iron (on
ing, they
ample
alkali soils). If
become
limit yield
If
manganese (gray speck disease of oats), boron
alfalfa), zinc (in beans),
the
weak
molybdenum
may be
is
on the acidic
is
side (below
rial.
6), is
it
economical
to
in Alberta since
is
made from
present in
this
mate-
Crushing and transporting the rock are costsly. Most
crops, including cereals and oilseeds, will
do well
at
pH
field
5.5 or
higher but anything less will cause significant yield reductions
quantities.
pH from 5
to
6 would require about 2 tons of limestone (or marl) per acre
at
as a result of acid soil conditions.
Vigor of crop plants increases with the use of
pH
no shortage of limestone
the entire eastern slope of the Rockies
any of these nutrients are limit-
link in the production chain and
even though other nutrients
land
lime soil? There

(in alfal-
fertilizers.
17
To move
a soil
a cost of $25 to
$30 per
ton.
The
effect of lime,
the nature of the soil, can last 10 to 15 years.

cost of
$50
to
$60 per acre be
depending on
Would an
is
work well
Growers who
are content with an average of
acre of barley on acidic soil with a
However,
intensive crop
to
pH
to prevent extensive sawfly
strips
wheat.
Crop Selection
acidic land, liming
is
an impor-
cropping systems. Choose a crop based on the worst weed
problem or the one suspected

loss.
Crop Placement
and
Plant susceptible crops far from infested stubble. Surround
tle
susceptible crops with different crops. Isolate susceptible
summer
in
The crop chosen depends on the weeds and other pests present. The weed species in a field will be dependent on past
tant consideration.
crops with
damage
50 bushels per
of around 5 do not
expect a yield of 100 bushels per acre with
management on
many pests can fly or are windarmyworm and cabbage root flies
can readily find a canola crop. However, the isolation
justified in increased crop
yields?
lime.
often ineffective because
borne. For example, bertha
input
fallow
strips.
However,
For example,
common
18
be causing the most yield

with both Canada
thistle
groundsel, select a crop that permits Canada this-
control because
it
is
by
details refer to the section
isolation of a crop
to
in a field infested
far the
worst of the two. For more
on crop
rotations.
PHYSICAL CONTROL OF PESTS

Physical control refers to mechanical or hand controls where
the pest
Early swatliing
actually attacked and destroyed. Physical controls
is
Early swathing can sometimes save a crop.
weed control. Tillage, fire, removal by

hand, grazing and mowing are all used to destroy weeds and
are used mostly in
Some
prevent reproduction.
tillage,
which destroys
their
insects
may
also be destroyed
the time wheat
may
stems
have collapsed, making harvest impossible. Badly infested
by
may be saved from
fields
eggs or overwinter stages of
pests such as
wheat stem sawfly (or
weeds) by an early harvest or by the production of hay or
growth.
As
By
that is infested with sawfly reaches maturity, the
silage.
weeds
stated previously,
are not controlled through a
Unless diseases or pests are suspected, or
single operation. Practices such as seedbed preparation,
summer
post-seeding tillage, post-harvest tillage and
weed
are effective in combination against
perennial weeds.
The choices
fallow
ble. Straight
seedlings and
combining permits
fast
drying
is
combined whenever
required, grains should be straight
a taller stubble
possi-
and improves
snow management.
will vary with the region,
crop, degree of infestation, soil condition and availability
The time of harvest may
of equipment. Soil factors influence the selection of
Alternaria black spot of canola and mustard attacks pods late in
machinery. For example, stones

moisture conservation
tillage.
Consider
all
may
may
prevent
you develop an
losses caused
sclerotinia white
The grains of
whole
field
strip
of crop in the
natural enemies of pests, prevents
ly as
of an infested crop
may
force insects
almost certainly will
parasite generation
if
it
is infested),
snow
cover,
may become
?Lnd Aspergillus.
in
tion losses in animals
and
and
may even be removed from
may be found
Fusarium can produce vomitoxin,
hay and grain and results in producillness in
in trace
amounts
humans.
in grains that heat during
meat of poultry and hogs
sent in the
with the harvested crop. Thus, the pest often moves to a
that
have consumed conta-
minated feed.
natural enemies. Strip harvesting helps
maintain a stable ecosystem.

Successful strip harvesting
is
IVIowing
practised in alfalfa pest
Repeated mowing controls perennial weeds by depleting root
manage-
will also prevent seed production of annual
ment. Alfalfa provides an ideal habitat for a variety of insects,
reserves.
ranging from pests (alfalfa weevil, lygus bugs, pea aphid and
biennial weeds. Root reserves in perennial
to beneficial insects
when
(damsel bugs,
leafcutter bees). Harvesting alfalfa causes
and
settle
There
are, for
Mowing
example, tiny wasps

pests.
that sting
and deposit eggs
in aphids.
plants are in bud. If only one

at this stage.
weeds such
winged pea aphids
on other crops, while many of the benefi-
cial insects are destroyed.
It
should be
lacewings, ladybird beetles, pirate bugs, wasps, spiders and
to migrate
is
Mowing
is
mowing
aphids will migrate to
new
winged healthy
to
know
nest in grass. Early

strip harvest alfalfa, cut alternate
rows.
When
Wherever
the rows
were cut have undergone some re-growth, cut the
remaining rows. Alternatively, simply leave some
it
the life cycle and habitat needs of
is
mowing
practices.
the provision of habitat for birds.
Birds consume huge quantities of insects and
of wasps.
that
planned,
often harmful to beneficial enemies of farm insect
Farmers need
One obvious example
areas, free of an entire generation
is
and
are lowest
as field bindweed.
These parasitized aphids
will be destroyed with the harvested crop, but
weeds
not effective for prostrate
the beneficial species, so they can adjust
To
occur natural-
the
crop free of
bug)
that
storage on prairie farms. These mycotoxins are sometimes pre-
new
alfalfa plant
infected
the harvest
field
its
cereal crops that have lain overwinter in the
which may be present
often destroys them, their habitat and their insect food source.
The next
canola remains moist,
A group of mycotoxins, the ochratoxins, may be carcinogenic
to migrate to another field. If the crop harbors beneficial

it
reduce
by-products of fungal species such as Cephaolosporium,
Fusarium
mass
such as beet webworm, pea aphid, cutworms and grasshoppers
insects (as
If
may
can circulate
to spread in the swath.
Mycotoxins are poisonous chemicals
tions.
an unharvested
migration of pests and improves snow management. The harvest of a
mold can continue
that air
yield.
with fungi that can produce mycotoxins under certain condi-
Strip harvesting
which preserves
Lay swaths so
shattering.
swath, particularly under a
Harvest Practices
field,
by
beneath the grain to encourage drying.
integrat-
ed control program.
Strip harvesting leaves
development and
the season. Early swathing of badly infested crops
mowing and
prevent the use of repeated
factors before
affect disease
mowing
is
many
of them
one cause of nestling mortality.
possible, the farmer should avoid
mowing
or heavy
grazing until mid to late July.
strips or
patches unharvested. Strip harvesting also provides a deeper
snow
Hand
cover. This can reduce winter kill during severe
pulling
Although small patches of perennial weeds can be pulled up
winters and enhances spring soil moisture conditions.
repeatedly, hand pulling
19
is
most effective
for annual
and
tion. If
weeds
spread.
Hand
are in flower,
pulling
bag and burn them
most feasible when you
is
prevent the establishment of
new
species.
on pedigreed seed farms and
on large areas
the infestation
is
will remain to germi-
nate and emerge in subsequent years.
prevent seed
are trying to
Hand rouging
routine practice
if
to
Dormant weed seeds
not eliminate them.
weeds prevents seed produc-
biennial weeds. Pulling of annual
is
Pre-seeding
even
practical
is light.
Shallow
tillage
cm)
tillage (less than 7.5
destroy the seedlings and prepare a seedbed.
Tillage
Tillage
implement
was one of the
first
methods of weed
control.
It is
funda-
will
mental to integrated weed control. Annual weeds, biennial
weeds without extensive

readily destroyed
by
The younger
the
weed, the easier
control. Tillage effectiveness relates directly to the
is to
heavy.
Use
a disc-type
A rod weeder or cultivator
work when less residue is present. This practice is most

weeds that germinate in cool soils such as wild
oats,
mustards and
hemp
nettle.
amount
Post-seeding
on weed control.
tillage
This practice will control weeds that emerge with or shortly
The choice of implement depends on residue

soil moisture,
is
it
of soil disturbance. The greater the disturbance, the greater the

effect of tillage is
crop residue
effective for
tap roots, and perennial seedlings are
tillage.
if
encourages
in early spring
A second shallow tillage will
germination of most weed seeds.
after cereal crops,
cover, soil type,
sunflowers and potatoes. In some instances
post-seeding tillage can cause severe crop injury and should
growing conditions and weed growth. Blade
implements, such as the Noble or Victory blade cultivators, con-
be done with caution. For example, inter-row cultivation of
serve trash but are not very effective under cool wet conditions.
corn and vegetables
Implements
that
tions but increase erosion potential.

in the
Brown and Dark Brown
and following dry years
soil
Reduced
that
produce
Field cultivators and rod weeders are a
little
sprouts are
on sandier
still
of
However, rod weeding of
weeds when
the crop
below the depth of the rod weeder
is
a rela-
and
tively safe practice. Well-established cereals, sunflowers
residue cover.
potatoes will survive cultivation with a harrow that kills deli-
good compromise.
cate, shallow-rooted
Table 13. Percentage
a less injurious form of post-seeding
cereal crop to destroy early emergent
tillage is desirable
soil zones, particularly
is
tillage than a blanket cultivation.
bury plant residues are effective in wet condi-
with
straw reduction by selected tillage operations
soil type,
weed
weather
seedlings.
at the
time of
Crop damage
will vary
kind of crop
tillage, the
and the depth of seeding. Tillage will be most successful on

Soil moisture
conditions
Surface residue
reduction
Implement
Plow
Moist
Rod weeder
5-10
weeder before crop emergence

should be done only as a
5-10*
Blade cultivator
deep, and
25 per cent
at rates
for the control of
seedlings that have just emerged. This operation
15-20*
Chisel plow
cm
greater than normal can be cultivated with a harrow or rod
20-30
Field cultivator
where deeper seeding occurred.
soil
Cereal crops seeded 8 to 10
100
50-60
Tandem-disc
Dry
moderately deep, firm
last resort.
injury and increased disease
weed
risky
is
The concerns
and
are crop
from deep seeding. Cereal seed
should be treated with a fungicide to minimize seedling dis*less residue loss with low
crown sweeps.
eases. Tillage before crop
emergence should be
less than 5
deep and must be done before crop sprouts are 2
cm
cm
in length.
This will usually be within three or four days of seeding. The
Summer fallow
Summer fallow
nutrients,
Summer
and
it
is
best
used
is
flushes of
also helps deplete the supply of
weeds appear, they
weed seeds
are controlled
when
soils are susceptible to erosion.
tributes to erosion, salinity
With post-seeding
by
weed
One
summer
is
dry.
loss
if this
is
inevitable and
practice
is
followed.
Summer
control with
minimum
in dry areas
fallow con-
Till at the 1 to
moisture
desirable. Till during hot, dry but
fallow will reduce
8 to 10
4 leaf stage before
rows can be pulled slowly and
wide
Post-emergent
ty
cm
deep and up
to
25 per
tillage
tillers
form. Light har-
parallel to the seed rows.
with a harrow
may
delay crop maturi-
by a minimum two or three days. Check crop plants dur-
ing tillage. Irreparable
loss.
where minimal
tillage
cent heavier than normal can be harrowed after emergence.
damage
will occur if crop roots are
loosened, broken or damaged. Avoid tillage
soil
under
calm weather.
stress. In a
damage than
year of
some crop
Wheat and barley seeded
and organic matter loss and there-
Blade cultivators can be used

is
tillage,
Post-emergence
tillage or
has been loosened, a rod weeder will penetrate and pro-
disturbance
the soil surface
in
sweeps sever roots of annual and perennial weeds. After the

vide good annual
when
should be accepted by the producer
tillage is not effective or
fore should be used with care. Field cultivators with
soil
control occurs
promotes germination of weed seeds.
with herbicides. Use herbicides
where
weed
weeds, conserve moisture and
most effective against perennial weeds.
the soil because tillage
As
to control
retain crop residue to protect against soil erosion.
fallow
However,
is
weed problems, but
if
the crop
is
dry spring, this operation will cause more
damage caused by the weeds.

more susceptible to damage than
the potential
Generally, barley
is
wheat. Post-emergent harrowing in fields with heavy trash
20
cover
is
not
recommended because straw
weed, the maturity of the weed, the
will clog the har-
rows and damage the crops excessively. Herbicides are

better alternative in most instances.
availability of animals for
grazing and the nutritional requirements of the animal. Each
animal species tends to have a characteristic, preferred
diet.
Generally, cattle and horses are grazers and select a diet domi-
As an example, cattle and

when the target weed is quackgrass or downy
brome. Horses may select for quackgrass over Russian wild-rye.
Horses avoid Russian wild-rye when other forage is available.
nated by grass and grass like plants.
Inter-row tillage
Tillage can reduce weed
horses are ideal
populations in row crops such as
potatoes and sugar beets.
The
should be early and
first tillage
shallow. Subsequent passes can be
made
if
required.
Take
Goats are browsers and select a high percentage of woody
care to avoid crop injury.
material in their diet. Goats select 40 to 80 per cent shrubs in

their diet
Fall tillage
some perennial weeds can

tillage. Use a blade cultivator in
be controlled with early
Brown
soil
fall
Sheep
are intermediate feeders
zones to maintain stubble. Field cultivators

plants, including
can be used in the other
soil zones. If stubble is sparse,
and
fall tillage
varies with the
tillage is
early in the following spring.
till
weed
and a
fall
The time of
and
tall grass.
on winter annuals and should be part of most weed con-
trol
programs.
tall
plants,
their diet to include
more browse or grass than other domestic animals. Sheep

used more often than other species
and
may be
the best animal to try
to harvest
weedy
are
plants,
on many problem weeds.
Trap Strips
Crops especially
around
Grazing
Grazing serves the same purpose as mowing
The main reason
production.
Sheep avoid
Sheep can modify
application of herbicide are very effec-
tive
trol.
and select more broad-leaved
plants.
species. In general, fall
done between crop harvest and soil freeze-up. Both
fall tillage
many weedy
avoid
litter
fall tillage
reduce sucker
to
growth of aspen.
Seedlings of winter annuals and
the
on North American range lands. Alberta Public
Lands have used goats on tame pasture
To be
for
mowing weeds
in
attractive to insects
may be grown
in strips
Here the pest insects can be concentrated and

These
killed with insecticides or cultural practices.
weed con-
attractive
may simply be the same crop seeded at a different time

may even be a volunteer crop or weed. For example, corn
crops
is to
prevent seed
or
effective, grazing
fields.
must also prevent
borer adults lay eggs in the
weed is
an important consideration in a grazing program. Weeds
are most palatable when they are young and become less
palatable with age. Grazing should be initiated when
tallest plants.
Trap
strips
seeded
seed production. Therefore, the age of the target
weeds
are
still
earlier or to a faster
grassy
palatable and before seed formation.
as
mowing. This
will
depend on the
target
the grazing system and the grazing animal.
Trap
strips are also effective against
around the perimeter of a
field, sawflies will lay their
grazing
this strip.
main crop so
that the
trap
stems
appropriate time,
will be
and fencing and management are inadequate or inappropriate to ensure that top
If
eggs in
Sow
Larvae do not survive in the solid stem.
strips for sawflies earlier than the

at the
wheat stem sawfly.
trap strips of a resistant, solid-stemmed variety are planted
schemes do not provide effective weed control because

grazing animals are not available
field.
Sawflies will fly only as far as necessary to lay their eggs.
weed,
Many
tramline or headland, concentrate corn borers and
provide efficient control for the rest of the
There are few situations where grazing will accomplish as
much
strip,
maturing variety, or planted next to a
more mature and thus more
attractive to egg-laying
females.
growth and seed production are
Bromegrass provides
curtailed.
permanent trap for sawflies. Sawflies
readily lay their eggs in bromegrass, but grass also harbors

parasites that control sawflies.
Grazing system
Trap
The grazing system should reduce

as
much
as possible.
Systems
that
strips
reduce erosion and increase
soil
moisture and over-
the grazing animal's choice
winter survival of
employ herded sheep and
fall
crops and perennial crops.
goats and short-duration grazing with cattle have been used

successfully. Short duration
means
a high
number of animals
Fire
per unit area for a short time.

Pest control with fire
Selectivity
is
governed by the palatability of weeds
tive
to the
enough
grazing animal. Palatability decreases with the age of the

plant. Therefore,
when weeds
are
you should
most
start to
The
palatable.
not recommended.
at
It is
ground level
is
often ineffec-
seldom high
to affect pests in the soil. Fire destroys crop residue
and organic matter
graze early in the season
is
because the temperature
that could
be incorporated into the
destruction of the crop residue with fire
susceptible to erosion. Fire
may be
may
soil.
leave the soil
particularly destructive to
beneficial insects. Fire might not kill healthy larva and
Grazing animal
When choosing a grazing
pests that overwinter beneath the soil but
may
insects overwintering near the soil surface.
animal, consider the species of
21
kill
pupa of
beneficial
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Biological control
is
grasshoppers. There are three general biological control strate-
the use of living organisms to regulate
and reduce the effects of unwanted living organisms.
gies: classic biological control,
Biological control organisms include insects, diseases, birds
trol
augmentative biological con-
and conservation of natural enemies.
and mammals.
Classical biological control
Background
Because of natural mortality, most of the living organisms

the
in
world do not overwhelm the environment around them.
origin
In effect, the farmer has to control only the "leftovers"; that

is,
is
based on the premise that
introduced pests have natural enemies in their country of
which keep them
imported under
those pests that survive natural control.
for release.
strict
in check.
Key
natural enemies are
quarantine guidelines and propagated
The natural enemy or biological control agent

numbers by its own powers of reproduction to
Unfortunately, farming practices are often detrimental to nat-
increases in
ural control of pest species. Cultivation, wetlands destruction
maintain a self-sustaining population.
and monocultural crops leave
The goal of classical biological control is to establish a permanent population of one or more of these natural enemies
little
habitat for the diverse
species that keep each other in balance. For example,
many
of the worst insect pest outbreaks in the province are in
in the pest population that will reduce
southern Alberta. The soils are low in organic matter and
at a tolerable level.
moisture and support a simple biological community.
tial
Cultivation and irrigation in this area have disrupted the original biological
monoculture
is
for
weed
and maintain the pest
This type of control has excellent poten-
control in Alberta; however, there are
nomic incentives
for private
companies
no eco-
to invest in this
complex. The resulting simple, unstable
process because the process can take several years and
vulnerable to colonization by pests.
then self-sustaining. Therefore, classical biological control
Outbreaks of serious insect pests are
less
common
in north-
is
programs depend on government support for research and
ern Alberta where sloughs and potholes, trees and uncultivat-
implementation.
ed land add diversity to the environment.

is
more appropriate on non-
Farming also disturbs the natural balance between pest and
cultivated land, such as pastures, rangelands, right-of-ways
predator by frequent tillage and pesticide applications, which
and non-crop lands, where
destroy pest and beneficial species indiscriminately. Pest

species often recover
their predators
As
well,
new
first, to
is
reach destructive levels before
weed and
agent should be
behind
in the
The
natural control agents
were
Biological control
its
it
has gained a place in
many
undisturbed to allow
to build-up in
it
is a
viable option for the control of

It
will only sur-
land.
pest control, whether
Augmentative biological control
cal control of pests is rarely feasible as the only pest control
agement systems and has the potential
method of
The biological control
vive and build-up in population on relatively undisturbed
native or from the pest's country of origin. Although biologi-
solution,
dominant pest species

the preferred
leafy spurge in pastures and rangelands.
new home.
makes use of natural
is
the pest problem. For example, the
black dot spurge beetle
left
country of origin and the balance of survival
tipped in favor of the pest in
left
numbers and attack
disease species have been
introduced in agricultural seed and produce from other continents over the centuries.
it
pest control on these types of land.
and parasites can build up again.
insect,
a single,
troublesome. Economically,
integrated pest
to
Augmentative biological control requires periodic releases of
man-
either natural or exotic biological control agents
many
be used in
and
falls into
two categories, inundative and inoculative.
more.
Inundative releases mimic a pesticide in that they are aimed
rapid reduction or elimination of the pest by one or
Strategies for Implementing or Enhancing

Biological Control
applications of beneficial organisms.

Inoculative releases generally rely
Biological control does not replace pesticides and other meth-
ods of control.
It is
meant
to
be combined or integrated with
damaging
levels.
ple, bacterial,
gy or system of control for one or more pests. For example,

timely tillage, which removes the green growth on summer
frequent, well-timed intro-
The agent may be applied
nematode,
viral,
as a spray (for
exam-
and fungal formulations), or
released at key points for self-distribution (for example, predatory
mites and parasitoids). This type of control
fallow to starve newly hatched grasshoppers, can be used in
and must be re-applied on a seasonal
in the
crop and the pesticide Furadan along the edges of the
on
ductions of beneficial organisms to prevent the pest from reaching
preventive, physical and chemical controls in an overall strate-
combination with the disease-causing agent Nosema
at
more mass
is
field.
This combination of approaches will minimize losses due to
22
used extensively
in
is
generally short-term
basis. In Alberta this
greenhouse vegetable crops and
landscapes, and to
some
forestry industries,
and for mosquito control
extent
method
interior
by the outdoor vegetable and

in
urban areas.
Mass production of the biological
control agent
a prerequisite
is
Limitations of biological control
for this type of control.
Many
biological control agents are host-specific,
which
is
an advantage from the point of view of unwanted spread to
While government agencies are often involved in collecting

and evaluating the control agent and the initial rearing pro-
non-pest hosts. However, several types of biological con-
cedures for natural enemies, the responsibility for produc-
trol
and marketing
tion
lies
with commercial companies.
now
of the larger companies are
involved in
Some
phases of
all
producing biological control agents.
Augmentative biological control
is
is
desired.
The
more applicable
biological control agent
periodically and the control
in a
area.
For example, BioMal
is
Biological control
is
complex system. Familiarity with
monitor interactions and
high
necessary to effectively
is
time introductions. Commercial
to
suppliers of biological controls to Alberta currently do not

offer a routine monitoring service,
applied
is
sion services
usually temporary in the treated
is
necessary for a crop subject to attack by
both pests and biological agents
value cultivated crop, where rapid control or suppression of

the pest
may be
agents
wide range of pests.
may
and government exten-
not have the expertise and time to supply
adequate information. Farmers accustomed to the precise
registered as a spray in cereal
uncomfortable with
and oilseed crops for season-long control of round-leaved mal-
rates of pesticide application are often
low.
the imprecision of suggested introduction rates of biological control agents.
Demand
for biological controls
is
often
ahead of the information needed to ensure success.
Conservation of natural enemies

Conservation of natural enemies aims
ronment
ficial
to provide suitable
organisms.
mies of pests
and
is
tree species
at
modifying the envi-
quality of biological control agents has been variable,
making
food and shelter for existing bene-
it
situation
A favorable environment for the natural ene-
difficult to assess
may improve
if
how
effective they are. This
the federal
government decides
to
regulate this industry.
enhanced by shelterbelts with diverse shrub

around and within
fields,
access to water,
tillage,
and careful regulation of pesticide applica-
tions. Pesticide
use can be modified by spot treatments and
reduced
The
drift.
tions
"Soft"
and
most biological control agents
to
birds.
must be
in
use
in
Type
Alberta
from the time of release
of control
point
Wasp
Inoculative
B.T.
Inundative
Caterpillar
Leafy spurge
where they
Classical
BioMal
Inundative
Crown
Dygall
Inundative
gall
required
may
and
insects. Classical
require five or even 10 years
up
to build
in population to the
Even
are affecting the target pest.
then,
to six different classical biological control agents
may be needed
Black dot spurge beetle
Round-leaved mallow
is
ensure that the agents will not affect crops, beneficial
from two
Aphid
develop biological con-
insects and other non-target plants
Biological agent
Pest
to
agents can be prohibitive. Careful screening
biological control agents
Table 14. Examples of biological controls
is short.
precise.
The time and expense required

trol
pesticides such as soaps and oils can be used. Provide artificial

shelters for beneficial bats
shelf-life of
Transportation arrangements and scheduling of applica-
time applications to avoid peaks of predator and parasite abundance. Choose application techniques that prevent
The
to significantly affect the pest.
Biological control cannot be used against pests that are val-
ued under some situations because biocontrol agents do not

recognize boundaries. For example, a biological control
agent would not be developed to control volunteer canola.
Advantages
of biological control
Steps Involved
Biological control can reduce the amount and frequency of
In Biological
The black dot spurge
pesticide use and reduce the risks of pest resistance,
Control
beetle provides an
sical biological control agents are
example of how
clas-
obtained and used.
residues, phytotoxicity, applicator exposure and environ-
mental hazards.
Should biological controls be used
Biological control takes advantage of expanded markets
A large infestation of weeds in an environmentally sensitive or
for pesticide-free produce.
inaccessible area such as along a river or stream
trol
As
because biological control agents are self-reproducing.

living organisms, they can seek, find
bank
is
well-suited for biological control.
Biological control can provide on-going or long-term con-
The black dot spurge
beetle takes several years to build to an
and attack the

effective population. Thus, small isolated leafy spurge patches
pests, as well as multiply
and spread. This provides reduced
may be more
costs to the farmer in the long-term, particularly for classi-
the weed.
effectively controlled
means than by
cal biological control.
by chemical or mechanical
biological control to prevent further spread of
An infestation may
also be contained
by a herbicide
application on the perimeter and a release of biological control
Biological control can be used in areas inaccessible to pesticide
agents in the middle.
application equipment and in environmentally sensitive areas.
23
Redistribute the biological control agent

new leafy spurge patches accelerates
Select a suitable release site

This can be
critical for the
establishment of the black dot
spurge beetle and successful control.
mowed,
not be cultivated,
Redistribution to
The
because natural spread
sprayed, burned or otherwise dis-
The popubuild in numbers
turbed for several years after the release of beetles.

lation of spurge beetles
must be allowed
to
the
dispersal of the beetles and thus their effectiveness,
release site should
is
slow. Normally, spurge beetles
should not be harvested from suitable release
sites for at
least three years to ensure their establishment
and a buildup
and become established on the infestation.
Also avoid heavy
in population. In the first year of redistribution harvest only
grazing with the accompanying trampling.
The black dot
enough spurge beetles
spurge beetle prefers a leafy spurge patch that is higher, drier
infestations. This
and on sandy
tions.
soil.
Obtain the biological control agent

Make arrangements to obtain the black dot spurge
to release at a
may be
same
in the
Biological Control of
few new leafy spurge

field or other loca-
Weeds
Biological control agents usually require extensive overseas
beetle as
and federal government approval;
thus, an individual
outlined in the section for biological control agents for leafy
testing
spurge.
producer usually does not become involved in finding and
new
importing
Collect and transport the biological

control agent
Black dot spurge beetles are collected as
after they start to
sweep net
emerge
to gather the
needed for one release
in large
able in sufficient numbers, they

at
numbers
in early July.
Use
Western Canada and
may be
avail-
available to producers
and release. Augmentative biolog
once developed, are usually commercially
available.
site.
Carefully transfer the beetles into
Toadflax
or cloth bag. If the beetles are to be transported a long dis-
them
cost, for redistribution
in
approximately 500 spurge beetles
a separate insect-proof container, such as a large plastic pail
tance, place
no
ical control agents,
adults, usually just
However,
classical biological control agents.
once the agents are established
with ice or cold packs
in a cooler
bottom for protection from over-heating.
Do
A small, shiny black

mm in length that feeds in the flowers.
Brachypterolus pulicarius
at the
beetle; 2-3
not place the
containers directly on the ice.

antirrhini A small, dark grey weevil; 3
mm in length; feeds in the flowers.
Gymnaetron
4
Release the biological control agent
Both
Release black dot spurge beetles within 48 hours of collection.

Release the beetles on the plants
suitable leafy spurge patch.
area.
The
Do
at
one spot
not scatter them over a wide
The
is
sunny day.
larvae feed on the roots and do
site to
leafy spurge shoots will be
reduced within a radius of
to 5
m around the release
The
amount of grass and other vegetation growth
more
to
iA
Jl
/ 1\
\^
over 400 spurge beetles per square metre. Reaching thi

it rapidly dispersed to a distance of ove
high population level,

1
point.
insect.
A sweep net can aid in locating the adults to
The number of flowering
A small,
The black dot spurge beetle was introduced into Alberta from Hungary in 1983. It
has increased in numbers at the original release
on a warm,
verify their establishment.
control leafy spurge than the adult stage of the
evidence of adults feeding on the leaves. Beetles are easier

to late July
the flowering shoots of uninfested toadflax.
the leaves.
Beetles are at and around the point of release; or there
mid
among
mm
dot spurge beetle release, a successful
to find on leafy spurge plants in
came from Europe
widely established in Wester:
Black dot spurge beetle (Aphthona nigriscutls)

in length; feeds on
light brown beetle; 3-4
establishment will have the following characteristics:
insects
Leafy spurge
for establishment of the biological
control agent
One year after the black
now
Canada. They can be spread by placing infested toadflax
Note land-
for future monitoring of the release.
Check
Both
early in the century and are
branches
marks
insects can reduce the seed production of toad-
flax considerably.
in the centre of a
release point should be well marked.
kilometre from the
decline in the
initial release point.
An accompanying
amount of leafy spurge and an increase
amount of grass and other vegetation has occurred
may have
release site.
increased in response to the reduction in leafy spurge
growth.
24
in the
at the
black dot spurge beetle,
it
has not increased in numbers as
quickly. Twenty-nine copper spurge beetle redistribution

releases
were made
1991 and 1992. This beetle seems
in
to
prefer leafy spurge infestation on sandy or
More information
gravelly soil near water.
needed on the type of
is
sites that are suitable for
the copper spurge beetle.
Arrangements
to obtain either
made through
can be
spurge beetle
the local agricultural
fieldmen, district agriculturist, Soils and Crop
Management Branch of Alberta Agriculture

or, when public lands are
range management section of Public Lands.
Food and Rural Development

1988
1987
involved, the
IS
Year
Sheep - Sheep can acquire
Figure 1. Population density of blacl( dot spurge beetle.
a taste for leafy spurge. If sheep
are pastured in an area infested with leafy spurge, they will
consume more
leafy spurge than native grasses after
two or
600
three weeks. After four years of

the St.
Mary's River
production.
is
some
decline
The sheep
prefer to eat the inflorescence and
upper stems and leaves of the leafy spurge plants and can
||
CC E
make good weight
0^
15
southern Alberta, there
in
spurge production and some increase in native grass
in leafy
.21^
open herding of sheep along
gains eating this nutritious forage source.
Information on the grazing of leafy spurge by sheep can be
200
E
X
o
obtained from the Public Lands Branch in Lethbridge.
Q.
Q.
<
Bladder campion
1987
Year
A flat,
mm in
Tortoise beetle (Cassida azurea)
Figure 2. Dispersal of black dot spurge beetle.
round, reddish beetle; about 10

length; feeds
on the
leaves.
The
larvae feed
on the young seed capsules, leaves and

shoot
The
tips.
tortoise beetle, after careful evaluation
to ensure
it
was
species specific to bladder
campion, was imported into Western Canada
in
1989 from
Austria. This insect has established successfully at four locations in Alberta.
The
tortoise beetle
is
relatively easy to rear
and has a noticeable effect on the bladder campion.

available for redistribution.
tact the local agricultural
To
It is
also
obtain tortoise beetles, con-
fieldman, district agriculturist. Soil
and Crop Management Branch personnel of Alberta

Agriculture or,
Year
Of 110
redistribution releases of black dot spurge
from 1988
to
beede made
BloMal (Colletrotrlchum gloeosporloides\. sp. malvae) -This
71 releases (65%) established. The black dot spurge beede
on high,
patches where the soil

ter.
is
dry,
agent
and exposed leafy spurge
coarse and contains less organic mat-
similar to the black dot spurge

color.
It
beede but
affects leafy spurge in the
This beetle
is
is
This
introduced into Alberta from Italy
at the
was
was
very
in
as the black
dot spurge beetle does. Although the copper spurge beetle
same time
powder formulation of viable spores of a
When
this
my co-herbicide
is
the
highly concentrated fungus will attack and control the mallow.
reddish-gold in
same manner
a wettable
mixed with water and sprayed on round-leaved mallow,
black dot spurge beetle establishment.
Copper spurge beetle (Aphthona flava)
is
fungus that occurs naturally.
Thin stands on a knoll or south facing slope with sandy
soil are ideal for
public lands are involved, the Public
Round-leaved mallow
1990 throughout southern and central Alberta,
establishes better
when
Lands Branch.
Figure 3. Density of leafy spurge.
is
an example of augmentative biological control. BioMal
discovered, developed and registered in Canada.

the
first
Canada.
biological organism for
It is
weed
stored frozen and requires moisture for germi-
nation and penetration into the round-leaved
was
sue.
as the
25
BioMal
is
BioMal
control registered
mallow plant
marketed by DowElanco Canada
Inc.
tis-
B.
Brush
Goats
growth
improve
to
rate of 25 goats per acre
was
Biotrol,
one pasture, a stocking
cattle pasture. In
sufficient to defoliate
has been produced in commercial formulations since
t.
1958. Sold under the
Goats have been successfully used to browse brush
names
and diamondback moth.

cides,
were the preferred browse species of goats.
When
enemies of the host remain

B.t. is
obtained from the Public Lands Branch in Sherwood Park.
and
Biological Control of Insects
tent caterpillar. In agriculture, B.t. is
moth
coli,
insect pests include pathogens (dis-
mainly used against
larvae on cabbage family vegetables
B.t. attacks the larval gut
effective.
many
Predatory insects, such as lady beetles, eat
and must be eaten by the insect
Within a few hours of eating
and death usually occurs within 12
kinds of pest
at the first
that are predacious in
if
both larval and adult stages. Blister beetles are predacious
cabbage, broc-
Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, kale and turnip greens.
insect-eating vertebrates.
example of insects
to provide continuing control.
registered for use on ornamental and shade trees

budworm, gypsy moth, cankerworm, fall webworm
ease-causing organisms), predatory and parasitic insects, and
are one
B.t. is applied with insecti-
imported cabbageworm, cabbage looper and diamondback
Biological control employs natural enemies to reduce pest
They
larvae
alfalfa looper
now
for spruce
insects.
moth
butterfly and
lower rates of insecticides can be used and more insect
Information on the use of goats to browse brush can be
Enemies of
many
such as cabbage looper, imported cabbageworm,
95 per cent
of the targeted brush species in two weeks. Rose and aspen
populations.
Dipel, Novabac, Thuricide and
provides control of
it
to
to
be
B.t., larvae stop eating
72 hours.
B.t. is applied
sign of infestation and at weekly intervals thereafter
necessary.
only as larvae; the adults are foliage feeders and can cause
damage
to
legumes. Their importance as control agents must
Vertebrate predators
be carefully assessed before adopting control measures against
Domestic birds - Flocks of poultry, especially turkeys, are
them.
armyworm, and even
helpful against climbing cutworm,

Insect parasites, such as
eat only
one host individual. These insects lay
The
or near the pest.

kill
when
it
ichneumon wasps and tachinid
their
their
flies,
grasshopper infestations, with the added benefit that
eggs on, in
larvae usually develop inside the host and
own
development
larval
is
Some pathogens
are being developed
from 175,000
son. In California,
complete.
200,000 domestic geese
to
are used each year to control insects and grassy annual and
perennial
Pathogens include viruses, fungi, bacteria, nematodes and protozoa.
little
additional food should be necessary for the turkeys that sea-
commercially
weeds
and various other crops.
in fields of cotton
Geese have controlled weeds
to
in strawberries for
many
years.
Chicken ranchers near Riverside, California use young male
replace or supplement chemical pesticides.
chicks to control flies around the cages of laying hens.
A knowledge of natural enemies is a primary tool in managing

Wild birds
insect populations. In effect, a farmer controls only the "left-
overs", the pests that survive the natural rigors of weather, diseases, predators and parasites.
Farmers need
to
decisions and not inadvertently destroyed
larvae eat grasshopper eggs.
Many
were eliminated by
in
an infested
mon birds
For instance, bee
birds; the diets of
to
100 per cent
some of our most com-
insects.
determined the percentage of seeds,

diets of birds.
If beneficial insects are
field, the infestation
are also extremely beneficial in insect
such as swallows, house wrens, kingbirds and
phoebes are 90
infestations; their
farmers are unable to rec-
ognize them and try to control them.
abundant
numerous during grasshopper
Wild birds
Agriculture found that enormous numbers of harmful insects
know which
insects are beneficial so that they are included in pest control
flies are often
A study done by the United States Department of
control.
The American study
fruits
and insects
revealing. For example, a chickadee can eat up to 4,000 insect
may soon come
eggs a day; a wren family feeding
under control. To obtain the greatest benefit from natural ene-
more than
mies, farmers should choose control methods that are the least
2,000
harmful to the beneficial insects.
to
its
young
a thousand insects a day; a tree
will
period
3,000 mosquitoes a day. Also, birds are
Pathogens
To have
many
Some pathogens
are quite
common and
The
effect
on the host insect may be severe and
ulations can be decimated.
may produce
On
the other hand,
their
Some
source.
pop-
is
some pathogens
A source of water is also necessary.
important.
Many
by
birds,
(in
undisturbed grass) or just a few inches above the
ground
(in
woody
brush and grass as
The bacterium.
Bacillus thuringiensis (or B.t.), on the other hand, infects the
plants) and also feed
Other vertebrates
net
on the ground. Thus,
made to provide not just tall trees, but

well. The grass should be left undisturbed
until late July, after
larvae of several species of butterflies and moths.
Undisturbed grass
of our most beneficial birds nest on the
ground
an effort should be
viruses will infect only one
species or several closely related species.
the on-going pest control that is provided
(necessary for nesting and for protection from enemies) and
only mild, long-term effects. Pathogens vary in
their specificity to the host.
exactly the
the farmer needs help.
plantings of seed-bearing trees or bushes for a continual food
cause wide-
spread infection in insect populations. Other pathogens are

rare.
eat
the height
at
the farmer should provide habitat, such as bushes and trees
disease-causing organisms
(pathogens) including viruses, fungi, bacteria, nematodes and

protozoa.
when
consume
swallow will
of their feeding activity from April to late July
Insects are infected by
in the
But the numbers of insects consumed are
young
- it
is
birds have fledged.
customary for farmers
to
look upon
rodents and other small
mammals
as pests,
'out
these animals
of surface
litter,
while beneficial for some diseases, weeds
and insect problems, also destroys the habitat for overwinter-
are very helpful in insect control.
ing populations of beneficial insects such as ladybugs.
Moles and shrews destroy
numbers of
done
soil inhabiting
farmer equipped with a thorough knowledge of the organ-
white grubs and cutworms of various
insects, principally
kinds. Studies
great
isms that are present can make a decision on a field opera-
the end of an outbreak of larch sawfly
at
tion only after a careful scouting of the field.

in the
Maritimes, showed that predators had destroyed 48 per
Temporary
cent of the sawfly cocoons. (The insect pupates in the ground
and forest
Small
litter.)
mammals caused
and insect predators caused the remainder. In areas where
by leaving
habitat for birds can be maintained
unmowed
grass or hay
half the mortality
until July 15
when most ground
nest-
ing birds have fledged their young.
sawfly cocoons have been abundant for several years, 40 to 50

per cent of the cocoons are generally destroyed by small
mammals.
In one area of
New
Weed
Brunswick, 80 per cent of
sawfly cocoons were opened by mammals.

Nocturnal webworm, cutworm and
ject to predation
from a very
Weed
armyworm moths
some
are sub-
Texas showed
that bats ate
huge bat colony
parasitic flies
and wasps. The elimination of host weeds
plus the possible toxicity of herbicides to the insect parasites
efficient night-flying insect
might cause an increase
predator, the bat. Unfortunately, bat populations have largely
declined. Recent studies of a
control
control practices have reduced the effectiveness of
in
crop damage. Complete abandon-
ment of field-edge weed control cannot be recommended,
in southern
however, because faster growing weeds crowd out desirable
115,000 kilograms of insects each
species.
night!
To achieve
the biological control potential of para-
sites that live there, a herbicide
Toads, frogs, salamanders and lizards are often overlooked as

insect predators, as are
which favors
mice and skunks. Examination of the
program must be developed
the continuous maintenance of field
margin
species.
droppings of skunks have shown that 85 per cent of their food

consisted of range caterpillar pupae. Similar figures occur for
other small to medium-sized
mammals.
Protect natural enemies from pesticides
Modem farming has created habitats for pests by
The amount of pesticide
establishing
to use in a
management program can
monocultures and by eliminating wildlife. Complete depen-
be based on the degree of pest control required
dence on chemicals for insect control
nomic
is
not a sound policy.
loss.
to prevent eco-
Other considerations are the readiness with which
Future pest management practices will have to rely on a vari-
the pest can be controlled
ety of methods.
the pest's food hosts
by
a reservoir of pests as
by natural enemies, destruction of
cultural methods, the
need
to maintain
food for natural enemies, and the con-
servation of natural enemies related to the entire crop and pest
A high level of control may only be necessary for a
Practices That Harm Beneficial Insects
complex.
Farmers with an understanding of the natural enemies of a
few, very destructive pests. Avoid the use of high dosages to
crop pest can attempt to provide the growing and overwinter-
overcome inadequacies of timing or coverage.
ing conditions required by them.
farming methods.
If a
They can
also avoid harmful
In
farmer knows that a pest overwinters in
the soil (as eggs, or pupae, for example) and that beneficial
enemies of the pest overwinter
in the crop trash, then
its
enemies. The solution
is to
the use of pesticides cannot be eliminated. If
chooses not to use pesticides, his farm
burning
their use.
or turning under the crop trash will likely free the crop pest
from
some cases
pesticides are in general use in the area then, even
may be
if a
farmer
affected
by
For these reasons a short section on protecting bene-
ficial insects
from pesticides
is
included here.
leave the crop trash in
Pesticides can increase pest
place until spring.
numbers - Pesticides can
inter-
fere with the natural control of secondary (non-economic)

Similarly,
insects)
when
and
crop pests are mobile (such as adult, winged
their
enemies are
and primary
not, then harvesting destroys the
beneficial insects while the pest insects simply
move and
infest another crop. In this instance, strip harvesting is prefer-
able.
The crop
is
harvested in alternate strips and
harvested. This
method
is
the opposite effect
from
Avoid harmful cultural practices

a valuable part of pest
practices such as plowing, discing,
must be
fully evaluated,
nated or modified
if
to control pests in
When DDT was
One of the most
from California where

1946 and 1947.
DDT
A ladybug, the
introduced, the beneficial vedalia
by the sprays, while cottony-cushion

primary pest in the orchards) were not. Serious
were
scales (the
management, but
killed
outbreaks of scale resulted.
mowing and burning can
A secondary pest, red-banded leaf roller, rose to economic
be harmful to beneficial insects. The effects of such operations
that intended.
this is
control of cottony-cushion scale (a relative of aphids) on

citrus.
is
dust or spray, insecticides can have
vedalia beetle, had long provided outstanding biological
particularly useful in alfalfa.
beetles
Cultural control
examples of
was used
re-growth of the harvested strips occurs, the final strips are
Whether organic or inorganic, stomach

oil,
striking
when some
pests.
poison or dormant
levels after various organic insecticides
and harmful practices elimi-
codling
possible. For example, burning or burial
27
moth and
were used against
other apple pests. In this case, the natural
amount of
enemies of the pest were destroyed by pesticides.
a pesticide to use, consider the potential for control
by natural enemies or
Most
insecticides are toxic to insect predators and parasites as
when
well as (or sometimes even more so than) the pests. Therefore,

it
if
important to modify or eliminate pesticide treatments to
is
on beneficial
minimize
their effects
two ways
to use insecticides selectively to
There are
insects.
at least
conserve natural
need
Use
Use an
only to certain insect pests.
Many
had a
chewing mouth
mouth
parts such as aphids
overcome
to
populations, and the conservation of natural
used for immature stages of insect pests.
and
parts. Predators, parasites
insects with piercing-sucking
enemy
Reduce pesticide dosages - Reduced dosages
degree of selectivity. The arsenicals, for example, killed

insects with
High dosages may be required
pests.
enemies themselves are important pest management concepts.
insecticide that is toxic
early insecticides
pesticides only
maintain a reservoir of pests as food to maintain the
to
natural
-
Use
than the value of the crop lost
were not used. Control may be necessary for only
pesticides
few key
is less
inadequate timing and coverage, or pesticide resistance. The
enemies.
selective insecticides
cultural methods.
the cost of their use
per chemicals
and
may be
commonly
are
Common grasshop-
registered for application at one-third to
two-thirds of the adult rate. Applying these reduced dosages
leafhoppers were not killed. Although chlorinated insecticides
the
were
adult stage, will produce poor results. Information
considered to be effective against virtually
at first
types of insects,
it
was
later
found
that
were
several other chlorinated insecticides
Toxaphene, for example,
is
DDT,
all
toxaphene, and
mixed-farm
ture,
Some newer
and pollinators are more seriously affected.
on optimal
management program.
insecticides have selectivity. Systemic materials

belts,
insects and preserve beneficial insects.
no longer
it
short-lived materials, such as
TEPP,
Once demeton
kills
with a blend of crop land in rotation, pasareas, encourages
not varied, then shelter-
hedgerows and some permanent grass areas
is
in headland;
of insects to remain nearby.
A diverse plant community pro-
vides predators with needed hosts and other sources of food,
are highly toxic to the
However,
is
and near water sources will encourage predators and parasites
by contact. Some
active insect stage at the time of application.
habitat,
woods, some wetland and other natural
a diversity of species. If the terrain
such as demeton (Systox) can be used to control harmful
absorbed by plant foliage,
crucial to any pest
Maintenance of diversity
The farmer interested in stabilizing an insect pest problem
should manage the enemies of pests as well as the pests. A
are generally less selective, however, and preda-
tors, parasites
a1
of the population has reached the
quite selective.
synthetic organic insecticides kill insects through
They
is
when most
not highly dangerous to honey
various combinations of contact, ingestion and fumigant

action.
time,
spray timing
bees.
The new
wrong
overwinter sites and refuges. Diversity and stability in nature
insect
go hand
in hand.
eggs and pupae, and transients such as pollinators not in the

field during spraying, are frequently unaffected. Several
Maintain natural wild flowering plants and grasses, along with
of the
and bushes
in areas surrounding the crop. Plantings of
organophosphates can also be selective. Trichlorfon (Dylox)
trees
can be used
native wild flowers and grasses are especially beneficial
tively little
bugs and
to control lygus
harm
to predators
caterpillars
with rela-
because they are adapted to our climate and growing condi-
and pollinators.
tions
Use selective application methods

selective
may
Insecticides can be
made
fo:
by changing the application method. Such changes
take into account the activity patterns of insects.
insecticide labels
now
So-called waste or wild areas need not be altered, cultivated
Many
controlled, as long as they are not
advise that spraying in the evening will
insect pest.
lessen the impact on honeybees because most will have
to advantage.
Wheat bran laced with
combination of insecticide and pathogen
is
Some
dominated by
tolerance of low levels of pests
weed
is
oi
or
advised
because without pests, there will not be a breeding area for
may
returned to their hives. Insects have food preferences that
be used
and provide a season-long source of pollen and nectar
beneficial insects.
natural enemies.
insecticide or a
effective for
grasshopper control. Not only do grasshoppers readily eat the
poisoned bran bait but less chemical
same
left
control as spraying
is
needed
Provision of food and shelter for
to achieve the
would provide. Beneficial
natural enemies
The maintenance of diverse
insects are
unharmed.
Thus, timing of application, dosage and formulation can be
However, changes
in
to
use patterns do not insure that
pesticides are favorably selective.
ticular
enemies
in another.
Each material must
fit
ly necessary to
compensate for the reduced
dosages are reduced
Use pesticides
to
killing
greater parasitism of tent caterpillar

in
Ontario orchards
compared with orchards containing few flowers.

usual-
power
as
avocado brown
when pollen was dusted on the plants but did not control
pest when pollen was omitted. Thus the planting or main-
In California, a predatory mite controlled the
achieve selectivity.
prevent economic loss
was
were not sprayed and had many nectar producing flowers,
the paris
mite
the
to
that there
eggs and pupae and codling moth larvae

that
needs of the agro-ecosystem. Improved timing
is
provide a plentiful and continuous source of pollen. Studies
have shown
A treatment may have desir-
able selectivity in one situation and be highly toxic to important natural
some
One
practices that aid the predators and parasites of insects.
modified for improved selectivity of even broad-spectrum pesticides.
plantings on the farm helps pro-
vide food and shelter for beneficial insects. There are
In deciding the
tenance of native wild flowers and grasses can be beneficial to
28
the predators and parasites of pest insects. Vegetables and
weeds of the parsley family
are particularly useful for attract-
ing beneficial insects. Flowers of carrots, anise,
dill,
parsley,
coriander, parsnips and wild parsnips attract beneficial wasps.
Willow
trees provide an early source of pollen in the spring.
As well
as pollen-producing flowers, plantings of seed
and
berry producing trees and bushes are helpful. Currant bushes,
Nanking cherry bushes, crab apple

mountain ash
trees,
cover and food for insects, small

sites,
trees,
and caragana hedges
Manitoba maple or
all
provide protective
mammals and
birds.
Nesting
drinking water, bushes and undisturbed grass can
encourage the buildup of a bird population.

It is
possible to provide artificial food and shelter for benefi-
cial insects.
Although
it
is
not yet
common practice, some
agrologists are using artificial food supplements sprayed
on
crops to encourage the population growth of beneficial insects.
These sprays are often sugar or molasses based.

Artificial shelters
can be provided for bats and birds. Bats help
control night-flying moths, such as millers,
other predators.
The
litde
brown
which have few
bat, native to Alberta,
can be
enticed to roost in artificial shelters near a water supply,
although
it
may
take the bats several years to accept the shel-
ter.
Bird boxes will boost the bird population. The right type,
size
and dimension of bird box should be used because birds
have varied needs in housing. Most government wildlife

departments have information on shelters and houses for birds
and
bats.
29
FIELD SCOUTING
Field scouting
is
you must know where they
pests,
how
and
live,
To
what they look
on specific
pests.
is
provided
Field
A combination of basic scoutmake sound
to collect the information required to
management
decisions.
When
scouting,
you can
pest
also assess
whether your management strategies are working, or
commonly
associated with pests and pesticide
in recording
your observations.
like,
ing procedures and a good knowledge of pest biology allows
you
are
damage. Use them
properly scout for
and count them. This information
to find
in the sections
symptoms
the regular examination of fields in a pre-
scribed fashion to measure pest levels.
in
them-
symptoms
spotty growth
yellowing
browning
loss of vigor
stunted growth
thin stand
differences due to topography
kinked
lodged
poor germmation
selves, causing problems.
Leaf symtoms
Why Scout
Field scouting
unusual color
cupped
loss of leaves
rolled leaves
an economically and environmentally sound
crinkled
feathered
management decision-making. No good
pViPwincr
Fields
is
prerequisite to pest
achieved by treating a pest where damage

the other hand, treatment
when
the
is
damage
insignificant.
is
only collect the information needed to
make
Dioicneu
stripped
is
Flower and fruiting symptoms
A farmer can
timely manage-
ment decisions by regular scouting. Regular scouting
<;r>nttpfl
is
On
too far along
economically and environmentally irresponsible.
<;ian<;
also pre-
vents unnecessary treatments and reduces the uncertainty
wilted
deformed
improper arrangement
missing
branched
delayed development
clipped
aborted
associated with pest management.
Stem symptoms
Scouting Timetable
The
table
on the next page shows when various pests
to Alberta
common
twisted
kinked
broken
elongated
shortened
cracked
swollen
spotted
can normally be found and treated.
abnormal
punctured
tillers
rotten
Scouting Frequency
Root symptoms
Scouting should be done weekly during the growing season

inhibited
tunnelled
rotten
swollen
and even daily when infestations approach economic levels or

weather conditions favor rapid development of specific pests.
With some
is
plant diseases, daily scouting
warm and humid. With weeds,
most
critical
is
necessary
competition
is
when
chewed
it
normally
during the seedling stage, but this can vary with
The Tools Needed
the species.
for Scouting
The following items should be assembled
in a carrying case
for field use:
What
When
Look for
to
scouting you should note
insects that
you
find.
You want
affect this year's crop
all
clipboard
sampling frame (0.25 m2)
record sheets
alcohol
tweezers
clear plastic bags
the pests and beneficial
to detect
problems
that will
and future crops so you can make short-
and long-term pest management decisions. For example, you
want
to detect a high population
action, but
you
can keep the
also
want
to detect a
low
level of cleavers so
field in a cereal rotation to clean-up the
Assess the overall appearance of the
field,
for signs of
damage by
you
problem.
then examine specific
plants including seed heads, stems, leaves and roots. Cut
open and check
lOX hand
paper bags
hand trowel
sweep
pocket knife
sieve
vials
labels for identification
flagging tape
of grasshoppers so you can take
insects
them
lens
resource material
net
and diseases.
Use
these tools to collect samples, and to record, examine, and
Besides the pests themselves, you should watch for typical dam-
preserve them for reference or identification by your local dis-
age symptoms that are caused by pests and pesticides. These
trict agriculturist,
symptoms
You will
may
are not exclusive to pests and control products but
be caused by environmental and
soil factors.
The following
find
all
agricultural fieldman or provincial laboratory.
these items are essential
hands and knees with a pest
30
in
when you
are
you hand and no where
on your
to put
it.
31
tern can
Sampling square
A sampling square can be made

form three sides of a square.
area of a crop for sampling.
bright color and
if
It is
The rod should be sprayed

it is
Pattern
easy to find
When
m^ is used as a
m^ sampling square
placed or dropped in a crop. Generally 0.25
sampling
a 150
area.
cm
sided so
To make
length of wire
it
a three sided 0.25

is
required.
The square
is
may
by where you
it.
used when pests are uniformly distributed
also be influenced
where you leave
enter the field and
used to mark out a specific
marked with flagging tape so
change depending on the time of year. Which scout-
ing pattern you select
from 1/4" iron rod bent to
scouting for pests with this type of distribution, the sam-
pling sites should be evenly distributed across the field exclud-
ing obvious influencing factors such as field edges, hills and
only three-
Solonetzic are^s. These patterns typically look like an X, Y,
can be slipped into a standing crop parallel to the
or Z. Pests that
ground rather than dropped down through the canopy.
fit
this pattern include
stinkweed, wild oats,
diamond-back moth, bertha armyworm,
leaf diseases, aphids,
root maggots, alfalfa weevil, corn borer, and lygus bugs.
50
cm
50
Number
of
cm
samples
Follow the sampling procedure described in the pest specific

write-ups that follow. In situations where the exact sampling
procedure
is
Pattern
not provided use the following rule of thumb:
In fields of less than
Use
100 acres, check a minimum of five
fit
this pattern
thistle,
In fields of greater than 100 acres, check a
minimum
with specific high, low,
wet, dry, Solonetzic and high organic matter areas. Pests that
locations.
used when pests are unevenly distributed
II
this pattern for pests associated
of 10
included redbacked and pale western cutworm,
quackgrass, root rot and tansy. If scouting for pests that
inhabit specific types of habitat, the sampling should be con-
locations.
centrated in those areas.
Scouting Patterns
Scouting gives a representative, objective assessment of the
pest situation in a
or low areas.
whole
not just in the edge, centre, high
field,
The shape of the
field, its
ease of access, and the
nature of the pest's typical distribution pattern

in deciding
how
to scout a field.
organic matter or soil structure
Other
may
all
field variables
affect the
Profile of Field (Side
play a part
weed
such as
Pattern
species in
Use
View)
used when pests are
at
edges
of fields
the following pattern for pests that are expected to appear
different parts of a field.

at field
edges
first.
Sample those
pests
by walking
in the field
There are several possible scouting patterns that can be used
edges, fence lines or ditches. Pests that
when
flea beetles, grasshopper, red turnip beetle, scentless
scouting fields. These options are based on various pest
distribution types
In
some
more
and
instances,
it
may be
necessary to combine two or
patterns. This is especially true
uniform,
little is
chamomile, tansy and Canada
field configurations.
known about
when
the field
is
f X
fit
this pattern include
thistle.
-X
X ^
very
the pest, or a control decision
is
being contemplated but you are not totally confident in a sampling program.
make
A thorough sampling allows a producer to
a sound decision, and perhaps save
For example, wild oats are generally throughout a

flea beetles, or
money.
h
field
.4
X ^
X
1
while
Basic Information to Aid
grasshoppers are most prevalent along field
in
Scouting
A scout should be familiar with stages of the crop and weeds
margins. With flea beetles and grasshoppers, the scouting pat-
and should be able
32
to assess
what percentage of leaf material
is
infected by disease or
consumed by
insects.
known
The following
low
charts provide this reference material.
pest
weeds and
detect
new weeds
from becoming an economic concern.
The Feekes and Zadoks

relatively
stages
growth stages of a
scales define the
detection of a
will
be influenced greatly by
establish the
until freeze-up.
may take 5 or 6
may be completed in 2-3 weeks.
Frequently,
at
In
some
very
them
cases, early
eradication possible.
level of
random sample of plants and
may be needed
is
for determining the
uneven and
soil
future risk
Each
weed
field usually
low
growth stage when
Precise timing of the application of an agrochemical, be
it
ent, is
of vital importance in maximizing the desired effect
on the
target crop.
from problem weeds
left
uncontrolled.
Detailed counts of the numbers of weeds per square metre
provide the ideal record of a weed problem.
moisture levels are low.
application based
scouting patterns must be used since
all
areas and field margins or ditches to assess immediate or
fungicide, growth regulator, herbicide or supplemental nutri-
An
and continue
requires a pattern for a uniform sample and samples in
deter-
growth attained by the majority of the
Under good growing conditions, examination of up to

may be appropriate. Larger sam-
germination
in the field
Record stages of growth of both broad-leaved and
habitat can be very species specific.
10 randomly selected plants

ples
be
grassy weeds and the numbers per square metre of each weed.
growth stage of a cereal crop using either of
these scales, collect a
plants.
weed can make
Begin scouting as soon as weeds appear
soil
example, stages 2-5 in the Feekes scale
weeks, whereas stages 6-10
mine the
may
uniform cereal crop. Completion of these growth
by the cereal crop
temperature, moisture, air temperature and day length. For
To
that
levels so action can be taken to control or prevent
sible, the
following rating system
Group
Wild
may be
If this is not
pos-
useful:
wild buckwheat, lamb's-
oats, stinkweed,
quarters, redroot pigweed, hemp-nettle, smartweed, rape, wild
mustard, Russian
upon physiological
thistle, tartary
buckwheat, cow cockle,
shepherd 's-purse, kochia.
growth stage, and not farming practices based on calendar
1-10 plants/m^
Basic
Medium
Heavy
10-30 plants/m^
30 or over plants/m^
Light
days, will ensure the best result from the agrochemical.
Weed Scouting
The goal of weed scouting
is to
assess the infestation level of
CEREAL GROWTH STAGES

ZADOKS DECIMAL GROWTH STAGES
12 21
22
23-29
Two
One
Leaf
30
Leaf
Tillers
sheaths
formed
strongly
erect
37
32
31
begins
sheaths
lengthen
45
50-51
Second
node
Ligule of
Flag leaf
First ears
detectable
just
visible
58-59
Ripening
just
visible
Leaf
Tillering
39
Flag leaf
First
node
just
detectable
visible
33
ears
out of
All
Boots
swollen
sheath
Group
II
Chickweed, green
foxtail,
Light
Medium
1-20 plants/m2
20-70 plants/m^
Group IH Canada
-
com
spurry.
Heavy
thistle, sow-thistle,
dandelion
Light
Medium
Heavy
1-2 plants/m^
2-10 plants/m^
These definitions can be used
With experience,
to help standardize ratings.
infestations can
be visually estimated. These
groupings are based on the competitive characteristics and
life
180 sweep.
Typical 90 sweep.
cycles of these weeds.

Individual leaves, especially the top ones, should be examined
for presence of insects
The
objective of scouting for insects
is to
insects present in your fields, determine
may become
a decision
a problem,
eases can be assessed
leaf
identify the
which ones
sheath for the insect and
and assess numbers and damage so
plants.
at the
damage. With insects such as
the leaf sheath and flag leaf.
are or
on action can be made. This means sampling
and examining
insects
and assessment of damage
in addition to
sweeping. The following illustration will help you to estimate
Basic Insect Scouting
as
for
little
its
thrips, the
Examine
damage
is
done
to
the entire leaf and the
scrapping damage. Disturb the leaves
as possible to prevent insects
from
falling off the leaves.
Often both insects and dis-
same
time. This
may
vary
depending on whether you are sampling just when seedlings

are
emerging or when the plants are 10
the
first
cm
tall.
Cutworms
in
case would be very small and difficult to find but
large and easy to find in the second case. For details about
specific sampling techniques for pest insects, refer to the section
5%
of the leaf area removed
10%
on insect species.
Foliage
damage
Very mobile
by
number per square metre. Less mobile
such as armyworms and webworms, are shaken
insects such as grasshoppers are counted
estimating the
insects,
20%
30%
40%
50%
from the plants onto the ground and counted. This provides
cm X
an accurate quantitative assessment of insects per 50
50
cm
of crop. (Multiply by 4 to determine pests/m-).
For insects such as lygus bugs and beneficial insects, calculate the insect
numbers per sweep with a sweep net
sampling technique. Since
many
insects are very
as the
mobile or
small and difficult to see, the sweeping technique
is
very
Seed head and pod damage
useful.
When
A sweep is made by swinging the net at arms length through

the crop
is little
canopy so the top of the net
canopy or the crop
One sweep can be

Take two
activity
At
either a
steps forward
is at
crop height.
If there
short, sweep close to the ground.

90 or 180 pass through the crop.
only leave signs of

fa,
between sweeps so the sweeping
the end of the sweep,
in
is
swing the net quickly back and
Quickly grab the bag about 15
to confine the insects
to
the seeds.
With canola or
is
alfal-
opened. This
frequently caused by lygus bug.
Stem damage
20
cm from
the
Look
bottom
for puncture
stem from top
and prevent escape.
number of sweeps per sample. Count

the insects in the net as you let them escape, or empty them
into a plastic bag or bottle. The counting system you adopt
will
damage on
you may find seeds shrivelled when a pod
insects such as
Always
Open
your next sweep.
forth through the air to force the insects to the bottom of the
net.
insects.
seed pods to examine seeds. Insects such as the lygus bug
is
does not influence the catch
crops are in seed, always examine the surface of the
head or pod for sign of feeding or puncture by
take a consistent
to
marks on the stem
surface, then split the
bottom. Examine the inside of the stem for
wheat stem maggot or wheat stem sawfly. Also
examine the stem

such as Hessian
right at the root
fly
crown
for signs of insects
pupae.
depend on how well and quickly you can identify the
insects in your net, the
number of species present and
Root damage
the total
number of specimens.
Always dig up
34
the roots, clean
away
the soil and look for
cutworms and maggots.
insects such as
examine the
cases,
soil will
you may have
depend on the
around the
soil
How carefully
plants to find the causative agent.
of
If there are signs
damage, but no insects are present, sieve the
you must
some
size of the insect. In
to thinly spread the soil
on a black
plastic
garbage bag to find the pest.
Basic Disease Scouting

Whenever
scouting, be aware that
may be caused by
problems
herbicides and soil problems. In
symptom
symptoms of plant disease
weather,
fertilizers, deficiencies,
many
cases, the cause of the
not obvious. Very close examination and a labora-
is
tory culture or analysis are required to confirm the causal

agent. Basic examination techniques
and
details for specific
diseases are given in the section on specific plant diseases.
Root sampling
If there are
no obvious symptoms on
randomly and look for lesions or
Always check
sary to
wash
rots
plants,
plants that appear unhealthy.
the roots with water to
examine plants
on roots and stems.

It is
often neces-
examine them properly.
the roots are well developed, cut into
them
to
If
examine the
roots for internal infections.
Leaf sampling
Examine
all
leaves and sheaths on each plant for lesions and
determine the amount of leaf infection. Leaf diseases cause
most damage during the seedling and flowering stages of plant

growth.
Stem and head sampling

Carefully examine the stems, heads and pods of plants for
signs of fungal material or lesions.
should be
split or
The stems, pods and heads
taken apart and examined for discoloration
caused by fungi and bacteria.
35
WEED CONTROL
Planning
required to achieve
is
optimum weed
control at the
lowest cost. The following factors must be considered:
equipment and labor
availability of
types of weeds present
soil
extent of the infestation
Use in-crop herbicide treatments when annuals

seedlings where appropriate.
Use pre-seeding
are
Follow
tillage to stimulate germination.
with weed destruction during the seeding process.
type
Rotate the land to perennial crops.
Biennials- These
weeds require from 12
to
24 months
to
com-
and foliage are
plete their life cycle. In the first year a taproot
produced. The root overwinters and the shoot produces flow-
cropping system
other environmental conditions.
ers
and seeds
in the spring. Biennials are controlled
by
fall
or
spring tillage or with timely treatment with an appropriate herbicide.
Because these factors cannot always be predicted, the strategy
must be
weed
flexible.
With increased production of fall sown crops and reduced
This section describes general principles of
control, followed
tillage, biennial
by guidelines for control of specific
weed populations have
increased.
Examples
are scentless chamomile, stork's-bill, and narrow-leaved
weeds.
hawk's-beard. Biennials can also be a problem in perennial

forage crops or anywhere tillage cannot be used.
Weed
Biology
To develop
Perennials- These weeds persist for more than two years and
control methods, the biology of
weeds must be
have either fleshy tap
understood. The main strategies in controlling annual weeds are

to
prevent seed production and reduce the number of
seeds in the
is
soil.
weed
throughout the season. Fleshy rooted perennials reproduce
With perennials, destruction of the root system
the key to control.
logical differences
Weed
mainly by seed. Creeping-rooted perennials grow
control techniques exploit the bio-
between
the crop
weaker phases of the weed's
and spread both by seed and
Perennial weeds are less of a problem

in the rotation than
ly.
Life cycles
or
and then
die.
Examples
Summer annulate summer
are wild oats, kochia
when
fallow
included
is
crops are grown continuous-
Under continuous cropping, creeping-rooted perennial

perennial sow-thistle, quack-
thistle,
become problems. These weeds can also

weak perennial crops. To control perennial
grass and toadflax,
be problems in
germinate in the spring, produce seed during

fall,
when annual
weeds, such as Canada
and control strategies
Annuals- There are two types of annual weeds.

als
in patches
roots.
and the weed and use the
cycle to assist with control.
life
roots, as in dandelions, or creeping root
systems, as in Canada thisde. Both root systems store food
weeds, two possible strategies can be implemented: prevent
and green
seed production and deplete the food reserves in the roots.

foxtail.
Repeated mowing, cultivation and treatment with an approWinter annuals germinate

rosettes that overwinter
in late
summer
or
fall,
produce
are stinkweed, flixweed and shepherd's-purse.
summer
Examples
help to achieve control.
Occasional light tillage will break up and scatter root
Some weeds
annuals.
Because annual weeds reproduce only by seed, control

ple. Kill the plants
may
and continue growth early the follow-
ing spring. Seeds are produced in the early summer.
are both winter and
priate herbicide
pieces and produces
new
mowing throughout
a season will strain the root energy
infestations. Intensive tillage or
reserves of the weeds. Timing of tillage

is
reserves are generally low from the end of
before seed production occurs and encour-
age seed germination
when
the
is critical.
simJuly (see diagram). Tillage or
weeds can be controlled and
will cause
do not affect the crop. Most seedlings are easily destroyed by
new
mowing
at the
by the tendency of these weeds
to
grow and mature
Winter annuals often flower before

melted.
The
life
cycle of annual
the spring
all
more energy than
is
is
similar to that of
reserves.
annual crops: they germinate, grow and produce seed along
mid-
May
new growth
uses
produced so the overall food reserves
are diminished. After three to four weeks, the
should be
weeds
end of
quickly.
snow has
Food
until
shoots to emerge from dormant buds and
the stand will appear thicker. This flush of

either cultivation or herbicides. This strategy can be thwarted
May
weed
stand
mowed or tilled again, further depleting the root

Weed control is accomplished by gradual starva-
tion of the root system.
The timely
substitution of one or
with the crop.
more of
The following
controls are
recommended:
Till the inter-row area in
Use
a harrow or rod
row
weed
weeds emerge before
the tillage operations with a herbicide treatment
could achieve a similar result without increasing the risk of

soil
degradation and erosion.
crops.
set for a
shallow
tillage
Fleshy-rooted perennials can be controlled by
when
the tap root
the crop.
is
fleshy-rooted perennial
36
tillage.
When
cut off the top growth will starve. Controlling
weeds
is difficult
in perennial crops.
Often the only option
is to
Summer
destroy the stand.
fallow
or annual crops should follow perennial crops until the

are controlled. Control of perennials
mowing
limited to
may be
on roadsides
or spraying. Perennial
weeds
is
Weed and crop interactions

New weed problems evolve along with new
weeds
usually
in pasture
increased in winter wheat. Without
by mowing, spraying and grazing. Sheep

use weeds as browse. Over-grazing is the main
controlled
and goats will
factor responsible for the presence of perennial

tures. Rotational
weeds
proliferate. Perennial
weeds
new
winter annuals
fall tillage,
weed populations have
increased under
continuous cropping systems. Without tillage or timely appli-
in pas-
become well
cations of herbicides, perennial root systems
grazing systems are helpful in preventing the
increase of perennial
crops and
cropping practices. For example, winter annual weeds have
established.
in pastures.
The farmer's defense
against
new weed problems
is
to contin-
ue rotating the crops and control measures on a particular par-
Time
of germination
Germination of weed seeds
cel of land.
is
moisture, depth of burial and
Knowing
the date of
influenced by temperature,
dormancy of
emergence of weeds
oilseeds,
the seed.
is
Crop
row
in a pre-determined
helpful for
among
rotation involves shifting
cereals,
crops, perennial forages and winter annual crops
manner. Volunteer crops are weeds
because they compete with the seeded crop and reduce yields.
scheduling cultivation, seeding, and spraying.
Volunteer crop seed can usually be encouraged to germinate
by shallow
fall
or spring tillage. In a dry
fall,
leave the seed on
or near the soil surface, exposed to the elements. In spring,
Time
of flowering
Knowing approximately when a weed will flower enables
you to control the weed or harvest the crop before viable
seed is produced. Weeds produce viable seeds are at vary-
surviving seed can be stimulated to germinate by tillage.
second
tillage
with or just before seeding will destroy most of
the volunteer crop seedlings.
ing stages of plant maturity, depending on the species.
Choosing Weed Control Measures

Table 15. Percentage of seeds germinating from weeds cut at
General considerations
various stages of maturity
Thorough weed control requires planning.
Bud stage
In
flower
Dead
strategies for controlling specific
ripe
It is
difficult to plan
weeds without
interfering
with the control of other weeds, insects or plant diseases.
Sow thistle, common
100
100
common
35
90
Groundsel,
Dandelion
91
Canada
38
thistle
Derscheid,
and R.
A.,
E. Schultz. 1960.
Weeds
Conflicts in recommendations occur and priority must be
given to controlling the major pests.
Economics
8(1):55-62.
Economic threshold
densities are defined as
which the cost of weed control equals
Sow
thistle
viable seeds were detected

plants
when the weed is in flower. No

when Canada thistle and dandelion
seeds are viable
were cut
greater crop yield

trol
when weeds
weed
densities at
the cash return
are controlled.
from the
At times, con-
of weeds does not pay.
in the flower stage.
Consider the crop stand and the time of emergence of weeds
compared with the crop,

the
Seed dormancy
Dormancy enables weed seeds
the soil without germinating.
dormant
state
Weed
Dormancy
is
ing,
ally
alive in the soil is called
Knowing
after the crop.
As
a rule of
a 2.5 per cent advantage if the
have minimal effects on the yield of competitive crops
When
the crop stand
is
poor,
greater yield losses.
What are the
seed longevity. Longevity of weed seeds varies with
rotations.
weeds emerge
such as barley, wheat and canola.
weeds cause
species.
the
Late flushes of weeds such as green foxtail and stinkweed usu-
freezing and thaw-
and dry-wet cycles.
The length of time seeds remain
control. If
crop emerges before the weed.
broken naturally by the effects of

salts, alternate
if
emerges before the crop and
and will not ger-
minate even though conditions of temperature and moisture

are ideal.
economics of weed
thumb, expect a 2.5 per cent loss for every day the weed
seeds in the primary

soil
in the
get ahead of the crop, a greater yield loss can be
expected than
to survive for long periods in
can remain alive in the
micro-organisms, acids,
weeds
distribution, density
and weed species
in the
infestation? Estimate these by walking through the field
the longevity assists in planning crop
and randomly counting and identifying the weeds present.
For example, green foxtail seeds live for one to
The more counts made,
four years. A perennial forage crop grown for four years

would deplete most green foxtail seed reserves. Proper
weed control measures must be carried out to prevent re-
mation. This approach
the
is
more accurate
will be the esti-
most meaningful where strong
competitors such as Canada thistle and wild oats
predominate.
infestation of the soil.
37
in dry areas is of greatest concern. In these cases, tillage
What is the likely crop yield loss caused by the weeds?

Crop yield losses caused by some weeds are known and are
given under the individual
weed
for
Estimates on yield losses from other weeds can be based on
control
One way
weed problems.
past
weed
may
not be feasible and alternatives
should be considered.
listings in this publication.
to
compensate for moisture loss
is to
increase
moisture capture by managing winter snowfall, which con-
25 per cent of yearly prairie moisture. Standing
stitutes
What is the cost of the weed control measures? Calculate
straw strips used to trap snow increase soil moisture in the
these costs including fuel, labor, equipment, additional seed
and yield loss caused by delayed seeding or extra
spring.
tillage.
may leave soil exposed

To minimize this, leave as much
Erosion- Tillage that incorporates trash
How much of the lost yield will be recovered following control of
weeds? This
varies with the timing and
ness of control.
On
when
a control
method
is
wind and water
erosion.
plant residue on the soil surface as possible over winter.
effective-
Effective
average, assume about 85 per cent of the
recovered
lost yield is
method of
growing conditions and
control, the kind of crop,
to
weed
control with minimal trash disturbance can be
obtained with a rod weeder or a heavy duty or wide blade cul-
carried out.
A fall spraying operation can remove the need for any
tivator.
tillage operation.
What
is the
the crop
weed
is
market price of the crop? The market price of
Summer
an important factor in determining the value of
control.
The higher the market price, the greater

weed control will be economical.
fallow fields are particularly susceptible to erosion.
Tillage should be kept to the
the
should run
What
with
soil type, fertility
and climatic
factors.
you predict
As with
weed
What
is
to
maintain soil organic content as well
wind
ero-
Maintaining organic matter- The organic matter content of
the market price of the crop,
soils decreases
the higher the expected yield, the greater the likelihood

that
angles to the prevailing winds. Green
sion.
Records from previous years will help
yields.
of
strips
as reduce erosion. Shelterbelts will also help reduce
Average
yields for crops are available for the different soil zones
in the province.
at right
manure can be grown
expected weed-free crop yield? This varies
is the
minimum. Alternating
crop and fallow will help to minimize erosion. These strips
likelihood that
with
tillage.
Organic matter adds nutrients,
maintains soil structure and reduces the potential for soil
control will pay.
erosion.
To maintain
the anticipated use of the crop? In certain
or increase the organic matter content of a soil,
minimum. Fibrous-rooted
instances where the crop will be used for hay, silage or
keep
some weeds may not be detrimental.

It is even possible the weeds can be beneficial. In other
cases the presence of even a few weeds may degrade the
crop or make it unsalable. The choice of crop for each
perennial grasses contribute to soil organic matter. Green
feed, the presence of
field is thus
very important in determining the losses that
a particular
weed
The presence of
be serious
if
manure
weed
is
may
that is locally prevalent

is
delivered into the grains handling system. That
weed can make pedigreed seed

in other regions not infested
crops, continuous cropping rotations and increased
Weed Management
being used for feed or
weed
that
not
Spring wheat and barley-
being
market for your crop makes a difference as
to
Specific Crops
Weed
by destroying as many weeds
same
species.
in
Cereals
populations
may be reduced
as possible before seeding. Early
spring tillage destroys winter annuals as well as annuals that
or forage crops unsalable
by
plants such as
levels of fertility will also help to build organic matter.
will cause.
the crop
tillage to a
A local
germinate early and perennial seedlings. This early
how much
aerates and
and which species of weeds are tolerable.
warms
the soil and brings
new
face. This will stimulate germination of a
weeds
that
may be
tillage also
seed near the sur-
second growth of
killed at or during seeding or through in-
crop spraying. Packing, shallow seeding (into moist
Conservation
So/7
banding
summer
a concern, tillage
fallow should be kept to a
manure crops can improve

capacity and
tal
is
may compensate
for
able increased crop competition.
and
Spring
and water holding
some of
The use of clean, plump,
dis-
tillage controls early
emerging weeds and encourages
germination of weed seeds. The flush of weeds that results
the detrimen-
will require a second tillage before seeding. Seeding
effects of tillage.
Loss of soil /no/S/re- Tillage causes moisture loss that
and
ease-free seed also increases crop vigor.
minimum. Green
soil tilth
soil)
competitive crop. Higher
than normal seeding rates in heavily infested fields will favor-
and water conservation- Several weed control praccan cause breakdown of soil structure, erosion, and
tices
loss of soil moisture. If erosion
fertilizer will establish a
tillage
may
is
can be performed
limited. Control is
in the
and
same operation when moisture
most effective under hot dry conditions.
reduce yield. Yield losses caused by uncontrolled weeds
Post-seeding tillage can be used on cereals in
must be weighed against the potential yield losses caused

by moisture reduction from tillage. Loss of soil moisture
the province.
some
areas of
Tillage in the late fall destroys rosettes of winter annual
38
If tillage is not feasible, herbicides
weeds.
Fall tillage severs the roots of perennial
them
tem
weeks
can be used. Tillage
encourages germination of some weed seeds.
in the early fall
weeds and exposes
anytime
straight
combining
is
useful
ture
adequate. Annual
is
weeds
weed germination
will be killed
annual weeds that germinate in the
fall
by
frost.
these crops
is critical.
control before establishing
weed
crop emer-
cm
tall.
first
Harrowing works
by 3,000
to
5,000 plants/acre. Increase the
seeding rate to compensate for this damage. Injury to sun-
A shallow pre-seeding tillage or an
application of a top killing herbicide destroys
after
warm days when the sunflower plants are slightly

Work across the crop rows. One harrowing reduces
best on
if
the plant stand
Weed
and occasionally even
after seeding
true set of leaves) until they are 15
wilted.
fall rye-
not always feasible.
have two true leaves (the cotyledon "leaves" plus the
will require a late fall
they are to be controlled.
Winter wheat and
sunflowers must
gent harrowing can be done from the time the crop seedlings
Winter
herbicide application or an early spring tillage
tillage, a fall
to
seedling sunflowers than a spike-toothed harrow. Post-emer-
mois-
if
seeded
planted very early and cultural
A flexible-tined harrow causes less damage to
gence.
if
season weeds can be cut before their seed matures. After
late
harvest a light tillage will increase
is
that is
is
For annual weed control, a sunflower crop can be harrowed
to deteriorate.
Swathing the crop rather than
Land
control before seeding
and thawing, ultimately causing the root sys-
to freezing
after seeding.
be clean because the crop
may
flower roots from harrowing
seedlings.
increase the incidence of
soil-borne root diseases.
Winter annual weeds cannot be controlled through in-crop

tillage,
but
some
herbicides. (See
Agriculture
species
may be
selectively controlled with
Forages
Crop Protection with Chemicals, Alberta
Food and Rural Development, Agdex 606-1).
Winter wheat and
fall
Established perennial forages are good competitors. However,

seedlings forages are susceptible to competition from weeds.
rye must be well established before
Forage crop establishment and maintenance are the keys
freeze-up to avoid winter injury. Crops that overwinter poorly

are poor competitors
and spring annuals.
and will have
little
Few weeds, however,
to
producing competitive stands.
or no effect on winter
can compete with a
good crop of fall rye or winter wheat.
To
ensure a competitive crop stand, clean seed should be
on
relatively weed-free land.
Seed should be planted
sown
into a
recommended rate and

when moisture conditions are favorable. Forages seeded without a companion crop
produce the best results in the long-term. However companion
crops should be used when soil erosion or soil crusts are problems. Although companion crops suppress weeds, they also
firm, well-prepared seedbed at the
depth. Seeding
Oilseeds
Canola and mustard- Cuhural weed control
in these crops is
important because appropriate herbicides are not always

available.
able, canola
Canada
now
Reduce seeding
avail-
ping
when you are attempting to control

and perennial sow thistle. Pre-seeding tillage
can be grown
thistle
best
done
in the spring
suppress forage seedlings and yield in subsequent years.
These crops should not be grown when perennial weeds are a

problem. However, with the range of herbicides
is
rates of cereals or flax
when companion
crop-
necessary; both methods will minimize the competition
is
from the annual crop.
destroys existing winter annual and grassy annual weeds.
Mow companion crops at a height just above the forage
The
seedling. This prevents smothering of forage seedlings and
compete with weeds can be
ability of oilseeds to
increased by encouraging rapid emergence of the crop. This
reduces production of weed seeds. Once established, forage
can be done by shallow, uniform seeding. Packing ensures
crops will compete better than most annual weeds. Old forage
good
stands
seed-to-soil contact and prevents excess moisture loss.
tive
may be
rejuvenated by fertilization, a reduction in graz-
ing pressure or use of appropriate herbicides.
Canola and mustard past the seedling stage are quite competi-
planted. This crop should be one in
Flax- Flax
selectively
is
a poor competitor.
removed from
Even though annuals can be
flax, their
the
weeks by
combined
tillage,
two
Weeds can reduce
to
seeding and packing opera-
limited
This operation controls weeds and provides a firm
yields. Fertilizer should
because broadcast
be banded for
cultivation
weeds
on
pulses.
is
possible.
rows and inter-row
Fababeans and peas are usually seed-
ed in solid stands, and therefore, require selective herbicidal
as well as the crop.
control.
Sunflowers- Sunflower seedlings are sensitive to competi-
Shallow harrow or rod weeder operations can be used
from perennial weeds. The main yield reducare caused by competition from weeds about four to six
tion, especially
tions
are registered
land. Field beans are generally seeded in
maximum
fertilizer applications benefit
pulse crop yields by up to 85 per cent.
number of herbicides
Consequently, seed pulse crops into practically weed-free
seedbed. Increasing seeding rates by up to 25 per cent can
effect
selective control of
Pulse crops
Early, shallow spring tillage should be followed in
improve flax
which
problem weeds can be practised.
on
clean land.
tion.
these methods
presence during the
seedling stage can severely reduce flax yields. Seed flax
three
If
are ineffective, the stand should be cultivated and another crop
with weeds.
weeds
39
after
crop seeding but before emergence.
to control
BLADDER CAMPION
Silene vulgaris
Vegetative
Reproduction from root pieces and severed crown pieces are the
secondary means of reproduction.
Competition
Bladder campion prefers undisturbed areas and proliferates in
perennial crops. Cultivate badly infested perermial crops, put
into annual crops
and
till
well for two or more seasons. Bladder
campion does not compete well
in healthy, cultivated crop
stands.
Management Strategy
is
the
key
to limiting the spread ol
bladder campion. Starvation through repeated tillage helps con-
weed
trol established
patches.
Tillage
Intensive cultivation or
mowing for two
seasons
is
required to
starve out bladder campion.
Pre-seeding tillage
Control
weed
seedlings that germinate
early in the spring with a shallow tillage before or at seeding
time.
Fall tillage
roots
below
Deep
the
cultivation with a disc will sever the
crown and leave
the plant in a
weed
weakened
state
for winter.
Rotation
Crop
it.
rotation will only suppress bladder campion, not eliminate
Do not put infested fields
because
Life Cycle
this
weed
good competition and allow
A tap rooted perennial spreading by seed and severed root
fallow
pieces.
is
into perennial forage production,
will proliferate if undisturbed. Cereals offer

for post-seeding tillage.
an effective control for
this
Summer
weed, but mowing rather
than tillage will lessen the risk of soil erosion. Annual crops cut
for greenfeed allow for
deep cultivation
in spring
be cut before the main flush of weed seeds are
Emergence
and
fall
or can
set.
Seedlings emerge from shallow depths throughout the growing

season.
Seeding
Shallow
Flowers appear from mid-June through
Seed cereals 7.5 cm deep if postDo not seed other crops on infested
to or at seeding.
seeding tillage
fall.
emerging shoots and seedlings should
tillage to destroy
be done prior
Flowers
is
required.
land.
Reproduction
Mowing
Seed
The main method of spread
are produced
the soil for
is
by seed. Large quantities of seed
from mid-July through
many
Repeated mowing of small patches of bladder campion in wastelands and perennial crops
fall.
Seed remains viable
in
years.
40
is
laborious but effective.
CANADA THISTLE
Cirsium arvense
Courtesy of DowElanco
Vegetative
New
roots,
weak
which develop from old
roots, continually replace
or dead roots. Horizontal growth
is
rapid and roots can
regenerate from small pieces. Begin control measures to starve

roots
when flowering begins
in early to
mid-June,
at the
low
point of food reserves in the roots.
Competition
Canada
thistle is
extremely competitive. However, established
perennial forages compete well, provided they are cut twice
each year. The following table shows estimated yield losses of

barley and canola caused by Canada thisde. Actual yield losses
may
vary from year to year depending on climatic condi-
tions.
Canada
percentage yield loss

Canola
thistle
Barley
perft2
0.5
16
30
41
50
58
Management Strategy
Root starvation
is
the key to controlling
Control of seed production
Control
Canada
thistle.
secondary.
is
Mechanisms
Life Cycle
Tillage
A perennial, reproducing mainly by horizontal roots and by
Summer fallow - The
seed.
controlling
Emergence
Shoots from horizontal roots appear on the
soil surface
around
Canada
principles of root starvation apply in
thistle in
sures must continue
when
Pre-seeding tillage
emerging
thistle
summer
the land
is
fallow. Control
mea-
cropped.
Tillage prior to or at seeding will cut
shoots and set them back slightly.
mid-April and continue to emerge throughout the summer.
Seeds germinate from
late
May
through to
Post-seeding tillage
fall.
by
Fall tillage
Flowers
Control of Canada
thistle is
not feasible
means.
this
Fall tillage
will increase otherwise.
is
important because food reserves
Begin
tillage
of annual crops as soon
Flowers appear in mid-June and continue into September.

as possible after harvest. If moisture conditions allow, repeat
tillage
when
shoots reach 10
cm
until freeze-up.
Reproduction
Seed
Rotation
Seed can be viable eight
to ten
Oilseeds and specialty crops generally do not compete well on
days after flowering. Fresh
seed will germinate readily or go dormant for up to three

years.
Although Canada
control should be
thistle is a prolific
aimed mainly
at
land infested with Canada
seed producer,
offer fall competition
Annual
vegetative reproduction.
and
41
if
thistle. Fall
and weaken
rye and winter wheat
late fall thistle infestations.
cereals can be used in rotation if they are planted early
land
is tilled in
the fall after cereals are removed.
Seeding
Early seeding allows cereals to compete better with Canada
thistle.
Seed perennial crops, such as
alfalfa
and crested
wheatgrass, slightly heavier than normal and into moist soils

to
encourage strong emergence.
Mowing
Mowing
is
effective
of erosion from
on summer fallow and eliminates the
tillage. If
done every three
risk
weeks from
to four
June through September, the weeds will become weakened.

Thistles die out eventually in perennial forages that are cut
twice or more each year.
Biological control
One
insect, the
lished
weevil Ceuthorhynchus
on Canada
thistle at
into the stems of the thistle

killing them.
However, the
compensate for
this
very slowly from
its
one
site in
litura,
Alberta.
has been estab-
The
larvae bore
and weaken the plants, sometimes

thistle plants
damage. C.
seems
to
release point and does not
be able
to
and spreads
litura increases
seem promis-
ing as a biological control agent.
A beetle, Lema cyanella, which feeds on the leaves of Canada

thistle,
has been approved for release in Canada.
been released
in Alberta
enough beetles
It
has not yet
because of problems in rearing
for release, but further attempts will be
made.
Other insects are being studied for possible biological control

of Canada
thistle.
CHICKWEED
Stellaria
media
grows only
ered
in bare patches, but seedling crops
when chickweed forms
Chickweed
is
a problem because
wrap around moving
can be smoth-
mat and covers them.

it
remains green and can
parts of harvest equipment. If weather
is
cool and wet, chickweed will grow on swaths and delay drying time and
make pick-up
difficult.
Management Strategy
The main
control strategies are prevention of seed production
and prevention of re-establishment

attention
must be given
to prevent
after cultivation. Special
growth and seed production
in late fall.
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
Summer fallow - Summer fallow

chickweed because there
tion. Till
is
encourages the growth of
no crop cover
immediately following the
weed and continue
to
till
first
to
provide competi-
emergence of chick-
with each subsequent flush. Tillage
must bury the chickweed or
it
will easily re-establish itself
by
rooting at the nodes on the stems.
Pre-seeding tillage
Life Cycle
An
nation of
annual or winter annual that reproduces by seed and stems
roots at
the nodes.
The winter annual form occurs only
in
should be
mild
weed
tilled
Early shallow tillage encourages germi-
seeds.
When
the seedlings
emerge the land
again and then seeded. Seeding will be
delayed by approximately 10 days and some surface moisture

climates.
will be lost.
is
not an effective
Emergence
control for chickweed since chickweed plants are dragged and
Two main
not buried and easily re-roots from stem nodes.
fall.
flushes of emergence occur, early spring and late
Sporadic emergence occurs through the summer.

Fall tillage
Fall tillage is important to control
would otherwise
result
Flowers
Flowers appear four
to five
weeks
after
set
when weeds
chickweed
that
seed or overwinter. The best control will
are buried and not allowed to re-root.
emergence. Flowers
open only for one day.
Rotation
Strong stands of perennial crops are beneficial in suppressing
chickweed. Annual crops, once established, can also effective-
Reproduction
ly suppress this
Seeds
spring and late
weed.
fall to
Summer
fallowing must be thorough in
keep chickweed growth
in check.
Seeds of chickweed are viable as soon as they are shed.

Buried seeds require light before germination can occur. Most
seeds germinate within three years after being shed, but
Seeding
deeply buried seed can survive for up to 60 years.
Increase seeding rates for chickweed infested land by up to 25
per cent to encourage crop competition. Seeding
Vegetative
Chickweed
loose
may be
delayed while waiting for the early spring emergence of
chickweed.
will root at the nodes of prostrate stems in moist,
soil.
Mowing
Close
Competition
Chickweed
ever,
is
not a strong competitor in established crops and
43
mowing will help to reduce seed set of chickweed; howmany prostrate plants will not be cut.
CLEAVERS
Galium sparine
From Weeds
of
Wyoming
Management Strategy
Prevent seed production, especially in canola fields, and
sow
clean seed.
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summer fallow - The number

by summer fallowing.
Till
of cleavers seed can be reduced
weed
flushes to shallow depths to
prevent seed production. Plants can re-root in moist

tillage is
most
effective under
Pre-seeding tillage
An early
mination of cleavers seeds.

before or
warm
soil,
shallow tillage encourages ger-
A second tillage, immediately
seeding destroys these seedlings. Seeding
at
delayed, however. If delayed seeding
crop early so that
it
so
dry conditions.
is
not possible,
may be
sow
the
gains a competitive advantage over
cleavers.
if
pre-seeding tillage
is
performed then
post-seeding tillage should not be necessary. Crops that are
seeded early
crop growth
may not benefit from post-seeding tillage because

may be too advanced before weed emergence is
complete.
Fall tillage
Fall tillage will
encourage cleavers seeds to ger-
minate and the seedlings will be killed by
frost.
Rotation
Life Cycle
An
Rotations that include
annual that reproduces by seed.
summer
fallow, cereals, and annual and
perennial forages should help minimize cleavers populations.
Winter annual cereals are especially
Emergence
The main
effective.
Do
not
grow
canola on land infested with cleavers because cleaning
flush of seedlings
is
in
cleavers seed from the crop
midspring with fewer seeds
is
very
difficult.
germinating throughout the summer.
Seeding
Spring seeding of land infested with cleavers should be either
Flowers
Cleavers flowers from June through August and seed
duced from August
is
very early or delayed until after
pro-
weed
seedlings emerge.
to freeze-up.
Mowing
Reproduction
Because of the prostrate growth form of cleavers, mowing
Cleavers produces large quantities of seed. They are difficult
not effective.
to separate
size.
from canola seed owing
to their similar
shape and
Cleavers seed becomes dormant in dry soil and can
remain viable for one
to three years.
Competition
Cleavers can be very competitive because
it
clings to crop
when growing towards light. The trailing plants can

become tangled in moving parts of harvest equipment. Seed
quality suffers when canola seed is infested with cleavers
plants
seed. Established forages
compete well with cleavers.
44
is
CORN SPURRY
Spergula arvensis
Competition
Corn spurry
light,
is
an aggressive competitor.
acid soils.
Growth
is
It
grows mainly on
very rapid and can smother emerg-
ing crops.
Management Strategy
Prevent seed production and encourage germination of existing seeds.
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summer fallow - Summer fallow badly

with a shallow
fall cultivation to
infested land and start
encourage germination. In
the next season each successive tillage should be deeper to
bring seeds to the surface to germinate. This system of control

will be effective provided there is moisture for seed germination.
Pre-seeding tillage
A shallow tillage should be made at or
prior to seeding.
cereals
if
Post-emergent harrowing
is
effective in
corn spurry emerges with the crop.
Fall tillage
Harrowing or shallow cultivation
in the fall will
encourage seeds to germinate and expose seedlings
Rotation
Summer fallow
seeded. This
is
to frost.
land infested with corn spurry before a crop
is
especially important before seeding perennial
forages because forage seedlings can not compete with corn

spurry.
Once
established, forages
compete well with corn
spurry.
Seeding
Clean seed, especially legumes and grasses,
Life
An
Cycle
requirement for preventing the spread of
annual that spreads by seed.
als are
harrowed
minimize crop
after
is
com
a fundamental
spurry. If cere-
emergence, seed deeper than normal to
injury.
Emergence
Main seedling emergence
is
in mid-spring
with sporadic emer-
Mowing
gence throughout the summer.
Mowing
will stunt corn spurry growth, but the shoots that are
cut will quickly re-grow.
Flowers
Flowers appear mainly from July to September.
Reproduction
Seeds are produced from
late July
through September. Seeds
remain viable for more than three years. Clover and grass seed
may
contain impurities of corn spurry seed.
45
cow COCKLE
Saponaria vaccaria
Competition
Cow cockle does not compete with established perennials but
does compete with annual crops.
lUanagement Strategy
is
crucial in the control of
cow
cockle.
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summer fallow -
Clean summer fallow is an effective control

weed because the seeds are only viable for a few
The first tillage should be made after the main flush of
for this
years.
weeds.
Pre-seeding tillage
Early, shallow tillage encourages
cockle seeds to germinate.

till
When
the
weed
cow
seedlings emerge,
and seed. Seeding will be delayed about 10 days and some
surface moisture will be lost.
tillage
if
seeding
is
delayed, post-seeding
should not be required. Post-emergent harrowing can
be done on cereals
Fall tillage
if
necessary.
Fall tillage will destroy existing
cow
cockle
seedlings and mature plants that have escaped.
Rotation
Perennial forages
reduce
cow
grown
for three to four years will greatly
cockle populations.
tive in controlling this
Summer
fallow
is
weed. Seed annual crops up
also effecto
25 per
cent heavier than normal to encourage a strong crop stand.
Do
not plant flax on infested land.
Seeding
Delayed seeding allows for spring
An
a problem only in the
Cow
Brown and Dark Brown
cow
flush of
cockle appears to be
normal
soil zones.
is in
Mowing
early spring.
flowers in late June and July.
Reproduction
is
produced
in late July
and August. Most seed germi-
nates the following year and the remainder germinates the sec-
ond
main
to ensure strong stands.
of weedy patches before seed set limits
populations.
Seed
tillage to control the
Annual crops may be seeded heavier than
Mowing
Emergence
Main seedling emergence
Flowers
Cow cockle
cockle.
year. All plant parts are poisonous, especially the seeds.
46
cow
cockle
DANDELION
Taraxacum
officinale
grow
in
many non-crop
and seed can
situations
distances. Instead, perennial forages should be
travel great
managed
to
prevent dandelions from becoming established.
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage

dandelions. Spring and
is
fall tillage
not necessary to control
destroys the roots beneath
the crowns.
Pre-seeding tillage
Deep
tillage to
10
cm will
lished dandelion taproots and destroy seedlings.

cultivator followed
by
after
trol
seeding
is
a rod
weeder works
sever estab-
A heavy duty
best.
Tillage to control established plants
not effective. However,
it
is
effective for con-
of dandelion seedlings in cereals. Should dandelion
seedlings be a problem, tillage can be done before or after
crop emergence.
Fall tillage
Deep
tillage to
10
cm will
delion taproots and destroy seedlings.
sever established dan-
A heavy duty cultivator
followed by a rod weeder generally works well.
Rotation
Fertilize
Life Cycle
ful,
and re-seed weak forage stands.
work
the forage crop
down and
If this is not success-
seed an annual crop.
A perennial, reproducing mainly by seed. New plants can
Healthy perennial forages in the rotation for three to five years
develop from severed root pieces.
will reduce dandelion seed quantities.
Most annual crops
compete well, as long as the crop stand
is
will
heavy and vigorous.
Emergence
Dandelion flowers appear throughout the growing season, but
Seeding
they are most abundant in spring.
Seeding should proceed as normal with heavy (+25%) seeding

rates for perennial crops. Cereals that require post-seeding
tillage
should be seeded deeper and heavier than normal.
Reproduction
Seeds are viable and ready for dispersal within two weeks of
flowering. Dandelion seeds can survive for
years in the
more than
Mowing
three
Mowing
soil.
the
Competition
Dandelions are mainly a problem
in
weak
forage stands.
Fertilization or renovation of the stand will help decrease dan-
delion populations. Dandelions do not compete well in

healthy, strong perennial crops. Dandelions are not usually a
problem
in annual crops that
undergo
tillage.
Management Strategy
is
not practical. Dandelions
47
is
not an effective control for dandelions,
low growth form of this weed.
owing
to
FIELD BINDWEED
Convolvulus arvensis
develop from rhizomes. Each piece of rhizome
starting a
new
capable of
is
plant.
Competition
Field
soil
bindweed competes poorly
moisture because of
for light but can
compete
extensive root system. This
its
for
weed
can cause severe yield reductions and, once established, can

cause crop lodging and can also interfere with harvest.
Fall rye, winter wheat, alfalfa
and crested wheatgrass compete
well with field bindweed.
Management Strategy
Pay special attention
this is a persistent
to preventive control
measures because
weed. Prevention of seed production and
root starvation are the
main control
strategies.
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
A tillage operation every three to four weeks
Summer fallow -
from June through September

tion for controlling field
seasons.
Use
is
the only non-chemical solu-
bindweed. This must be done for two
a combination of cultivation, crop rotation and
herbicides to control infestations of field bindweed.
Pre-seeding tillage
Till fairly
and delay shoot growth so
deep (10 cm)
to cut the roots
that the crop seedlings
have a com-
petitive advantage.
Life Cycle
A perennial that reproduces by seeds and root buds.
controlling field
Fall tillage
peak
Emergence
Seeds of
field
when day
Food reserves
in field
is
only effective for
in cereal crops.
bindweed roots are
in October. Cultivation at this time is risky
root pieces have a greater chance of survival
bindweed germinate throughout the growing
at a
because the
when
stored food
levels are high. If necessary, use herbicides at this time to
season, with peak germination in late spring. Shoot growth
begins
bindweed seedlings
weakening the plant and decrease
its
winter survival.
temperatures are near 14C and night tem-
peratures are at least 2C.
Rotations
Rotations should include competitive plants such as
Flowers
winter wheat, alfalfa and crested wheatgrass.
Field bindweed flowers from early July until freeze-up.
ages for pasture
when
the
weed
is
Do
fall rye,
not use for-
confined to isolated patches
because grazing causes the weed to spread. Seeds of field
bindweed can be spread
Reproduction
in the feces of livestock.
work down perennial crops when
the stand
Reseed or
becomes weak.
Seed
Seed
set is
enhanced by dry, sunny, weather. Seeds have a
Seeding
hard seed coat and can survive in the soil for 20 to 30 years.
Seed may not be produced by plants growing
Seeding as usual unless post-seeding
in frequently
tillage is required for
cereal crops.
cultivated soils.
Vegetative
Mowing
Seedlings produce a taproot, which quickly develops lateral
Seed production of field bindweed will be minimized when
roots.
Rhizomes develop from
this
root buds, and shoots then
48
ly
weed
is
cut with perennial crops. Prostrate plants general-
escape cutting.
FLIXWEED
Descurainia sophia
Competition
Overwintered rosettes are strong competitors because they
grow
rapidly in the spring and use valuable spring moisture
before fields can be worked. Spring-emerging flixweed

seedlings do not compete as well, especially in heavy crop
stands.
Flixweed can be a severe problem
in perennial for-
age crops grown for seed.
Management Strategy
The winter annual adaptation is the strongest survival
mechanism of flixweed. Crucial steps to control flixweed
include prevention of seed production and control of
fall
rosettes.
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
alone will not control
flixweed because seed remains viable in the

years. Infested land
as spring
and
need not be
fall tillage is
in
summer
soil for
many
fallow as long
performed and effectively
kills
the weeds.
Pre-sesding tillage
Tillage before seeding
is
crucial to
control flixweed. Regardless of the crop, shallow tillage
before seeding
is
necessary to destroy any existing
seedlings or rosettes.
necessary
if
Fall tillage
Post-seeding tillage should not be
pre-seeding tillage
Late
is
fall tillage will
performed.
control flixweed rosettes
would otherwise overwinter. Take care to leave

enough crop residues to protect the land against erosion.
that
Rotation
Life
Cycle
Flixweed in established winter annual crops cannot be con-
Annual or winter annual
that reproduces
by seed.
trolled without chemicals.

fertilized
However, any heavily seeded,
annual or perennial crop should compete well
against flixweed.
Emergence
Seedlings emerge mainly in the
fall
and early spring.
Seeding
Seed crops
Flowers
slightly heavier than
petition. Cereals that
Overwintered rosettes begin to flower near the end of May.
Flixweed
that
emerges
in spring starts to flower in
may
normal
to
encourage com-
require harrowing after emer-
gence should be seeded deeper than normal (7.5 cm).
mid-
June. Both growth forms continue to flower through the
summer.
Mowing
In the year that perennial crops are established,
growing plants may be missed.
Flixweed shatters easily and produces large quantities of

seed. Seeds can survive in the soil for
mowing
effective to prevent flixweed seed production, although
Reproduction
more than
three years.
49
is
low
GREEN FOXTAIL (WILD MILLET)

Setaria viridis
Perennial forages compete well and should be
grown
for three
or four years.
Management Strategy
Make
foxtail.
is
the key to controlling green
a special effort to keep this
weed from spreading
to uninfested land.
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
Summer fallow -
A season of summer fallow will greatly
reduce populations of green
foxtail.
The
first
deep
tillage will
bring buried seeds to the surface to promote germination.
Subsequent
Life Cycle
An
tillage
should be shallow so that seeds remain near
the surface for germination.
Pre-sesdlng tillage
Shallow
tillage
encourages seeds near
the soil surface to germinate. Spring cultivation and seeding
should be early, so that the crop can gain a competitive advan-
Emergence
The main seedling emergence occurs
tage over later-emerging green foxtail.
tem-
in late spring as soil
peratures increase and coincides with crop emergence. Flushes
occur in the
summer
especially after periods of high rainfall.
bance
flush of
foxtail that
at
tail
weeds begins
emerges
later,
to
Post-seeding tillage will probably be
seeding encourages green foxtail emergence.
Fall tillage
Flowers
The main
necessary in cereals seeded in the spring because soil distur-
flower in mid-July; green

In
flowers through the summer.
In dry years, shallow fall tillage buries green fox-
seeds and encourages germination in the following spring.
damp
on the
cool
fall
weather, green foxtail seeds should be
soil surface
left
so that they can lose their dormancy and
germinate. Green foxtail seedlings cannot survive the winter.
Reproduction
The
first
green foxtail seeds mature two weeks after flowering
Dormancy
begins.
4-10 weeks, or longer
lasts for
Rotation
Summer fallow
if it is dry.
Shallowly buried green foxtail seeds remain viable in the
reduces green foxtail numbers. Three to four
soil
years of perennial forage crops will also decrease green foxtail

for
up
to three years. Survival of seeds increases
with depth of
populations because the seeds are only viable for about three
burial.
Green
foxtail plants are prolific seed producers.
Seed
years.
production
is
reduced
if
plants
grow under heavy crop
Cut badly infested crops for greenfeed before the green
foxtail seeds shatter. Cereals
and oilseeds are the most
diffi-
canopies.
cult crops in
which
to
reduce green foxtail populations.
If
these crops are seeded earlier and heavier than normal, they
should prevent further infestations of green
Competition
foxtail.
Individual green foxtail plants are not strongly competitive.
Under
certain conditions, however, large populations can sub-
stantially
reduce crop yields. Green foxtail
under high
tail that
and
light
emerges
warm
is
Seeding
most competitive
Seed perennial crops
temperature conditions. Green fox-
earlier in the
season
is
generally
following shallow
more com-
after the
tillage.
main emergence of green
Seed cereals early
to increase
petitiveness. If cereals cannot be seeded early, seed

petitive than later
emerging
deeper and heavier than normal so that post-seeding
Because green
foxtail
tillage
can be done. Seed oilseeds earlier and slightly heavier than
attributed to shallow
early spring tillage, delayed seeding for wild oats control, and
fertilizers.
com-
them
plants.
High populations of this weed can be

broadcasting of
foxtail
normal
to
encourage a competitive crop stand.
competes
strongly for nitrogen, deep banding of nitrogen fertilizer will

limit its availability. Barley
Mowing
and oats compete better with
green foxtail than wheat does. However, green foxtail

resents the largest portion of
dockage
in all
still
rep-
Mowing
of these crops.
foxtail
of perennial forages
mid-June before hay
50
is
effective if
done before green
produces seed. However, seeds are usually viable in

is
ready to be cut.
HEMP NEniE
Galeopsis tetrahit
Competition
Hemp nettle competes
vigorously with crop plants for space
and nitrogen. The weed often germinates
at the
same time
as
annual crops and competes early in the season.
Management Strategy
It is
difficuh to manipulate the germination of existing
seeds, so the best control strategy
is
weed
reduction of seed
production.
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summer fallow to a
Firm, moist
summer
fallow that
cultivated
is
shallow depth provides conditions for dormant seeds to
germinate. Cultivate after the seedlings emerge.
Pre-seedlng tillage
A combination of tillage and seeding
weed emergence will destroy the majority of weed

seedlings. The crop then has the competitive advantage over
after
the weeds.
is
risky and should
be done only when other control measures are not feasible.

Fall tillage
Early
fall tillage
hemp
destroys
encourages germination of seeds in the
Rotation
Grow perennial
forages on badly infested land for
three years. Cut the forage each year before

seed.
Management
hemp
nettle.
can be done
used
if
Life
inhibit
in the rotation then post-seeding
necessary.
Summer
the crop rotation; seeds germinate and
An
at least
weeds produce
improve forage growth should
to
and
Annual crops do not compete well with hemp
nettle. If cereals are
tillage
nettle plants
soil.
fallow works well in
emerge only
to
be
destroyed by cultivation.
Cycle
annual reproducing by seed.
Seeding
Emergence
Seed annual crops early
in the spring
Hemp
crop will emerge before
hemp
nettle
emerges mainly
in
mid-spring with scattered
at
emergence through the summer.
operation will destroy
hemp
is
if
the
delayed, the seeding
nettle seedlings. Plant
an early
maturing crop. Seed perennial crops after the main emergence
Flowers
nettle flowers
possible, so the
Seeding of cereal crops
regular times can be followed by post-seeding tillage,
cereals are seeded deep. If seeding
Hemp
when
nettles.
of
from July through September
hemp
nettle so that pre-seeding tillage destroys existing
seedlings.
Reproduction
Mowing
Seeds of hemp nettle are covered by a hard seed coat that prevents germination for up to three years.
tures encourage seed germination.
produced by each plant starting
Warm
soil
Close
tempera-
in early
mowing
of perennial crops prior to production of
seeds decreases
Large quantities of seed are

August. Plants cut
near maturity contain enough moisture and nutrients to ripen

the seeds.
51
hemp
nettle populations.
weed
KOCHIA
Kochia scoparia
Competition
Kochia
is
a strong competitor, especially
that is dry or saline.
It
on cultivated land
tolerates salinity levels too high to sup-
port most crop growth and can reduce salinity levels of soils.
may be
Consequently, kochia
stabilize the soil
and
beneficial.
Kochia also helps
to
palatable to livestock.
is
Management Strategy
Prevention of seed production for a year eliminates kochia
infestations.
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summer fallow - One
year of
populations because no
should be in
late
May
Pre-seeding tillags
new
after
summer
seed
is
fallow reduces kochia
produced. The
first tillage
kochia emergence.
The seeding operation generally destroys
most kochia seedlings.

Post-seeding tillage should not be nec-
essary because most kochia seeds germinate prior to seeding
and are destroyed

Fall tillage
at
seeding.
Fall tillage should not
be required specifically for
kochia unless plants are setting seed.
Rotation
Clean summer fallow limits the spread of kochia. Infested land
can be seeded to perennial forages
mowed before
kochia
compete with kochia
set seed.
that are salt tolerant
and
Strong annual crops should
as long as the land
is
not too saline.
Seeding
Seeding
Life Cycle
An
may need
of kochia
is
to
be delayed slightly until the main flush
complete.
annual that reproduces by seeds.
Mowing
If possible, cut
Emergence
Most kochia seeds germinate before mid-May.
production.
Flowers
Kochia flowers from July through September.
Reproduction
Kochia can be
tion
is
a prolific seed producer, but its seed
usually disrupted
when crops
Kochia seeds do not remain
produc-
are cut or harvested.
alive in the soil for
perennials before kochia produces seed.
Harvesting of annual crops will usually disrupt kochia seed
more than
year.
52
LAMBS-QUARTERS
Chenopodium album
Management Strategy
is
the
way
to control lamb's-
quarters.
Mechanism
Control
Tillage
Summer fallow - Badly
infested land can be
summer fallowed
every three years to suppress lamb's-quarters populations.
Pre-seedlng tillage
tillage to
if
moisture allows, use pre-seeding
encourage germination by bringing seeds to the
surface. Seeding
main weed
may need
to
be delayed
soil
slightly until the
flush has emerged.
if
pre-seeding tillage and delayed seed-
ing are used, post-seeding tillage should not be necessary.
However,
if
weeds
the
are a
problem
after cereal
emergence,
they can be destroyed by harrowing.

Fall tillage
destroys
Fall tillage encourages seedling
weeds
that
may
emergence and
otherwise produce seed.
Rotation
Using summer fallow every three
mize lamb's-quarters
to four years will help mini-
infestations.
Perennial crops maintained for three or four years should
reduce
weed seed
light levels
Life
An
and
Annual crops
Cycle
annual that reproduces by seeds.
production.
Heavy
plant canopies reduce
inhibit germination of lamb's-quarters seeds.
that are
used in a rotation to suppress lamb's-
quarters should be seeded after the
main flush of weeds has
been destroyed. The crop then has
a competitive advantage,
and the crop canopy will
inhibit germination of the
remaining
lamb's-quarters.
Emergence
Lamb's-quarters emerge mainly in early spring with sporadic
germination through the summer.
Seeding
All seed should be cleaned because lamb's-quarter seed
common
Flowers
This
weed flowers from June through September.
is
impurity in forage and cereal seed.
Delay seeding of spring crops

quarters has
emerged so
that
until the majority of lamb's-
weed
seedlings are destroyed
during the seeding operation.
Reproduction
Seeds ripen from August onwards. Lamb's-quarter seeds are
viable in the soil for
up
to
Mowing
20 years. Dormant seeds are pro-
duced when days are long. Non-dormant seeds are produced

under short days. Dormancy
brought to the
is
Close
broken when weed seeds are
mowing
will eliminate lamb's-quarters in perennial
crops, because this
soil surface.
weed cannot withstand
lamb's-quarters into fields.
Competition
Lamb's-quarters competes with crops to some extent, but
not aggressive. This
cutting.
Mowing
of
headlands will prevent seed production and prevent the spread
is
weed robs crops of nutrients and mois-
ture.
53
LEAFY SPURGE
Euphorbia esula
Emergence and Growtli

Leafy spurge seedlings can emerge through several centimetres
of
even though the seed
soil
may
gence
development
The
rate
is
not large. Seedling emer-
occur from a depth of up to 15 cm. Seedling

is
rapid after emergence.
of growth and spread of leafy spurge from seedlings
varies with competition.
One
study showed that plants from
seed produced only a single stem in the seedling year
grown with
or without competition.
when
No plant grown with
competition produced more than the original shoot during the
second growing season. However, plants from seed grown

without competition averaged 170 shoots per plant and
spread a distance of 134
cm from
the point of the original
shoot by the end of the second growing season. Another

study reported that seven seedlings only occupied 0.2
after the first
44
m^
growing season but had increased
to
occupy
after five years.
Flowers
Within one week of emergence, flowers
bloom
as early as
start to
develop and can
mid-May. Flowering generally ceases
between the end of June and mid- July. Development and maturation of seed extends for
of the
last flower.
continuous from
some 30 days beyond
the appearance
Flower production and seed development are
mid-May
to
mid-August.
Reproduction
Seed
Leafy spurge pollen
by
insects.
is
The pollen
sticky, so
is
most of the pollination
most viable 24 hours
after
is
done
emergence
of the male flower. The general mechanism of flower develop-
ment minimizes
Leafy spurge
is
weed
a herbaceous deep-rooted perennial
self-pollination because the female develops
before the male flowers.
that
reproduces from seed and from numerous vegetative buds on
its
The peak period
extensive, persistent vertical and horizontal root system.
for seed maturity
seed production of leafy spurge
from 790
to
is
is
mid
to late July.
Average
2,500 seeds/m^ with a range
8,020 seeds/m^.
Distribution
Fresh leafy spurge seeds have a viability of 60 to 80 per cent.
Leafy spurge
Viability,
ited to
is
present throughout Alberta. Infestations are lim-
however,
in the soil.
waste areas, river bottoms and flood plains. Heavy infes-
is
dependent mostly on the depth of burial
A seed source was initially 87 per cent viable, but
the viability after three years of burial
tations in cultivated fields are rare.
was
12, 18,
43 and 64 per
cent at depths of 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 cm, respectively. Thus, seed
near the soil surface lost viability most rapidly. There
Temperature
is
spurge seed germination. Tests have shown
that alternating temperatures of 20
and 30
mination of 84 per cent while germination
C produced
at 18 to
Seeds
a ger-
float
20C was
in the field
can occur throughout the
growing season whenever adequate moisture

is
most favorable
is
available;
surface. This ability appears to be an
occasionally. Ditch, stream and river banks are often the location for
Leafy spurge germination
on the water
advantage for leafy spurge establishment in areas that flood
only 8 per cent.
ever, early spring
around
pastures.
probably the most important environmental fac-
tor affecting leafy
is
13 per cent annual loss of leafy spurge viability in undisturbed
Germination
new
leafy spurge infestations.
Dormancy of leafy spurge permits germination
how-
for at least five
years following maturity and up to eight years after the seed
for germination.
deposited.
54
is
enough leaves
Vegetative
Vegetative reproduction of leafy spurge
by buds that survive
is
Crown buds and
overwinter under the soil surface.
root
to
produce more food than
is
needed for growth.
Therefore, the root reserves are being used for plant growth for 14
to
buds pro-
20 days
tillage is
after
each cultivation. The most practical interval of
every two weeks during good growing conditions and
duce stems.
every three weeks during dry, hot weather
The crown of leafy spurge develops

consists of buds that produce
year.
Buds
that
do not sprout
at the
less rapidly.
new stems
full size
by
late
emerge during the
at
two-week
slough off
is
intervals during late
when
plants are
growing
should be done
tillage
May, June and July and
week intervals during August, September and
at
at three-
October.
into shoots that
summer and fall.
Competitive Crop
the primary contributor to the per-
weed. The root system
produce shoot buds
location every
This generally means that
new buds. The new buds
summer. Some buds grow
late
The root system of leafy spurge

sistence of the
same
at the
in the spring apparently
during the season and are replaced by

reach
base of the stem and
is
deep and spreading.
It
Few,
can
if
spurge.
ahnost any point along any root segment. The
enough
any, crops are competitive
However, a crop
characteristics
may
that has
to eliminate leafy
one or more of the following
help to control or reduce the growth of leafy
upper portion of the plant can be injured or killed by
tillage or herbi-
spurge: (a) early spring growth (winter crops), (b) late seeding date
cide treatment, but the remaining root system, either
below the
to allow a tillage operation before seeding,
treat-
and
(c)
dense foUage.
ment or from detached root segments, can develop adventitious buds

that will
send up
new shoots from a depth of 30 cm or more.
Mowing
Mowing to prevents seed production and starves the underground
parts. To prevent seed production, mow before viable seeds are
formed. To deplete root reserves, mow when the underground root
Competition
Leafy spurge can survive in most environments.
more
stand floods for 4 1/2 months or
if
It
can even with-
the depth of water does not
reserves are low,
prevent emergence of the shoots above the surface. However,
heavy competition reduces leafy spurge growth.

crop, such as crested wheatgrass
An early emerging
and smooth bromegrass
the available moisture early in the season,
may
the time
which occurs between
when flowers
plant to replenish
its
appear during
full leaf
late spring.
development and
Never allow
that uses
limit the spread
and
establishment of new leafy spurge infestations.
Grazing
Some species of plants produce
Sheep readily graze leafy spurge once they are accustomed
chemicals that inhibit the growth of
other species of plants. This
is
called allelopathy. Allelopathy
on other plants
is
indicated
leafy spurge
forbs in leafy spurge patches even
ditions.
the small
Sheep require two
by
Using sheep
to graze leafy spurge is a practical
still
ing leafy spurge in
compound(s) from plants and
evi-
Also,
dence that the chemical
is
phytotoxic in the
soil.
it
many
areas
Prevent seed production.
provides an income from forage that
are not feasible.
may not be
productive
Two spurge beetles {Aphthona nigriscutis mdAphthonaflava) are

reducing leafy spurge densities in
on
the leafy spurge roots
section
On estabUshed sites, exhaust root reserves.
Westem Canada. The
and the plant vigor
on biological control
for
more
is
larvae feed
reduced. Refer to the
details.
Chemical
Control K/leclianisms
Several herbicides control leafy spurge.
Tillage
cide
from immediately
method of eliminat-
where other means
Biological control
Prevent establishment where applicable.
Tillage
it.
otherwise.
IVIanagement Strategy
to
get accustomed to the weed.
be grazed rather intensively for several years to reduce density.
indirect evidence that leafy
verification of allelopathy of leafy spurge
requires isolation of an active
weeks to
from spreading and prevents seed production. Leafy spurge must
may be allelopathic with other plants under laboratory conHowever,
to three
Grazing sheep continuously on leafy spurge prevents the weed
number of
when bare ground is visible
between shoots. Several reports provide

spurge
by
the
underground food supply.
after small grain harvest until freeze-up,
followed with a season of intensive
tillage the
next year, can
kill
is
The most
effective herbi-
Tordon (picloram). Others include 2,4-D, Dicamba or a
combination of both. Chemical selection must be based on the
nature of the infestation and environmental concems. Refer to
Crop
high percentage of leafy spurge.
Protection with Chemicals, Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
A duckfoot cultivator or blade-type implement is the best equip-
Development, Agdex 606-1 for
ment
for cutting the
sweeps or blades should overlap 7.5

adjusted so they are
flat
when
to
selection.
and operating
at
Multi-technique Approach
a depth of
Like most perennial weeds, a combination of methods are needed
New shoots require seven to

cut.
on chemical
10 cm, be kept sharp and
in the soil
10 to 13 cm.
been
details
heavy tough roots of leafy spurge. The wide
Another seven
to
10 days to emerge
after the roots
to control leafy spurge.
have
this
10 days are required before there are
55
Long-term
efforts will
be required before
weed can be brought under control or eliminated.
NARROW-LEAVED HAWK S-BEARD

Crepis tectorum
forages.
The winter annual form competes with
cial crops, cereals
of this
weed occur
established
form competes with seedling forages,
forages; the annual
spe-
and oilseeds. The most serious infestations

in
weak crop
stands.
Management Strategy
Prevent seed production and encourage strong crop stands.
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
reduces populations of nar-
row-leaved hawk's-beard. However, plants can easily re-root

after tillage, especially in
tillage
wet conditions. Consequently,
should be done during hot, dry weather. Perform
after the
main flushes of annuals appear and
tillagi
in the fall to
destroy rosettes of winter annual.
Pre-seeding tillage
weeds
ed.
Do
Early, thorough spring tillage destroys
have overwintered. Annual crops can then be seed
that
not seed perennial crops until the
first
flush of
seedlings has been destroyed by cultivation.

Fall tillage
Cultivate thoroughly after
complete in the
ble, conditions
fall,
weed emergence
is
usually around mid-September. If possi-
should be dry so that the rosettes do not
re-
root.
Rotation
Life Cycle
An
Maintain strong stands of perennial crops for three to four
annual or winter annual that reproduces by seeds.
years to discourage
weed growth.
If perennial
infested with narrow-leaved hawk's-beard,
under and summer fallow
Emergence
Main
flushes
emerge from mid-May
early
August
to
mid-September. The
to
mid-June and from
first
Annual crops
flush develops as
in the rotation
become
the stand
following year.
should be well-fertilized and
seeded slightly heavier than normal to encourage competition
annuals and the second develops as winter annuals. Sporadic
emergence occurs
until the
crops
work
against spring weeds.
at other times.
Summer
fallow can be an effective control for narrow-leaved
hawk's-beard. Perform a shallow tillage after emergence of
weeds
Flowers
in the spring
and
fall
and as required during the season
Annuals flower from early July through August. Winter annuals
flower the year after emergence between mid-June and
Seeding
mid-July.
Seed annual crops
at a
heavier than normal rate after the
spring flush of narrow-leaved hawk's-beard. Seed perennial
crops after weeds have been destroyed by tillage in the spring
Reproduction
Seeds of winter annuals are
set
from mid-July
to
Seeds from annuals mature from early August through

Seeds exhibit
minate
after
little
Seed
mid-August.
fall
crops after the
fall
flush of
weed
seedlings has been
tilled.
fall.
or no dormancy, losing their ability to ger-
about five years.
Mowing
Mow narrow-leaved hawk's-beard in perennial crops prior to
weed seed
Competition
Narrow-leaved hawk's-beard
is a
serious
production. This
is
especially important in the yeai
that perennial crops are established.
weed of perennial
56
NIGHT-FLOWERING CATCHFLY
Silene noctiflora
are the
may
same shape and
exist.
size.
A short post-harvest dormancy
Seed can remain viable for more than three years
in
the soil.
Competition
Night-flowering catchfly, especially the winter annual form,
a strong competitor in moist areas. Established forages
is
com-
pete well and should be maintained for at least three years to
deplete reserves of
weed seeds
in the soil.
It/lanagement Strategy
Control the winter annual form in the
first
season and sow
clean seed.
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summer fallow - Reduce heavy

ing catchfly with
summer
Pre-seedlng tillage
- it
populations of night-flower-
fallow.
is difficult
to
know when
to control night-flowering catchfly seedlings
to
use tillage
because of the
wide germination span. However, early spring
tillage will kill
any overwintered seedlings and the early germinating annuals.

when
Do post-seeding
tillage
of cereals only
other control measures are not feasible.
Fall Tillage
Late
fall tillage will
control rosettes of the winter
annual form that would otherwise overwinter.
Rotation
Rotations of
at least three
years in perennial forages will
reduce seed numbers in the
Annual or winter annual
that reproduces
is
is
no definite period of germination but most emergence
from mid- April
through to
to
Spring
Flowers
month
after the first flowers
fly,
Reproduction
is
a heavy seed producer.
The seed
is
highly viable.
Immature seed from unopened capsules can germinate. The
weed seed
is
before seeding destroys

to gain a competitive
weed
seedlings
advantage over the
Mowing
Mow before seed production to control night-flowering catch-
appear.
weed
fallow will also help
weeds.
fall.
seeds are produced about a
tillage at or
and allows the crop
mid- July. Sporadic germination occurs
This weed flowers from mid-June through September. Mature
This
Summer
Seeding
Emergence
There
soil.
deplete seed reserves.
by seed.
easily spread with aisike clover because the seeds
57
especially in the year that forages are established.
QUACKGRASS
Agronpyron repens
quackgrass
is
poor
at
higher temperatures, so this
is
a good
time for a control operation. The long days of spring favor
rhi-
zome development.
Flowers
Flowering and seed production occur
minimum
grassland and fields with
in
June and early July in
tillage.
Seeds ripen by
late
July or early August. Several tillage operations will delay
flowering and seed set by two or three weeks.
Reproduction
Seed
Quackgrass
is self sterile.
Production of viable seed requires
cross pollination from genetically different clones. This
primary reason
by seed
is
why
viable seed production
may
may
Buried seed
its
Distribution
is
not only infest clean land,
lie
dormant for two
viability for about four years.
duction for four to five years
present ttirougliout Alberta, but
it
is
may make
seed
production possible.
A persistent perennial grass spread by rhizomes and seeds.
Quackgrass
may
also introduce genetically different clones to areas
previously occupied by a single clone and so
Life Cycle
the
minimal. However, forage seed contaminated with
even a few quackgrass seeds

but
is
low and spread
is
more
to three years
and retain
The prevention of seed pro-
may
reduce or prevent seedling
production but will not eliminate the quackgrass problem.
prevalent in cooler, moister areas than in warmer, drier parts
of the province. The less adapted a

the less the probability of
it
weed
is to
a climatic area,
invading and the easier
it is
to
Vegetative
control established patches.
Percentage
of fields containing
quackgrass
(Lethbridge area)
Region
II
(Calgary area)
Region
III
(Red Deer area)
mowing above-ground
cm
10-15
15
14
cm
to
of
soil.
parts.
Most rhizomes
Tillage need not be
be effective and disrupt
all
are in the top
much deeper
than
rhizome production.
27
Region IV (Vermilion area)

Region
buds can produce new shoots through cultivation and by
per cent
Agricultural region
Region
The creeping underground stem, called a rhizome, is the

main method of reproduction. Each bud on this stem is
capable of producing a new shoot, if stimulated. Dormant
(Barrhead-Edmonton area)
Region VI (Peace River area)
Facts about quackgrass rhizomes
22
1.
In
one year, a plant produced from a single bud can:
spread to an area 3 metres in diameter,
produce 135 metres of new rhizome,
produce 206
Germination
Quackgrass seed germinate
at
temperatures between 5-30C
and does not require an after-ripening period

does not require temperature fluctuation
to germinate.
to germinate.
It
This
temperature response favors germination during most of the
aerial shoots.
2.
Long days favor rhizome development.
3.
High
growing season with the exception of July and early August
when
conditions tend to be too dry in most of Alberta.
light intensity in
open
fields favors
rhizome devel
opment.
4.
Emergence and Growth

start
growth
this condition rarely
completely stops
at soil
temperatures greater than 5C. Soil temperature of 5-15C
40C,
to less than 3 per cent sunlight
rhizome growth.
Seedlings germinate and rhizome buds
favor shoot growth. While growth
Shade
is
stopped completely
occurs in Alberta. Recovery of
58
5-15C favors rhizome growth.
5.
Soil temperature of
6.
Frost only kills rhizomes
at
on the
soil surface.
plow, rotovator, or one-way disc. Each
Competition
Quackgrass
is
reasons. First,
it
tillage operation
should be carried out before the quackgrass growth reaches
a strong competitor with crops for several
can maintain high growth rates
5 cm. Till infested patches separately from the remainder of
in cool
the field.
weather. Second, quackgrass can

of N, P, and
tie
K from the soil
the crop. Third, this
and make them unavailable to

weed reproduces easily from vegetative
plant parts. Furthermore, quackgrass

inhibit
effect appears to be linked to
is
may
The "dragging-out" method brings intact root stocks to the

surface to dry out. This method is more effective under hot,
windy, dry conditions.
contain toxins that
growth of crops or other weeds. The allelopathic
whether the inhibitor

it
up a large percentage
is
dead plant
parts.
It is
not clear
root stocks.
a product of microbial activity or if
leached from the quackgrass
A cultivator with a cable weeder or
rod weeder with oscillating harrows behind, "drags out" the
Half-way measures of cultural weed control may

Follow-up
better stand of quackgrass.
weed from
Losses from quackgrass in the short-term depend on the crop
prevent this
and the quackgrass density as shown
petitive crop
In the long term, quackgrass
may
in the
following graph.
limit the type
and frequen-
such as
Pre-seeding Tillage
patches
quackgrass on yield
at this
time
Avoid
if
tillage is required to
Sowing
re-infesting clean field.
fall rye,
com-
barley or canola will maintain
crop yields in a quackgrass infested
cy that a specific crop can be produced economically.
Effect of
result in a
itself.
tilling
field.
quackgrass infested
possible because
new
underground stem pieces will be impossible
plants
from
to control in the
crop.
Inter-row Tillage
as corn
is
Use inter-row
Fall Tillage
Repeat
tillage
en quackgrass stands.
a
wet
tillage
when
row crop such
grown.
fall,
repeated
Till
from harvest
to freeze-up to
mowing
or grazing will create the
results as fall tillage. Fall applications of herbicides
good growing conditions
effective if
weak-
before the growth reaches 5 cm. In
same
may be
exist.
Mowing
Mowing can deplete root reserves, but this technique
practical when soil disturbance is undesirable.
is
only
Rotations
Quackgrass Shoots
Quackgrass
* Information not available
Sources:
J.T.
O'Donovan
(1987),
Monsanto Canada
when
Inc.
land
is
more
likely to
become
cleared or broken than
is
established and multiply
when
land
is left
undis-
(1985)
turbed. Perennial grass and
legume mixes
will not
compete
strongly with this weed. However, quackgrass root systems in
mixed stands
IVlanagement Strategy
will develop near the surface
and become weak.
Quackgrass makes good hay and can be cut with the forage
Prevent establishment where applicable.
Exhaust root reserves on established
crop to weaken the quackgrass stand. Cut hay before

seed
sites.
is
weed
produced.
Success of cultural methods can be very dependent on the
growing season. In moist summers, shredding the rhizomes
Control Meclianisms
best; in dry
summers, dragging them

very wet summers
may be
Tillage
effective. In
In prairie and parkland regions, intensive tillage can offer a
out either procedure. In such years,
means of control. This
grass to prevent seed production.
practice involves the principle of "shred-
ding" and "dragging out".
tillage
tillage, till
ther reduce quackgrass re-infestations.
Begin
tillage after har-
vest and repeat as required until the soil freezes. Also, the use
of strongly competitive crops the following year, such as twofre-
row
quent shredding of the roots stimulates a large number of
barley, rapeseed or winter grain, will help suppress
quackgrass re-growth.
to
Heavy grazing before
viable rhizome pieces. Intensive post-harvest tillage will fur-
at the same time prevents this growth

from reaching the sunlight and producing leaves. Thus, the
buds on the roots use their reserve food material to develop
dormant buds
impossible to carry
before seeding to reduce infestations by seedling plants and
ground growth and
manufacture of food. The
is
most
mow or graze the quack-
can improve control. In the year after intensive
"Shredding" causes quackgrass roots to produce under-
sufficient leaf area for the
it
to the surface is
grow, leading to the exhaustion of the food
reserves. Shredding can be accomplished with tillage
by a
59
emergent graminicides,
Herbicides
The use of tillage
soil degradation.
mize
trol.
this
to control
On the
quackgrass often causes serious
problem will generally
result in less
quackgrass con-
soil degradation.
Herbicides for quackgrass control
fall
primarily into two
categories:
Those
al
that
can be applied to broad-leaved crops for season-
grass control (Poast, Fusilade, Assure and other
graminicides).
Those
that are non-selective but provide control for
more
than one season (glyphosate, numerous trade names).

applied before seeding, after harvest or in sum-
Glyphosate
is
mer
The
fallow.
other herbicides are applied in broad-leaved
crops such as canola and flax.
IVIulti-technique
Approach
A combination of tillage, herbicide and crop rotation can go a

long
way
to effectively
managing quackgrass.
A proven approach to successful control starts with summer

fallow. In a
summer
substantially
by
and the barley yield

control
fallow year, quackgrass can be reduced
by an appropriate herbicide treatment followed
The following
tillage.
program
at
table outlines the degree of control
in the year following a
summer
fallow
Beaverlodge, Alberta.
Glyphosate
applied
One
in
June
+
0
+
+
+
0.5
0.5
0.307
139
0.983
101
0.860
2.0
30 days
1.530
2.836
10
1.961
130 days
1.740
3.640
2.625
60 +
30 days
30 days
60 + 130 days
Tillage at 7 +
Adopted from Darwent,
51
31
60 + 130 days
Tillage at
Tillage at
30 days
60 +
Tillage at
Tillage at
30 days
60 + 130 days
Tillage at 7 +
2.0
Tillage at
Tillage at
1.0
2.0
344
Tillage at 7 +
1.0
1.0
130 days
60 + 130 days
+ Tillage at 7 + 60 +
0.5
60 +
et. al.
Can.
30 days
J.
13
1.636
3.764
2.660
Plant Sci. 1989.
This approach will not eliminate quackgrass from
does reduce quackgrass
Long-term research
at
Barley yield
tonnes/ac
Tillage at
Tillage at
year after
density
shoots/m^
of tillage after treatments
0
0
Quack
Frequency and time
Rate LVac
and crop rotations of canola,
results are possible in a variety of
other hand, reducing tillage to mini-
A herbicide treatment can control quackgrass and mini-
mize
tillage
barley and under-seeded red clover indicates that similar
fields,
but
it
to acceptable levels.
Beaverlodge with glyphosate, post
60
ways.
REDROOT PIGWEED
Amaranthus retroflexus
Seed longevity varies from 3
seeds are
commonly found
40 years.Redroot pigweed
to
in clover
and grass seed, especially
and timothy.
alsike
Competition
Redroot pigweed
is
toes but does not
compete as effectively with crops with nar-
row row spacings,
a strong competitor in root crops and pota-
especially
if
they are seeded early. Because
redroot pigweed does not emerge until June, crops that are
seeded early get a head
start
and compete well.
Management Strategy
Mechanism
Control
Tillage
Summer fallow because
it
Redroot pigweed
most summer fallow
after
is
prevalent on fallow land
germinates after most weeds emerge and emerges
within four weeks of
is tilled.
Make
a shallow tillage
weed emergence. Older
plants often
recover from cultivation.
Pre-seeding tillage
Pre-seeding tillage
warms
the soil and
encourages germination of redroot pigweed seeds.

when
stage
Fall tillage
root
Harrow
cereals in the one-to-four leaf
seedlings emerge.
-
Late
fall tillage
pigweed seeds early
encourages germination of red-
in the following spring. If fall-tilled
plants are nearing maturity, seed production can occur even
when
roots and stems are severed.
Life Cycle
An
Rotation
Maintain clean summer fallow. Use weed-free seed for perennial forages.
Emergence
Seeds require high
emerge mainly
in
Most annual
crops, except potatoes and field root
crops do well in the rotation.

soil
temperatures to germinate. Seedlings
June and continue to emerge until
fall if
Seeding
moisture conditions are adequate.
Crops
later
that are
seeded early have a competitive advantage over
emerging redroot pigweed.
Flowers
Flowering
is
correlated with latitude, with northern popula-
tions flowering earliest.
On
Mowing
average, flowering begins in early
July and continues until mid-September.
Mowing
is
not effective. Older plants are able to recover and
quickly produce axillary flowers.
Reproduction
Redroot pigweed
is
a heavy seed producer. Seeds will not ger-
minate unless they are within two inches of the
Longevity of seeds appears
to increase
soil surface.
with depth of burial.
61
RUSSIAN THISTLE
I
Salsola pestifer
Competition
Russian
thistle
competes poorly with growing crops, but the
stunted seedlings
grow vigorously
after crops are harvested.
Management Strategy
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summer fallow - Badly

mer
infested fields will benefit
fallow. Plants should be buried,
Pre-seedlng tillage
if
from sum-
possible.
A shallow, early tillage encourages weed
seed germination. The seeding operation destroys seedlings

that
have emerged.
cereals,
To
destroy Russian thistle seedlings in
harrow before crop emergence or when the crop
is in
the one-to four-leaf stage.
Fall tillage
weeds
Cultivate after crops are
that survive in the crop.
because Russian
thistle
growth
and the weed can produce seed
This
is
is
removed
to destroy
extremely important
vigorous after crop removal
until frost.
Rotation
summer fallow in the crop rotation if Russian thistle
populations are high. Any strong crop stand does well in the
rotation as long as control measures are taken when the crop
Include
is
removed.
Seeding
A shallow tillage plus seeding will destroy Russian thistle

seedlings.
Life Cycle
An
Mowing
annual, reproducing by seed.
Weeds larger than seedlings can be controlled by mowing

they become established in perennial crops or wastelands.
Emergence
Seedlings emerge in early spring.
Flowers
Flowers appear from July
until frost.
Reproduction
Seeds ripen from August through
for
up
to three years. Plants
to frost
break off
at
and remain viable
maturity and tumble
across the land spreading seeds.
62
if
SCENTLESS CHAMOMILE
Matricaria perforata
between 3 and 40 C, when the
Courtesy of Agriculture Canada
soil
than 10 per cent of soil capacity.
It
moisture
is at
can germinate
more
any
at
time during the growing season especially during cool,
damp
weather. Most scentless chamomile seedlings estab-
lish in the spring or fall.
Scentless chamomile seed does not have a

od.
New
minate
dormancy
peri-
seed requires light to germinate and will not ger-
if
buried in the
seed loses
soil.
With time, scentless chamomile
requirement for light and will germinate in
its
the dark. Buried seed can remain viable for
up
to
15 years.
Scentless chamomile seed germinates readily under periodic
flooding conditions and
this,
along with the lack of com-
growth around sloughs and other
petition, accounts for the
habitats prone to flooding.
% germination
Treatment
Seeds on surface
of moist soil
84
Seeds on surface
of soil saturated with water
82
Seeds buried
Seeds
floating
cm
below
soil
surface
70
on water
Seeds on moist paper
in
94
a dish

Annuals emerge
in spring or early
forms emerge
summer
in
summer. The biennial
or fall and overwinter as rosettes.
Short-lived perennials emerge in spring or
duce seed two years in succession, early
summer and
pro-
in the season.
Flowers
Scentless chamomile flowers from
May
to October.
Flowers can be produced within 58 days of germination. In

a non-competitive situation, annuals begin to flower in early
July. In a competitive crop situation, flowering does not
Life Cycle
generally occur until the crop
An
biennials and short-lived perennials usually begin to flower
annual, biennial or short-lived perennial that reproduces by
seed.
in
mid-May
Scentless
Scentless
chamomile
and the Peace River
is
mainly present
area.
This weed
is
removed. Overwintering
or early June.
chamomile has an indeterminate flowering
therefore, flowers
Distribution
is
habit;
and seed are continually formed. At any
in central Alberta
one time, these plants can have flowers, immature seed and
found
mature seed. This growth habit makes eradication
in
urban areas,
difficult.
roadsides, drainage ditches, fence lines, various crop lands,
hay lands, pastures, farmyards and wasteland.
It is
more
prevalent on disturbed sites and on Solonetzic soils in areas
Reproduction
of higher moisture, such as around sloughs and in

depressions.
Seed
Abundant seed production and variable
scentless chamomile's key to success.
Germination
Scentless
chamomile seed can germinate
dispersal
methods
are
The seed can be widely
dispersed on equipment and as a contaminant in crop seed and

at
temperatures
feed. Dispersal
63
by water
is
also
common.
Facts about scentless chamomile seed
Prevent seed production by
A single plant can produce as many as one million seeds.
1.
Pulling the
the flowers are fully

2. In a
dense stand as
many
as 1.8 million seeds/m-
may be
around these small
3.
One flower head can have
4.
The seeds develop
quickly.
formed, the seed
viable.
as
many
300
as
is
6.
9.
new
areas.
These
initial infestations
should be
chamomile
weed from
will help to prevent this
mid- June.
Flowering and seed production are best under high
Scentless chamomile seed viability at specific flowering stages
light
The
The seed can
As much
% germination
Flower stage
on the small,
ribs
light
seed allow for ready spread
by wind and water.

8.
in
spreading into cropland.
intensity.
7.
Spot treatment in and
with a residual selective
lands, drainage ditches and waste areas that are kept free of
scentless
as
in the future.
initial infestations
closely monitored over the next several years. Fencelines, head-
as the flower is
Biennial and short-lived perennial forms set seed as early
5.
an area before
herbicide will help prevent the establishment of scentless
seeds.
chamomile
As soon
in
formed can prevent an on-going, costly
and troublesome problem
produced.
infestations
initial
chamomile plants
scentless
first
float in
water for
at least
12 hours.
Early flower
Full petal
71
Late flower
88
Early
senescence
Seed
set
86
86
as 26 per cent of seed fed to cattle remains
viable in the manure.
Prevent establishnfient of overwintering

scentless chamomile
Tillage or spraying of infestations in the late fall or early
Competition
Scentless
crop. If scentless
or in
spring will control rosettes before they
chamomile does not grow well
weak
chamomile becomes established on bare
plant stands,
it
become more
lished and difficult to control. Fall spraying
in a competitive
is
estab-
especially
important with reduced tillage management.
soil
can become very aggressive and
cause significant crop yield losses.
Use competition
Yield loss of wheat from scentless
Form
of
scentless chamomile
Crop
chamomile
at
Growth
Yield
conditions
loss
Spring-emerging annual
Spring wheat
Cool, wet
Spring-emerging annual
Spring wheat
Drought
Fall-emerging biennial
Spring wheat
Moderately moist
60
Spring wheat
Drought
20
Winter wheat
Moderately moist
Winter wheat
Drought
Once
scentless
chamomile has overwintered
short-lived perennial form,
more
difficult to control.
petition
may
it
stand.
The key
is
to establish a
possible and maintain
crowded out by
55
to advantage
Scentless chamomile will not compete with a heavy crop
25 plants/m^
it
good crop stand
in that state.
good forage stand
as quickly as
The chamomile
as indicated
will be
by the graph.
in the biennial or
becomes more competitive and
A single plant growing without com-
cover an area in excess of a square metre.
Seedlings that emerge in the spring will often form a very
dense carpet
in
low-lying areas and limit growth of seedlings
of other species.
OCTOBER
JULY
OCTOBER
(Year after
(Second Year
(Second Year
seeding)
after seeding)
seeding forage)
lUanagement Strategy (Lines of Defense)
after
Scentless chamomile
in
JUNE
(Third
after
Year
seeding)
alfalfa-timothy near Leduc, Alta.
Prevent introduction into an area

To
prevent the introduction of scendess chamomile in your area
a) use clean seed, b) tarp
industrial
Control IVIeGlianisms
your grain trucks, c) clean your farm and
equipment before movement out of an infested
d) feed cattle feed contaminated with
chamomile only
Tillage
area,
in a
Tillage effectively controls scentless
con-
Frequent shallow
tained area and treat the area annually to prevent seed production.
destruction of seedlings.
64
chamomile seedlings.
tillage will aid in the
Once
germination and
the plant has overwintered
and chamomile can be selectively removed from grass stands
and developed a crown and an extensively branched fibrous

root system,
more thorough
tillage
followed by harrows
required to dislodge the soil from the root system. Till,
with a herbicide.
is
if
chamomile
possible, on hot, dry days to ensure that the root system
In established forage stands, scentless
dries quickly. Tillage operations should be carried out
problem where the forage
before flowering to insure a reduction in the seed bank.
area of Solenetzic soil or where the stand
is
will only be a
not growing well. This

is
may be
in
an
being overgrazed.
Fertilizer will help maintain a competitive forage stand, but gen-
Pre-seeding tillage
erally cultivation
Spring cultivation destroys seedlings
and reseeding
deteriorated. Scentless
Cultivation should be followed in two days by harrowing to
not freely grazed by livestock.
break up root
is
chamomile
and any scentless chamomile plants that overwinter.
required
is
when
the stand has
of low nutritive value and
is
balls.
Canola and cereal crops compete well with scentless chamomile,
harrow cereals
in emergencies,
seeding to destroy later emerging
weed
especially
after
when seeded
However,
rates.
seedlings.
cides are not used to
Post-seeding tillage should not be a substitute for pre-seed-
kill
emerge before or just
ing tillage.
at slightly
higher than normal seeding
infestations can develop
when
tillage or herbi-
plants that overwinter and seedlings that
after the crop. Lentils
and flax do not com-
pete effectively for light and thus scentless chamomile can be a

Fall tillage
weeds
the
serious problem in these crops.
Cultivate after harvest to prevent seed set of
that
have been suppressed by the crop. Fall
and short-lived perennial
tillage also destroys biennial
Herbicides
forms of scentless chamomile.
Seedlings are relatively easy to control compared to plants that
have overwintered. The
Mowing
more
Mowing can be used
reduce seed production in pastures,
to
is
earlier the application
effective the control of both forms.
not cost effective
when most of the
of herbicide, the
A herbicide application
scentless
chamomile
is
hay land and non-crop land. The plants should be cut
flowering because the seed has already been produced and the
before the flowers are fully formed. Unfortunately, scent-
yield loss has occurred. Total vegetation control herbicides such
less
chamomile
will
form new flowers below the cutting
height of the swather or
chamomile needs
successive
to
be
mower
mowed
mowing lower
as
Roundup and Sweep should
chamomile where other
in the leaf axils. Scentless
early and often with each
will
not be used to control scentless
vetetation
is
growing. All vegetation
be controlled or suppressed, leaving no competition for new
emerging scentless chamomile. Consult the current edition of
than the previous one.
Crop Protection With Chemicals, Agdex 606-1

registered for the control of scentless
Hand
Hand
pulling
pulling and burning
first
few
prevent a
in the different
crops.
is
the
most
effective
vent the spread of scentless chamomile into

the
for herbicides
chamomile
method
new
plants along a roadside before they
to pre-
areas. Pulling
go
to
seed
Multi-technique approach
may
A combination of tillage, herbicide and competitive cropping
new infestation.
can be very effective in managing scentless chamomile. The

goal of these techniques
Biological control
Two insects are being evaluated for use in Canada. Apion hookeri,
a seed-head feeding weevil from
Germany, and
Ceutorhynchus edentulus, a stem-mining weevil from Austria,
show promise
less
as biological control agents for controlluig scent-
chamomile. A/?/on hookeri was released
in Alberta in 1992.
Rotations
Scentless
weed
is
chamomile
thrives
when
competition
is
weak. This
often a problem the year after under-seeding a crop with
a forage.
At
this time, forage
crop growth
there is a lack of available control
present in the forage mix.
ment of the
Any
is
usually slow and
methods when a legume
is
practices that aid in the establish-
forage, such as seeding
good forage seed shallowly
into a firm moist seedbed, will help in reducing the scentless
chamomile growth. As the forage crop matures, the forage usually
provides sufficient competition to crowd out the scentless
chamomile.
is to
prevent seed production and crowd
out infestations through crop competition.
A healthy grass stand provides effective competition

65
SHEPHERD'S-PURSE
Capsella
1'pastoris
stands,
It
will not
compete with strong, established crops.
Management Strategy
Prevention of seed production and control of
fall
growth of
winter annuals are the keys to controlling shepherd 's-purse.
As
a winter annual, this
weed can flower and produce seed in

worked and before perennial
early spring before fields can be
forages require mowing.
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
Summer fallow - The

and winter annuals.
first tillage in
Till in
spring destroys seedlings
summer, when necessary,
to control
seeds that germinate later in the season. Fall tillage controls

the winter annual rosettes.
Pre-seedlng tillage
Make
a shallow tillage in early spring if
overwinter weeds are a problem. Seeding operations will

destroy most seedlings that emerge in the spring. If possible,
delay seeding until the main flush of weeds emerges.
if tillage is
done before or during the
seeding operation then post-seeding tillage should not be

required.
Fall tillage
Fall tillage controls rosettes that
would otherwise
overwinter and stimulates germination of annual
Make
a shallow tillage in early October with an
weed
seeds.
implement
that will preserve crop residue.
Summer and
Rotation
winter annual that reproduces by seed.
Crop
a
in all crops.
reserves in the
Emergence
Summer
rotation alone will not eliminate this
problem
Summer
weed
since
it
can be
fallow will help reduce seed
soil.
annuals emerge mainly in late spring and produce
flowers and seed throughout the summer. Winter annual
Seeding
seedlings emerge in late summer, overwinter and continue to
until late spring when the main flush of summer annual seedlings has emerged. Shallow tillage at or before
Delay seeding
grow
the following spring.
seeding will destroy the seedlings. Seed an early maturing
crop immediately following
Flowers
to
Summer
annuals flower from the end of June until
fall.
tive
Winter annuals produce flowers from the overwintered

rosettes in early spring
the
and continue flowering throughout
Reproduction
Seeds can germinate when mature or go dormant and remain
viable in the soil for up to 30 years.
Competition
Shepherd 's-purse
is
a strong competitor in seedling crop
66
Increase seeding rates, up
advantage over shepherd 's-purse, provided there
quate moisture.
summer.
tillage.
25 per cent heavier than normal, to give the crop competiis
ade-
SMARTWEEDS
ANNUAL
Polygonum spp.
compete with annual smartweed. Flax and most specialty

crops will not compete. Smartweeds can delay harvest because
they slow the drying of the swaths.
Management Strategy
Prevent seed production and encourage germination of
existing seed.
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summer fallow - Annual smartweed

tillage.
However, seed reserves
infestation the year after
Pre-seedlng tillage
is
controlled by repeated
in the soil usually cause re-
summer
fallow.
Seedlings emerge from shallow depths.
Thus, a shallow pre-seeding tillage will encourage seed germination.
The seedlings
are destroyed during the seeding opera-
tion.
emerge
Harrow
to eliminate
after cereals are seeded.
emerges or when
it is
in the
one
smartweeds
Harrow before
that
the crop
to four-leaf stage, prior to
tillering.
Fall tillage
Fall tillage brings seed to the surface
and encour-
ages germination.
Rotation
Perennial forage crops compete for moisture and discourage
growth of smartweed. Strong cereal stands suppress growth of

annual smartweeds. Low-lying areas can be seeded to grasses.
Summer
fallow will prevent seed production and decrease
seed reserves in the
Annuals
that
reproduce by seed.
soil.
Seeding
Cereals that are seeded
at rates
Emergence
ation will eliminate existing
Seedlings emerge mainly in rich moist soils in early to midspring.
Smartweeds flower inconspicuously from July
Frequent
to October.
mowing
smartweed
Reproduction
Seeds mature from
viable for up to
from
weed
seedlings.
Mowing
Flower
arate
heavier than normal have
increased competitive ability. Tillage during the seeding oper-
50
late July
years.
flax seed
through to
frost,
Smartweed seeds
and can remain
are difficult to sep-
and clover seed.
Competition
Strong stands of annual cereals and perennial forages will
67
of grass seeded in low areas controls annual
until the grass is well-established.
SMARTWEED
PERENNIAL
Polygonum
Courtesy of Agricultural Research Service U.S.D.A.
sp\i.
Competition
Perennial smartweeds are strong competitors with forages and
once established they become the predominant
field crops;
species. Fall rye
and barley compete the best with
may
Control of established stands
weed.
this
require taking the land out
of production.
Management Strategy
Prevent the spread of these weeds and starve the root systems.
not
patches of these weeds so that they do
critical to control
It is
become
a field scale problem.
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
Tillage
is
an ineffective
way
of controlling of perennial
smartweeds and will only serve
to spread them.
Summer fallow Chemical fallow, mowing

-
the only
means
that limit perennial
Pre-seeding tillage
is
ineffective and
may
late so
pre-seeding tillage
cause the spread of these weeds.

is
ineffective and
cause spread of the weed.
Fall tillage
in
Shoots emerge
may
and grazing are
smartweed growth.
weed
Chemical application
suppression. Tillage
is
after
crop removal
may
aid
not effective.
Rotation
Chemical control may require
that the land not
be
Life Cycle
tion.
Residues of herbicides, depending on what
A perennial that reproduces mainly by creeping root stocks.
limit
which crops
are grown. Fall rye
competition in areas surrounding the
is
in
produc-
used,
may
and barley offer the most
weed
patches.
Emergence
New vegetative
growth emerges
Seeds germinate
in late
May
Seeding
and early June.
Avoid seeding
in mid-spring.
ages
Flowers
Flowers appear from
late
June
to
Reproduction
Seed
coarse,
kill
established weeds. This species tends to persist
the land
Viable seeds are seldom produced
in Alberta.
reproduce by sending up shoots from
woody, underground stems. Plants
in
infested areas because root disturbance encour-
spread.
Mowing
Mow or graze to eventually weaken the root system. This does
September.
not
Vegetative
On dry land, plants
weed
water reproduce
from floating branches.
68
is
wet.
Mowing may
not be possible.
where
SOW-THISTLE
PERENNIAL
Sonchus arvensis
Courtesy of Agriculture Canada
Germination
Some seeds are capable of germination even when the plant is
mowed five days after pollination. Maximum seed germination
is
reached seven to nine days after flowering. The seed of plants
that are
mowed during flowering continue
mowed
stems
is
if
mature on the
to
the tissue remains moist. If prevention of seed
to occur, the sow-thistle plant should
be
mowed before
flowering has started.
Emergence and Growth

Sow thistle
is
a shallow germinator.
Most seedlings emergence
from depths of less than 0.5 cm. Emergence

seeds are buried more than 3
that buries seed
more than 3
will not occur if
cm deep. As a result, cultivation

cm deep provides excellent control.
Seedlings survive best where there
is
surface
litter
and high
moisture, as compared to open cultivated fields. This characteristic
contributes to establishment of
sow
thistles
under mini-
mum-till production, field margins and along ponds and ditches.
The removal of the moisture
in the top
cm of soil prevents
germination and helps control perennial sow thisde.
Reproduction
Seed
Seed
is
spread primarily by wind. However, the hooked cells
at
the end of the pappus hairs allows seeds to cling to clothes, fur
and other
objects.
Approximately 80 per cent of the seed germi-
nates in the year after production. Seedling survival, however,
low. While seed can be transported by water in streams and
Life Cycle
A persistent deep-rooted perennial spread by wind dispersed

seed and fleshy horizontal creeping roots.
ly broken.
The
gation canals,
water.
roots are readi-
Root pieces with buds can produce new
it
completely rots after only three months in fresh
To germinate
seed of perennial
sow
thisde requires a
continual supply of moisture. This explains
plants.
greater
is
irri-
problem on moist
why
this
areas, during wetter years
weed
and
is
in areas
where water fluctuation occurs.
Distribution
Sow thistle
seed does not germinate until the soil temperature
25-20C (mid
Percentage
of fields
containing perennial
sow
thistle
for
to late
much control before
Because plants
Region
(Lethbridge area)
Region
II
(Calgary area)
Region
III
(Red Deer area)
Region IV (Vermilion area)
spring seeding.
Percentage
Agricultural region
Region
is
May). This growth pattern does not allow
in a clone are not self-compatible, seed
tion in isolated patches is poor.
more than one clone
produc-
However, where plants from
are present in a field, high rates of seed
production can occur.
10
Region VI (Peace River area)
26
43
Vegetative
Buds on spreading
Most
field infestations
northern regions. In southern Alberta this
weed occurs on
roots, vertical roots
of the aerial stems can
of perennial sow-thistle are in the three
into pieces. Plants
irri-
all
produce
and underground portions
new plants
if
roots are broken
can be produced from root sections less than
mm long if well developed buds are present. The resulting
gation canal banks, roadside ditches and other areas of high
soil moisture.
plants can flower in one year. Sow-thistle roots have a natural
dormancy
Under
cultivation,
it
is
present primarily in patches. Field
the
scale infestations are infrequent except in freshly-broken
fall.
that inhibits shoot
As a result,
fall
emergence from vegetative buds
application of herbicide
an option for the control of perennial sow
land.
69
is
in
generally not
thistle as is the
case
with Canada
thistle.
However, breaking the roots
into pieces
and
Multi-technique approach
exposing them to drying and frost during the winter months could
Control of perennial sow-thistle often requires a combination of
reduce their viabihty.
cultural
rapid, the horizontal spread
While not
by creeping roots
substantial. If left undisturbed, a patch of
increase from 0.5
m to 3 m
sow
thistle
to reduce competition, prevent
capacity of roots.
can
in diameter in one year.
Increase competitive ability of crops:
Competition
Sow-thistle appears to accumulate potassium and
and chemical treatments
seed production and reduce food storage and reproductive
is
Grow
Drill fertilizer with seed or
may com-
competitive crops such as perennial grasses.
band
fertilizer to
make
more
it
available to the crop.
pete strongly for this element with alfalfa, winter wheat, barley,
canola and sugar beets. This competition represents an
average of about a
Plant solid crop stands instead of row crops.
Plant
per cent yield loss in canola in Western
Canada. However, 5 shoots/m^ produce a 12 per cent loss and

10 shoots/m^ produce a 18 per cent
can be substantial in sow
sow
varieties rather than
semi-dwarf varieties.
Prevent seed production:
thistle patches.
Either alfalfa or perennial grasses provide strong crop
competition to
tall
Therefore, yield loss
loss.
thistle.
Apply in-crop herbicides on
large acreages.
Mow patches or spray patches with a total vegetation control

herbicide.
Reduce weed competition.
Produce silage as an emergency measure
in heavily infested
fields.
Reduce the reproductive
Exhaust root reserves on established
Leave root material on the
sites.
frost
Tillage
rosette stage
seems
The seven-
be the
the reproductive capacity of

tillage
critical stage for tillage to
sow
thistle roots.
reduce
The success of
If root
dry up, and

cent of the
if
new
increases the
pieces are
left
on the
buried more than 30
cm
soil surface,
that
they will
mately results in increased root reserves
if
from 60 per cent
when the
amount of food
two discings
98 per cent depending on
to
following combination of treatments
were appHed: herbicide application
deep, less than 10 per
produce shoots and
control varied
the herbicide used
plants will emerge. Increased root breakage
number of buds
to limit the
Fallow with chemical and mechanical methods.
The
depends on the depth of burial and the degree of root
breakage.
Apply an in-crop herbicide
to nine-leaf
to
be desiccated by
soil surface to
and wind.
reserves.
prevent seedling establishment, the most suitable date for
tillage is the six-leaf rosette stage.
of roots:
ability
into small pieces.
Till to
Control IVIeclianisms
To
chop roots
in
summer
August; two cultivations
fallow
September
June;
October;
one cultivation before seeding the following year. Where
ulti-
erosion
timely tillage does
is
a major factor,
some
soil
cultivation could be substituted
by a herbicide treatment.
not occur to control top growth.The smaller the root piece, the
less
vigorous the resulting plant will be.
Dry conditions
are a major
not appear to be a major
growth
inhibitor.
weed during dry
Biological control
Sow thistle will

Any physical
A gall-midge, Cystiphora sonchi, that attacks perennial sow-
years.
has been established in Alberta.
or chemical control measure applied during this time will have
thistle
a greater impact than during moist soil conditions.
cate, short-lived
Aduhs
leaves that are pimple-like swellings, 3-4
which
Mowing
Mowing
is
leaf.
the
The
midge larvae
live.
Over 200
insect is well established
whether
this is
it
Another
redistribution.
Grazing infested land effectively reduces stands because the weed

is
way
to
at
one
determine
causes significant damage to perennial sow-thistle. If
ers of perennial sow-thistle, has
palatable to sheep and cattle but
can occur on one
and has increased
confirmed, a supply of the insect will be available for
Grazing
is
mm in diameter, in
galls
release site in Alberta. Studies are under
less effective than tillage.
are small, deli-
and rarely seen. The insect causes galls on the
insect, a gall-fly that feeds
on the flow-
been tested but does not seem
able to overwinter successfully under prairie conditions.
not their preferred fodder.
70
STINKWEED
Thiaspi arvense
However,
a well-fertilized crop that has a
head
start
over
stinkweed will compete well.
Management Strategy
Control of
seed
is
of winter annuals
fall rosettes
is
important so that
not formed early the following spring. During any
tillage operations plants
with developed pods should not be
turned under because they can continue to ripen on the stalks

in
warm
soil.
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
Summer fallow - Till early in the spring after stinkweed

Make a shallow tillage in summer if needed. Fall
emerges.
tillage will control the
Pre-seeding tillage
control
weed
winter annual rosettes.
To minimize
competition with the crop,
seedlings in the spring with a shallow tillage oper-
ation before or during the seeding operation. If overwintered
stinkweed
is
a problem,
required
if
till
early in the spring.
Post-seeding tillage should not be
pre-seeding tillage
is
done, or
if
seeding
is after
the
main spring weed emergence.

Fall tillage
Fall tillage controls rosettes that
would otherwise
overwinter and stimulates germination of annual
Shallow
tillage in early
October with a
weed
seeds.
field cultivator will
conserve some crop residue and destroy weed seedlings.
Life Cycle
Rotation
A summer and winter annual that reproduces by seed.
Crop
rotation alone will not control stinkweed.
low year
Emergence
soil.
Emergence of summer annuals occurs mainly

Seeds of winter annual germinate in
late
in the rotation will help to
Seedlings will
still
A summer fal-
reduce seed levels in the
germinate from existing seeds.
in early spring.
summer; seedlings
Seeding
overwinter and continue to grow in the spring.
Seed
after the
main weed seedling emergence. Waiting
stinkweed to emerge
may
for
delay seeding slightly.
Flowers
Winter annuals can flower
in early spring.
Flower and seed
Mowing
production of both forms take place throughout the summer.
Mowing
cutting.
Reproduction
Stinkweed seed can
live for
up
to six years in the tillage zone.
Seeds that are buried deeper than the
up
to
face.
tillage
zone can
20 years and germinate when the come close
Dormancy of stinkweed seeds
is
live for
to the sur-
encouraged by a thick
seed coat.
Competition
Stinkweed can compete with crops for moisture and
nutrients.
71
prevents seed production but short plants
may
escape
STORKS-BILL
Erodium cicutarium
Courtesy of Manitoba Agriculture
and can withstand drought.
takes moisture from the crop and
It
can cause severe yield reductions in dry years. Heavily seed-
have a head
ed, vigorous crop that
pete well. Fall rye provides
start
over stork's-bill com-
good competition
in light soils.
Management Strategy
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
Summer fallowbecause
new
Stork's-bill is persistent
on summer fallow
flushes occur after each tillage.
Each
flush of
weeds must be controlled before seed production. Repeated

shallow tillage controls existing weeds and stimulates
weed growth and
new
eventually exhausts seed reserves in the
Pre-seeding tillags
soil.
Early, shallow cultivation encourages
germination of stork's-bill seeds. These seedlings can be

destroyed with a second spring tillage
The
POD
date of seeding
may be
SEED
may
give
some
at
or before seeding.
delayed slightly.
Post-emergent cultivation with a harrow
control of stork's-bill in deep-seeded cereal
crops.
Pall tillage
Late
fall tillage
controls the biennial or winter
annual rosettes that would otherwise overwinter and flower

the following year.
Life Cycle
Stork' s-bill
annual.
is
reported to act as an annual, biennial or winter
On cultivated
land in Alberta, this
Rotation
weed grows mainly

Stork's-bill
as an annual.
is
very competitive, so infested fields should be
summer fallowed
or seeded to a competitive crop. Fall rye
good crop choice. Seed production of stork's-bill

by an
Emergence
Main emergence
is in
is
prevented
early harvest of fall rye.
mid-spring and continues through the
summer.
Seeding
Flowers
This
is
weed flowers from
Spring seeding
may be delayed
required to
emerging
ing tillage
early July through August.
kill
is
if
two
tillage
stork's-bill. If the
passes are
need for post-seed-
anticipated, then a cereal crop should be planted.
Seeding of winter annual crops should be done
gence of winter annual
after fall
emer-
stork's-bill.
Reproduction
Seeds readily germinate
after tillage operations.
Seeds remain
Mowing
viable for one to three years in the soil. Cleaning stork's-bill
seed from crops that have small seeds can be
Mowing
difficult.
is
only partially effective for controlling seed produc-
tion of stork's-bill. This
missed by the mower.
Competition
Soil disturbance during seeding encourages a flush of stork'sbill
seedlings to emerge. These
and compete strongly with
it.
weeds emerge with
Stork's-bill
the crop
grows very dense
72
low growing weed
will likely be
TARTARY BUCKWHEAT
Fagopyrum tataricum
Per cent yield loss

Tartary buckwheat plants
Wheat
Barley
/ft^
0.5
1
3
5
8
10
15
20
Management Strategy
Eradication of tartary buckwheat seedlings and sowing clean seed
are the strategies to follow for control of this weed.
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
Summer fallow- Because of the short dormancy period and viability
of tartary buckwheat seeds,
trol this
summer fallow can effectively
con-
weed. Tillage encourages germination of wild buckwheat
seeds and subsequent tillage destroys the seedlings.
Life Cycle
An annual that reproduces by seed.
Pre-seeding tillage
tion.
ed.
Early, shallow tillage encourages germina-
When the seedUngs emerge the land should be tilled and seed-
Seeding will be delayed about 10 days and some surface mois-
ture will
be
lost.
Emergence
Post-seeding tillage - Post-seeding
The main seedling emergence is
tillage
should be done in cere-
in early to mid-spring with spo-
radic germination throughout the
als only,
summer.
when other control measures
are not feasible.
Fall tillage - If warm, dry weather follows harvest then shallow fall
tillage will
Flowers
resulting
Flowers are produced four to five weeks

the
weed continues flowering until fall.
indeterminate growth habit, so the
immature seed and mature seed
emergence and
is winter-killed. If
conditions after harvest are cold
and wet, the weed seeds will not mature properly and
Tartary buckwheat has an
same
at the
after plant
encourage germination of tartary buckwheat seeds; the
growth
be
left until
tillage
should
spring so that dormant seeds are not buried.
plant can have flowers,
same time.
Rotation
Summer fallow and forage crops will help to reduce tartary buck-
Reproduction
wheat populations.
Seeds of tartary buckwheat ripen three to four weeks

ing.
Mature seeds germinate
conditions or
viable for
up
go dormant
to three years.
time. Seeds of wild
and
after four to five
weeks
in cool, moist conditions.
Dormancy
tartary
lasts for the
after flower-
in
warm, dry
Seeds remain
Seeding
same amount of
buckwheat are the most
Delay spring seeding about 10 days so
common
desti-oyed
impurities of cereals and account for a large percentage of dockage.
buckwheat
Competition
Tartary buckwheat
dockage
by
is
tillage.
At
other times
till
that
weed seedHngs
before seeding
are
if tartary
a problem.
Mowing
is
a strong competitor and
in cereal grains. Its seed is similar in
cereal seed, so cleaning
is difficult.
is
responsible for
shape and size to
The following table shows
mated yield losses of barley and wheat caused by

wheat. Actual yield losses
Mowing delays shoot growth of tartary buckwheat but seed production resumes because of the plant's indeterminate growing
esti-
habit. In forages,
tartary
two
cuttings per season are necessary to reduce
bucktartary
may vary from year to year depending
on climatic conditions.
73
buckwheat populations.
TOADFLAX
Linaria vulgaris
Reproduction
Seed
Toadflax seeds have no dormancy period and can germinate
soon as they are shed. They remain viable for up
as
to three years
in the soil.
Vegetative
New shoots
emerge from deep, running root
store food for the
stocks.
The
roots
weed.
Competition
Toadflax
offer the
a strong competitor. Perennial and annual grasses
is
most competition against
this
weed.
Management Strategy
Prevention of seed production and root starvation are the key
to control.
Mechanisms
Control
Tillage
Summer fallow - Apply
the principal of root starvation.
Cultivation every three to four weeks, beginning in June, will

control but not eliminate toadflax.
Where wind
ous problem, work the land in alternate 80
erosion
is
a seri-
m (87 yd) wide strips
of crop and fallow. Alternate these strips the following year.
Pre-seedlng tillage
remove
Tillage before seeding will
top-
growth and give crop seedlings a better chance for establishment

This
is
not effective for control of estab-
lished stands of toadflax but can destroy existing

in cereals. Tillage
are not spread.
seedlings
when
Fall tillage
must be very shallow so
However,
Begin
by
encourage a flush of weed
tillage will
tillage as
soon as the crop
tillage operations
ground for more than

killed
seedling;
seeds are brought to the surface.
Regrowth between
Life Cycle
weed
that toadflax roots
is
harvested.
should not remain above
five to eight days, until top
growth
is
frost.
A perennial that spreads by seeds and creeping roots.

Rotation
Emergence
Nev
Alternate fallow and crops to reduce toadflax stands in cereah
shoots and seedlings emerge throughout the season,
beginning
in midspring.
and prevent interference with grain production. Three cycles
Seeds germinate from very shallow
of this rotation can reduce toadflax stands by 90 per cent. Fall
depths and will germinate on the soil surface.
rye
is
good crop
to
choose for
this rotation.
Two
grain crops
can follow a year of intensive cultivation without dramatic

increases in the toadflax stand. Post-harvest and pre-seeding
Flowers
This weed flowers from June through
tillage are required in this rotation.

fall,
with shoots flower-
A perennial grass can fol-
low a year of summer fallow. Bromegrass or crested wheat-
ing earlier than seedlings.
grass will compete well against toadflax.
74
Seeding
Seed cereals
at
a rate heavier than normal to compete well
with toadflax stands.
Mowing
Mowing
helps to decrease seed production but will not elimi-
nate toadflax stands.
Biological control
Two
insects are already widely established
on most toadflax
infestations in Alberta, a small beetle, Brachypterolus pulicarius,
and a weevil Gymnaetron antirrhini. They feed
in the
flowers and prevent seed production.
Brachypterolus pulicarius usually appears earlier in the year,
damages
the tips of the flowering shoots and prevents devel-
opment of many flowers. Check
the flowers
on toadflax
infes-
tations for these insects. B. pulicarius is a small, black, shiny,

flat beetle
about 2-3
abundant;
it
is
mm in length. G.
antirrhini
slightly larger, rounder, duller
is
usually less
and dark grey.
If
these insects are not present, they can be introduced by plac-
ing infested toadflax branches

toadflax.
Take care not
among
the flowering shoots of
to spread toadflax
seed around with
the insects.
Another insect
lunula.
The
is
being tested in Alberta, the moth Calophasia
caterpillars of this
moth feed on
the leaves and
flowers of toadflax. They are striking in appearance; the caterpillars are
in length
mottled with yellow, black and grey and up to 3
when
full
grown. This insect has been established
Ontario since 1962 and
is
sometimes abundant enough
cm
in
to
completely defoliate small patches of toadflax. This insect
bred and overwintered in Alberta on the
For identification of these insects, or

to obtain
initial release.
to inquire
about where
them, contact the Alberta Environmental Centre or
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development.
WHITE COCKLE
Silene alba
Vegetative
Plants may form from
cm of root attached.
segments can not
crown-root segments with as
Till
little
as 1
during dry weather so that crown-rool
re-root.
Competition
White cockle can be competitive
in the year of forage establist
ment, but after harvest the competitive effects are less severe.
Strong stands of annual crops offer competition against white
cockle.
Management Strategy
Prevent seed production, Plant weed-free seed.
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summer fallow - Deep
cultivation will destroy white cockle
during dry weather. Seed reserves in the soil will decrease

plants
if
do not produce seed.
Pre-seedlng tillage
Early spring tillage destroys plants that
overwinter and encourages germination of seeds by exposing
them
to light.
A second spring tillage at seeding destroys any
seedlings.
Because shallow
tillage
encourages the
germination of white cockle seeds, post-seeding
tillage is not
recommended.
Life Cycle
White cockle
that
Fall tillage
Carbohydrates are stored most rapidly in
September and early October. Cultivation should follow
a fleshy-rooted biennial or short-lived perennial
is
this
period and be deep enough to cut below the crowns of the
sometimes behaves as an annual. This weed reproduces
cockle plants. Cut the roots completely because
mainly by seed or from buds on crown-root segments.
wh
new plants
ca
form from root pieces.
Emergence
Seed germination occurs from early spring through
Rotation
fall.
Include only
summer fallow
or annual crops in the rotation
if
infestations are severe. Perennial forage seed often contains
Flowers
white cockle seed. White cockle will persist in a perennial
This weed flowers from June to October. The earliest flowers
that is not disturbed.
are
from plants
that
sta
have overwintered.
Seeding
Reproduction
Tillage before seeding will promote germination of weed seec
and will help
Seeds
to decrease
white cockle populations. Tillage
destroys seedlings that have emerged.
White cockle
is
a prolific seed producer. Seed matures in cap-
sules four to five
weeks
after
flower formation. Immature seeds
can be viable two to three weeks after pollination. Seed

for
one
to three years
and a short dormancy
may
occur.
is
viable
Mowing
White
Mowing when
cockle seed requires light for germination, so tillage encourages
the plants are in flower
weakens white cockle
and prevents seed production. Secondary growth
germination.
from crown buds
76
in response to
mowing.
may emerge
WILD BUCKWHEAT
Polygonum convolvulus
large percentage of dockage.
good feed
Wild buckwheat seeds make
for poultry.
Competition
Wild buckwheat grows toward
plants. This
the light and entangles crop
weed can cause crops
becomes entangled
to lodge.
Wild buckwheat
machinery, particularly during harvest.
in
Management Strategy
Use weed-free seed and destroy
Control
seedlings.
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summer fallow - Summer

weed because
its
viability. Tillage
fallow can effectively control this
seeds have a short period of dormancy and
encourages germination of wild buckwheat
seeds, and subsequent tillage destroys the seedlings.
Pre-seeding tillage
nation. Till
Early, shallow tillage encourages germi-
and seed when the seedlings emerge. Seeding will
be delayed by as
much
as 10 days
and some surface moisture
will be lost.
when
Use post-seeding
Fall tillage
if
fall tillage will
warm
dry weather follows the harvest, shallow
is
harvest are cold and wet, the
An
erly
the
first
prolonged
warm
in
and
tillage
should be
winter-killed. If conditions after
weed seeds
left until
will not mature prop-
spring so that dormant
seeds are not buried.
Emergence
Most seedlings emergence
only in cereals
encourage germination of wild buckwheat
seeds; the resulting growth
Life Cycle
tillage
other control measures are not feasible.
Rotation
Summer fallow and
midspring in association with
period. Sporadic seed germination
forage crops will help to reduce wild
occurs throughout the growing season. Germination takes

place in the top 5
cm
of
soil.
Mowing
Mowing
Flowers
Wild buckwheat has an indeterminate flowering
same
time. This
forages,
Reproduction
to live longer than
three years. After maturation, seeds can germinate in four to

five
weeks
if
tions are cool

last for
up
are the
most
weather conditions are
warm and
dry. If condi-
and wet, seeds will go dormant. Dormancy can
to three years.
common
two cuttings per season
at
weed flowers from May through October.
Seeds of wild buckwheat do not appear
buckwheat growth but seed production

habit. In
habit, so the
same plant can have flowers, immature seed and mature seed
the
inhibits wild
resumes because of the plant's indeterminate growing
Seeds of wild and tartary buckwheat
impurities of cereals and account for a
77
are necessary to reduce wild
WILD MUSTARD
Sinapis arvensis
Competition
In early spring wild mustard has a competitive advantage over
crops because of
its
However, this weed

grow well and does not com-
rapid early growth.
requires high light intensity to
pete with heavily seeded, well-fertilized crops.
Management Strategy
Seeds of wild mustard are viable for up
60 years and are
to
easily spread with canola seed. For these reasons, clean seed
and the prevention of weed seed formation are extremely

important in the control of wild mustard.
Control
Mechanisms
Tillage
Summef fallow - Wild

cultivation.
when
the
The
mustard seedlings are easily killed with
first tillage
should be in mid to
late spring
main flush of weeds has emerged. Follow with addi-
tional tillage only
when
Pre-seeding tillage
destroy existing
Shallow
weed
required.
tillage at or
before seeding will
seedlings.
If
weed
seedlings are controlled
at
or
before seeding then post-seeding tillage should not be

required.
Fall tillage
emerged
Fall tillage is required only if
late in the
weeds
that
season will produce mature seed before
freeze-up.
Rotation
Wild mustard
is
not eliminated through crop rotation because
seeds remain viable in the soil for up to 60 years. Perennial

forage crops discourage germination of wild mustard seeds.
Life Cycle
The seeds remain dormant when oxygen
An annual that reproduces by
is
not available.
seed.
Seeding
Emergence
The main
Seed as early as the land can be
flush of seedlings
is in
Flowers
Mowing
Wild mustard flowers from
Mowing keeps
through
fall.
destroys
Reproduction
Seed matures
six
soon as the seed
weeks
after full
falls to the
flower and can germinate as
ground. Seeds that are buried
immediately go dormant. Dormancy
is
a result of
low oxygen
levels beneath the soil surface. Seeds can remain viable for
to
60 years
This allows the crop to

in the
season.
germination throughout the summer.
May
tilled.
be competitive with wild mustard that emerges earlier
early spring with sporadic
up
in the soil.
78
weeds
wild mustard from going to seed. Fall

if fall tillage is
not possible.
mowing
WILD OATS
Avena
fatua
Germination
Wild oats germinate throughout
growing season. The main
the
flush occurs in the spring with a secondary flush in the
The germination period
much
varies as
warm and
depending on weather conditions. Under
main
ditions, the
fall.
as three weeks,
moist con-
flush can occur over a short period of time
and before crop emergence. Under prolonged cool weather,
may
germination
The optimum
is
soil
continue until after the crop emerges.

temperature for the germination of wild oats
between 16 and 22 C. Germination
slow
soil
at
moisture
is
adequate. However,
germination can occur
The wild
slow
is
33C. Most germination occurs
4C and very
at
depths of 2 to 5
at
the surface layer
if
cm
if
dry,
depths up to 20 cm.
at
oat seed will not germinate while exposed to light;
must be buried. Seed can be buried naturally by wind

soil, soil
washed by water or through
process.
When wild
As
is
oat seed
the seed dries out the
is
awn
it
drifted
unusual self-burial
its
awn unwinds.
moistened, the
twists again. Alternate wetting
and drying enables the wild oat
to
bury
itself,
thereby satisfy-
ing one condition for germination.

Most wild
oats germinate and
emerge
Cool, moist conditions promote
in early to mid-spring.
maximum
emergence, so
crops that are seeded early are usually the most heavily infested. Fall or early spring applications of nitrogen fertilizer stim-
ulate germination.
slow for the

on.
first
Most wild
Growth of roots and shoot of wild
oats
is
two weeks, but increases quickly from then
oats
tiller
within a
month of emergence.
Flowers
Wild
to
oats usually start to flower in early July and
flower for up to six weeks. Seeds
of the panicle
at the
Life Cycle
An annual grass that reproduces by
may
base are
ripen and
filled.
fall to
at the tip
may
continue
of the main axis
the ground before the seeds
Seeds shatter as they mature and are shed
by mid-August, generally before the crop
is
harvested.
seed.
Reproduction
Distribution
Wild
Seed
oats occur in almost all cultivated fields in Alberta but
Mature seeds of wild oats are usually dormant when they
are less severe in the south-east of the province.
ter.
Dormancy
seeds ripen.
If
is
broken by warm, dry conditions
moisture
is
available
Fields with wild oats after a herbicide treatment
shat-
after the
when dormancy is broken,

become dormant
the seeds will germinate; otherwise they
Region
Region
Percentage
1
(Lethbridge area)
27
again.
The annual
rates of seed germination are:
Region
11
(Calgary area)
29
Region
III
(Red Deer area)
54
The spring following seeding
(Vermilion area)
61
The second spring following seeding
55
The remaining 3 per cent may have what is termed deepseated dormancy and can germinate for up to 12 years.
Region IV
Region
Region VI
(Peace River area)
67
79
up
to
80 per
-
up
to
cent.
97 per
cent.
Pre-seeding tillage
Vegetative
Though not
thaw. This
major method of reproduction, wild oats are capa-
ble of vegetative regeneration.
planted and regrown
if
Wild oat plants can be
trans-
good
for plant
Tillage prior to seeding should be done before
by the
dates of wild oats and the crop. If wild oats
The
may vary from
Fall tillage
exposed
year to year
low
depending on climatic conditions.
any crop damage.
to prevent
to
Fall tillage is useful if wild oat seeds
tillage will lightly
Time of
emergence*
wild oats and crop
per ft^
emerged
same time
Canola
Wheat
at the
Barley
factor
A cultivator is more suitable than a
14
11
10
11
16
15
13
19
18
17
25
24
20
28
34
44
21
10
24
29
34
32
35
43
50
30
33
20
cool and moist, avoid
to the elements.
(+/-)
47
When
an infestation of wild oats
is
moderate
to heavy,
and the
of low density,
mowing
crop
is
sure.
Wild oats should be mowed
2.5
mowing can
56
62
75
88
41
Mowing
0.5
2.5
result in wild oat
is
an effective preventive meaat the
shot-blade stage. Early
regrowth and seeds can
still
be
produced.
3
3
Mowed wild oats can be used for greenfeed or,
*The time of emergence information was developed experimentally for

barley and wheat only. However, it may also be accurate for canola
seeds have
set, for silage.
if
some of the
The fermentation process
will
destroy wild oat seed viability.
Add or subtract the appropriate number for every day wild

emerge before or after the crop. For example, if wild oats at 2
plants per square foot emerge 3 days before barley, the yield loss
changes from 11 to 14 per cent.
and
is
Flax
0.5
15
A shal-
dormant wild oat seeds remain on the surface
tillage so that
exposed
have been
cover wild oat seeds and promote early
germination in the spring.
percentage yield loss
A shallow cultivation
two or three weeks of warm, dry weather.
discer or harrow. If fall weather
Wild oats
valuable because
is
seedlings.
by various densities of wild
actual losses
emergence
influence competition. Increased growth rates and densities of
oats in four crops.
during
the wild oats cannot re-establish.
with a rod-weeder or harrows will eliminate wild oat
wild oats increase crop yield losses. The following table shows
the estimated yield losses caused
cm
warm, dry weather so
than those that emerge with or after the crop. Till before crop
emerge before the
when the crop emerges first.

of growth of the weed and the crop alone
crop, yield losses are greater than
Density and rates
the
wild oats that emerge before the crop are more competitive
emergence
relative
par-
weeds reach
they use. Tillage should be to a depth of 2.5 to 5
Competition
greatly influenced
is
three-leaf stage. This minimizes the moisture and nutrients
ed) wild oat plants are capable of vegetative propagation.
is
of heavy, wet soils
tillage
ticularly important.
growth. Even severely injured (mutilated, sectional or segment-
Competition
aerates the soil and stimulates early ger-
mination of wild oats. Early
cultivation is incorrectly or incompletely
carried out, and field and weather conditions are
Till as early as possible after spring
warms and
flax.
oats
Rotation
Fall-seeded crops emerge early the next spring and can smother the
Management Strategy
emerging wild
oats. Fall rye is generally
more vigorous
and competitive than winter wheat.
Prevent seed production,
Encourage germination of existing seed reserves.
Land seeded
to perennial forage for three or
more years can
provide good control for heavy infestations of wild oats.
However, some wild oat seeds can survive under sod and germinate
Control Meclianisms
when
the sod
is
broken.
A green-feed crop such as oats can be seeded early to enable a
Preventing seed set of wild oats in annual crops
is
very
diffi-
competitive advantage over the wild oats.
To
prevent
weed
cult unless the crop is taken off early for greenfeed or silage.
seed production, cut the crop before the panicles of wild oats
Therefore, a combination of cultural and chemical control
start to
methods are needed
any seeds produced.
to attack a
wild oat problem.
emerge from the sheath. Silage
Use annual crops

seeds that break dormancy.
emerge
after
in the rotation, especially the
tive crops so that yield losses are
Tillage
each
increases the
tillage operation.
Summer
fall
more competi-
minimized and the wild oats
are suppressed. In descending order, barley, canola
number of
are the
A new stand of wild oats will
grazed to control wild oats. Seed
effectively destroys
most competitive small
and wheat
grains.
fallow can be
crops in the same year as
Delayed seeding
the fallow to provide competition against wild oats that germi-
Delay seeding
nate in the spring.
80
to allow time for
wild oat seedlings to be
destroyed by tillage before or
at seeding.
ing crop such as barley. Yields
Seed an early matur-
may be reduced
if
seeding
is
delayed by more than 10 to 14 days.
Fertilization
Nitrogen
late
fertilizers
broadcast in the early spring can stimu-
wild oat emergence. This can enable more complete
control prior to seeding. Phosphorous fertilizer drilled in
with the seed promotes more vigorous crop growth that

helps to smother wild oat plants and reduce wild oat seed
production.
Phosphorous
fertilizer
piacement
Control
no
fertilizer
Drilled with barley
Seed
yield fbu/ac)
Barley
Wild oats
33
62
12
Chemical control
Several herbicides are available for control of wild oats in the
various crops. Both pre-emergent and post-emergent herbicides can be used.
Refer to Crop Protection with Chemicals, Alberta Agriculture,
Food and Rural Development, Agdex 606-1
for the
most
suit-
able herbicide.
Multi-technique Approach
Like most other weeds, successful control of wild oats will
require a combination of tillage, crop rotation and chemical
control.
Each
situation has to be evaluated
control method(s) taken.
and the appropriate
INSECT CONTROL
how
adult and
you make sound,

economical pest control decisions. Although insect biology is an extensive subject, a few words on this matter now
you
will help
become
Press, 1989 to
Biology
Understanding
insects live will help
Know your
Insect control
Insect development
is
complete or
classified as either
plete
development proceed through
growth stages; those
that
natural enemies.
distinctly different
Of these two
complete development have biological
traits that
species.
Insects with complete development hatch
out
make
adult
is
is
the reproductive
beetles, flies,
moths and
larvae of these insects,
an economic threshold
is
available for an insect-crop
remain below economic
levels. Also, estimate
Upon
the
always necessary. Survival of each
and normally mobile stage of the
pupa and
in crops
butterflies.
known by
adult) will be influenced
life
stage (egg, larva,
by factors such as
weather, diseases, predators and food supply.
such as the
Most often
various
how
economic damage.
insects are necessary to cause
transformed into the adult. The
commonly found
food needs, food pref-
habits,
large
group of insects includes many
insect's life cycle. This
orders of species
and
about the
number of moths does not necessarily mean that there

will be a large number of caterpillars. Insects require certain conditions to multiply or to cause damage. A good
food source for the larvae and good weather conditions are
from the egg
pupa (frequently called cocoon). During
called the
if
will
completion of growth, the larva changes to a resting stage

pupal stage, the insect
its
know something
problem. Determine under what circumstances populations
many
stage into the feeding and growing larval stage.
should
erences, reproductive cycle and habitat requirements. Find
groups, insects with
them the more numerous group of pest
You
insect's biology including
have gradual development pro-
ceed through growth stages in which the young look very

similar to the adult.
necessary in one circumstance and
insect mortality factors as weather, food availability
have com-
that
pest
may be
not in another, depending upon the impact of such natural
gradual (incomplete). Insects progress through a series of
growth stages during development. Insects
their habits.
Assess the Potential for Insect Damage
problems.
to anticipate insect
familiar with the appearance of
immature insects and
it
is
the
Know your
common names
allies
such as caterpillars, maggots and grubs, that damage
You may
find predators and parasites of pests during field
crops.
scouting.
You may
Insects with gradual development also arise
However, unlike
from eggs.
of natural pest control.
insects with complete development, these
you may be able
pest,
insects
go through a
series of
before becoming adults.
growth stages called nymphs
Nymphs and
is
no resting stage (pupa)
its
to.
and may have
consume
Know
cutworms
moths consume only
flower nectar or other such fluids.
Many
you don't have
harming beneficial
may be
tors(aphid-eating larvae of syrphid
saprophages,
flies),
the
economic threshold
control measures should be started to prevent an increas-
ing pest population from causing economic injury. This
adult flies eat
only nectar and pollen while the maggots
Nymphs
also be able to avoid
Economic threshold is an important concept of integrated

pest management (IPM). This is the pest density at which
different food. Thus, although
maggots of fruit flies

maggots in canola).
You may
after shed-
skin for the last time.
are foliage or stem feeders, the
the enemies of your
insects during pest control.
Adults and larvae of insects with complete development

often
you know
judge whether they will contribute
in this group; the
mature nymph becomes the reproductive adult

ding
If
to
significantly to killing off the pest so that
adults look very
similar, except that the adults are larger
wings. There
also see dead or diseased insects infect-
ed with viruses, fungi or other pathogens. These are signs
density
preda-
may be
the
number of pests per
plant, pests per
square metre, pests per sweep of an insect net or some

other suitable measure.
in rotting fruit) or plant eaters (root
The percentage of plants damaged
when
of insects with gradual development, such as
pests develop inside plants,
is
sometimes used
when
pests are difficult
sweep because of dense or tough foliage, or as

an additional piece of information to complement other
measures of pest density. Several sampling methods may
be required to monitor pest numbers because no single
method is suitable for all species nor for the whole growing season (See Field Scouting). Many economic threshto see or
grasshoppers, aphids and thrips, generally feed on the
same food
as the adult forms.
Information on where insects are found

of the year
problem.
is
helpful
when you
at different
By uncovering grasshopper eggs
sides or other favored spots,
is
different,
laid
along road-
olds currently in use are estimates that are not fully sup-
you can judge the potential
abundance of these insects prior

pest's biology
times
try to anticipate a pest
ported by research.
Because each
consult a handbook such as
to planting.
Some economic
developed for major pests of crops
When
Insect Pests of the Prairies, University of Alberta
82
pest density or
thresholds have been
in
damage reaches
Western Canada.
the
economic
Economic thresholds
for insects attaclcing cereals
and corn of the Canadian
Prairies
Economic threshold
Notes on managing infestations
Greenbug
Seedling: 5-15: Boot: 10-25 (aphids/stem)
Birdcherry-oat
Seedling: 20: Boot:
30 (aphids/stem)
Corn
Seedling: 20: Boot:
30 (aphids/stem)
beyond the soft dough stage. Aphid populations

decrease rapidly as heads mature.
Birdcherry-oataphid and greenbug can vector
Insect
Do
Aphids
leaf
English grain
Seedling: 30: Boot: 50 (aphids/stem
Russian wheat
Winter cereals: Seedling: 15-20% after October
not treat aphid infestations
barley yellow dwarf virus.

1st;
toxin
when
Greenbug
cereals
injects
which stunts plants.
Spring cereals: Seedling: 10-15%; Boot: 15-20%
(% plants
infested).
Armyworm
More than
Barley thrips
Mean
lO/m'^.
on a sample
50 stems, chemical control = $5.75/acre
and market value = $1 .90/bushel)
of 7.5 thrips/stem (based
size of
a 0.4 bushel/acre loss
Redbacked
in
in
another.
8.4
30
3-4/m2.
with
Army cutworm
one thrips/stem have resulted

in one instance and
.25 bushel/acre loss
PWC larvae/m^ caused 25% loss in wheat;

PWC larvae/m^ caused 00% yield loss.
PWC & RBC: Well established crops
Cutworms
Pale western
Infestations of
good moisture can
tolerate higher
numbers.
5-6/m2.
1
cm of row for plants less than 30 cm

cm of row for plants 1 2-1 5 cm tall
-2/30
4/30
tall;
having adequate moisture.
European corn borer
Dryland grain corn: Economic loss
occur
when 50%
of plants
show
will
leaf feeding
(shot-holing).
Grain stink bug
Wheat: 1/head caused losses greater than 30%.
Grasshoppers
Control required
more/m^
Hessian
fly
None
in
when hoppers number 13
fields or
25 or more/m^
in
or
roadsides.
Control
Death
available.
may be
7-12/m2
required
in fields
when hoppers number
13-24/m2
or
wheat
of individual
lllc cllllic pidlll iildy
in
roadsides.
or barley
IcoUll
11
tillers
lliurc Uldll
or of
bcvcidl
larvae are present per plant.
Orange wheat blossom

midQG
1/5
Wheat stem sawfly
None
heads
of wheat.
Infestations of 30,
60 and 90% reduced spring

QnH ou/o
PnP/* icofjct/uvyiy.
rocnopti\/ol\/
do diiu
\A/HoQt
A.C\
wiiwdL \/iolHc
yiwiuo K\/
uy H-u,
Resistant varieties are required
available.
the previous crop
stems
83
of
was
if
10
cut by sawfly.
wheat averaged
7%
15%
of
Infested
yield loss.
Economic thresholds
for insects attaclting oilseed
crops on the Canadian Prairies
Economic Threshold
Insect
Flax: 8-10 aphids/stem at
Aphids
Notes on Managing Infestations

green
bell
stage
Canola: rarely a problem.
Army cutworm
Bertha
armyworm
Diamondback moth
Seedling mustard: less than S/m^.
20 larvae/m^ consume the equivalent

canola seed/ha (1 .16 bu/ac).
Control not required
in
canola
until
of
65 kg
larvae exceed
200-300/m2.
if
Sunflower beetle
Threshold
may be
lower for Polish
if
50%
leaf tissue
consumed; less
growing and moisture conditions are poor.
Control required with

1
to
Polish type canola.
than for Argentine type canola.
Control required
Flea beetles
Economic threshold may not apply
adult/2-3 seedlings or over
0 larvae/plant.
Severe
plants
leaf
in
damage may occur to

when
the 2-6 leaf stage
adults are numerous, or at any
time
Sunflower maggots
None
Sunflower midge
Losses are more severe around field

edges. Losses can be estimated by
sampling heads and classifying them on
the basis of the degree of head distortion.
Sunflower seed
weevils
(red
&
grey)
when
larvae are numerous.
established.
Oil sunflower:
10-12 seed weevil adults/head.
Confectionery sunflower:
One
adult/head.
Seed destruction and head distortion

can cause serious losses in the Red
River Valley of Manitoba.
Apply treatment
30-70%
at early anthesis
of sunflower
heads are
in
when
early pollen
formation (R-5.1 stage). For example, treat
when 30-70%
and
at least
of plants
one row
Reinfestation
may
show
ray petals
of disc flowers.
occur
in
areas with a high
weevil population. Fields should be
rechecked when 80-100% of heads are

R-5.5 stage.
84
at the
Economic thresholds
for insects attacking forage
and special crops on the Canadian
Insect
Economic Threshold
Alfalfa weevil
Alfalfa
Notes on Managing Infestations
hay crops: 20-30 larvae/sweep

a 12% leaf loss; 50-75
will result in a 30%
loss. At peak larval populations,
will result in
larvae/sweep
leaf
56 larvae/stem
will
Prairies
hay crops: Apply controls when

25-50% of leaves on upper one-third of
stem show damage or when 50-70% of
terminals show injury.
Alfalfa
return treatment
costs.
Alfalfa
seed crops: 20-25 larvae/90
sweep or when 35-50%

show damage.
of foliage tips
Canary Grass: More than 50 per head

between heading and soft dough.
Aphids
Pea aphid
Field Peas: Usually from 1-4 aphids/

r*rn
ctom tin
RH-T^P^
nf nlantc
pidlllo
Olit oLc^lll
Up \A/hon
Wllcll OU
f o /o Ul
on
have begun
75-100 aphids/plants.
more than 25%
study,
1430 aphids/sweep
did
In
another, caged alfalfa initially infested

nn-Onn
ir'oH tocc
UuûU anhiHc/nlant
dpi IIUo/|Jlal 11 nrnHi
piUUUUcU
iC7oo
\A/ith
Willi 1
than uninfested plants.
Alfalfa:
Sugar beet: Only
one
forage and had lower carotene content
to flower.
Beet leafmlner
In
not reduce the yield of alfalfa.
infestations causing
defoliation require
treatment.
uiciooiiuppdo
Alfalfa*
'^pp P.prpalc: anri P.nrn tahip
Safflower:
Plant
bugs
More than
Alfalfa seed;
Lygus
or
Plagioguathus
alfalfa is in
all
S/m^.
5 nymphs/sweep (any
species of plant bugs)
when
bud or bloom.
Superb
Sweetclover weevil
Seedling crop (cotyledon stage):

1
weevil/5 seedlings under slow
growing conditions or
weevil/3
seedlings under normal growing

conditions.
Newly emerged 2nd-year sweetclover:

9-12 weevils/plant.
Red clover thrips
Red
clover seed fields:
insignificant unless
Damage
50-80
Threshold levels have occurred only during

years of early spring drought on dryland.
thrips/
raceme are present.
85
threshold, control measures should be taken.
Using the
economic threshold as a guide eliminates unnecessary

measures that increase costs of crop production, interfere
with natural control of the pest, and may add to environ-
Carrying capacity
mental pollution.
Exponential
Know the economic injury level

A related concept, which determines the economic threshold, is the
economic injury
pest density that causes

trol
level (EIL).
damage equal
EIL
is
Logistic
the lowest
to the cost of
con-
measures. Several factors determine the EIL: crop
response to injury, consumer
demand
for
unblemished
produce, crop market value, control costs, and the type of

pest damage.
Some
At low population levels, species reproduce as though

resources were unlimited. Many offspring are produced
and mortality is low. At high population levels, fewer
because they depend on
to estimate; others are difficult
complex biological processes about which
An
Time
of these factors are relatively simple
known.
little is
important principle of integrated pest management
that the presence of a pest in a crop
resources are available, leading to a higher death rate and
is
lower birth
does not mean eco-
some
stop increasing
and food. Populations
the insect population reaches the car-
habitat's carrying capacity is
plants to insects can cause neighboring plants to
curve.
Growth
ple, small infestations of the
bean aphid decrease
growth of the bean plant and increase

if
yields.
more
space, time, weather, parasites, predators and pathogens as
No damage
growth. The following table shows
up
to
Mortality of bertha
population dynamics of pest insects
last forever.
Outbreaks are usually
lowed by the eventual reduction
may
not
in pest
show
numbers.
Life
Cause
of
Per cent
Cumulative
mortality
mortality
survival (%)
Egg
Weather, predators
14
86
18
71
diseases
Early to mid larva
fol-
Some
Late larva
the principle that reproduction
is
Pupa
based on
population density. Without the limits of carrying capaci-
numbers would increase exponentially. The
would
Diseases
_4
SUBTOTAL
78
Physiological
12
16
number
and survival change with
exponential curve in the following figure shows
12
62
Parasites
problem
there.
of insects. The concept of carrying capacity
Physiological, at
pupation
dance: flea beetles in Manitoba have been abundant since
insect's habitat can maintain only a specific
Weather, predators
diseases
a cycle in abun-
the early 1970s and are usually a significant
armyworm
stage
pest insects follow a
cycle of abundance (outbreak) and relative scarcity.
ulation density
such factors influ-
nutrients than the harvestable
The population dynamics of most
insect
how
ence the mortality rate of bertha armyworm.
affecting yield.
pest insects, however,
no catastro-
well as man's intervention combine to limit population
50 per cent of the leaf area of canola seedlings without
Outbreaks do not
and then
In the real world, factors such as food, breeding sites,
tip
parts of the plant can use. Flea beetles can destroy
Know the
the S-shaped
phes occur such as excess rain or extreme temperatures.
small numbers of a pest attack leaves or roots
that are providing
shown by
starts slowly, increases rapidly,
stabilizes near the carrying capacity, providing
exam-
plant part and increases the weight of others. For
ty,
when
are laid because of competi-
sites
rying capacity of the habitat. Population growth restrained
pruning effect on plants that suppresses the growth of one
An
egg laying
by the
light,
produce more. In such cases, small numbers of insects

will not reduce overall yield. Insects may also have a
occurs
Fewer eggs
moisture and nutrition, the loss
with each other for

of
rates.
tion for available
nomic damage will follow. Plants usually compensate for

injury caused by small numbers of pests and in some
cases yields may even increase. Because plants compete
how pop-
Adult
increase. Producers in Alberta will
be familiar with the concept of carrying capacity as
Cultivation injury
14
Low temperature
27
SUBTOTAL
53
50
3.5
Unable
from
it
applies to pasture and cattle.
86
to
soil
emerge
The chief natural enemy of the bertha armyworm is a parasitic

wasp whose larva lives inside the caterpillar but does not kill it
until the caterpillar is nearly full
grown. Notice
Insects with
include: gypsy
that parasites
Of this remaining 16
died from injuries suffered during tillage and 27 per cent from
winter cold. Only 3.5 per cent survived to the adult stage, but
was probably enough to allow for a population
increase in
the next generation. Clearly, a small change in the effect of any
mortality factor can
make
a significant difference in the
above
moth
hardwood
in
forests in eastern
on potatoes. With these pests, even small population

increases can cause damage. The general practice is to
intervene with chemical or other control agents whenever necessary to reduce the population below the economic injury level.
per cent, 12 per cent died of "unknown" causes, 14 per cent
this
levels only slightly
Canada, grasshoppers on cereals in the driest grainproducing areas of Alberta, and Colorado potato beetle
destroyed 62 per cent of late-stage larvae. Sixteen per cent of

the original population survived to pupate.
economic injury
the equilibrium population are perennial pests, and
number
Codling moth on apples
of survivors.
of help from natural mortality.
Farmers get a
lot
early or using
some
other cultural control
By
you can
t
seeding
I
I
further
reduce the survival rate of bertha armyworm.

equilibrium position
Natural mortality often reduces the population below the eco-
nomic
threshold. Populations
have an average equilibrium posi-
tion despite the temporary interventions of pest control.
The
economic injury level

economic threshold
fol-
lowing figures show examples of how population fluctuations

can be related to economic
levels.
l\
M
\i \J
/
\i
modified equilibrium
position
Many insect species feed on cultivated crops without ever

reaching densities high enough to cause economic injury.
TimeiBHHi
Consequently, they are rarely noticed. Examples include alfalfa

caterpillar
on
alfalfa,
club-homed grasshopper on range land
and cabbage aphid on canola.
Insects that have
economic injury
levels
below
the equi-
librium position are severe pests. Examples include
codling moth on apple and European corn borer on fresh
Cabbage aphid on canola
market sweet corn. Regular and constant intervention is

required to produce marketable crops when pests of this
t
economic threshold
group are present. Another example is western flower

thrips on cucumber in greenhouses. Very low population
densities of this insect can cause extensive
budding
arose
florets.
when
resistance to
became apparent. An
J'^\^J'^\^^^\^^/\^
damage
to
A complication in the control of thrips

commonly used
integrated
program
insecticides
is
now being
developed that uses regular releases of a predatory mite,
Amblyseius cucumeris.
TlmeiBMMi^
Colorado potato beetle on potatoes
Other insects are occasional pests that exceed economic injury

levels only
when their population densities increase because of
unusually favorable weather. Examples include forest pests
such as
fall
webworm that becomes epidemic in 5
cycles, alfalfa looper
to
10 year
on canola, and grasshoppers on
cereals.
,L
When their populations peak, pests of this type require some

sort
-m-
-m-
75
-m-
-m-

economic threshold
of intervention, usually chemical, to reduce their numbers
to tolerable levels.
Grasshoppers on wheat
t
economic threshold
87
ALFALFA LOOPER
Autographa californica
and
Insect Life Cycle
may
defoliate a large portion of the plant as well as
clip flowers
Host plants
that results
Although considered general feeders,

alfalfa,
alfalfa loopers prefer
more flowers and
to canola occurs sporadically in north-
is
ern and southern Alberta.
in the
tion
is
Alberta, alfalfa loopers
may
in
set
in yield
not known.
may include conmay also have
for such injuries
The
more and
plants
larger seed.
most significant problem
Flower clipping
in canola, but the plant
can
Sampling methods
overwinter
Beat plants in an area 50
pupal stage. However, most of the Alberta popula-
blown
the
is
normally compensate unless severe damage occurs.
Overwintering
Found throughout
feeding damage
tinued or additional stooling.
spinach and various garden crops, ornamental trees and
Damage
this
Compensation by plants
clover and lettuce. Other hosts include canola, peas,
tree fruits.
and seed pods. The actual decrease
from
from the United States each
cm
x 50
cm
and record the num-
ber of larvae on the ground. Repeat this procedure several
year.
times in different locations to obtain an average number of

larvae per square metre for the field.
Spring appearance
Early
summer moths
are likely to be migrants
United States. The moths appear

generations overlap.
and
fly
all
from the
Economic threshold
summer long because
Moths feed on flower nectar
at
Damage
dusk
No economic threshold has been

However, more than 15 larvae per square
metre, combined with heavy defoliation or flower and pod
during daylight hours.
established.
clipping,
Number
occurs through defoliation and clipping of flowers
and immature seed pods.
may
warrant control.
of generations
There are two or three generations per year.
Management Strategy
Cultural practices
Natural enemies
Pathogens
Avoid growing canola near
A vims disease will usually control late-season
alfalfa.
infestations.
Biological control
If
Damage Assessment
Damage description
field to
determine the numbers of larvae. Delay
an insecticide application as long as possible to allow diseases to control the pest. Historically, the pest has been
Alfalfa loopers are an occasional pest in Alberta. Larvae

are present
an infestation occurs, assess the damage to plants and
sample the
adequately controlled by viral diseases.
from mid June through September. Small larvae
feed on leaf surfaces and medium-sized larvae eat ragged

holes through leaves. Older larvae feed along leaf margins
ALFALFA WEEVIL
Hypera postica
Insect Life Cycle
the
crowns of
ity
and cold springs
alfalfa.
Severe winters
may
may
cause high mortal
prevent egg production.
Host plants
Alfalfa
may
is
the
main crop injured by
Spring appearance
alfalfa weevils, but they
In the spring after alfalfa has started to grow, adults take
feed on clovers, sweetclover and vetches.
flight in search
chew
Overwintering
Adults overwinter
fence lines. They
may
sites to lay eggs.
wooded
of fields,
areas and under debris along
Number
also survive under trash in fields or in
There
88
is
of generations
one generation per year.
Females
abdomens
the holes and lay a cluster of eggs in each hole.
in protected areas, often outside
including windbreaks,
of food plants and
holes in stems, insert the tips of their
into
Sampling methods
Natural enemies
Parasites
Seven
to ten insects parasitize the alfalfa
Early in the season, field inspections to determine the size of
weevil in
Alberta, including a small wasp, Bathyplectes curculionis,
the weevil population and their stage of
which may parastize up
first
to
25 per cent of an
alfalfa
weevil
Alberta
expected damage.
A predatory wasp recently discovered in southern
may be
The number of
weevils or egg punctures indicate the pest's presence and
population in southern Alberta.
Predators
development are the
steps of a successful control program.
beneficial in alfalfa seed fields.
Damsel bugs
To determine
the
number of weevils
20
cm
of the crop with a sweep net. Take sweeps in
ple the top
feed on the weevil larvae.
later in the season,
different parts of the fields. Calculate the average
sam-
number of
adults per sweep.
Damage Assessment
Economic importance
Larvae feed on the growing
where they
fields
if
eat all but the
when
tips
main
Economic threshold
of plants and later on leaves
veins.
sufficiently abundant.
Alfalfa hay crops
They can destroy whole
Damaged
fields
20-30 larvae/sweep can cause a 12 per cent
leaf loss; 50-75 larvae/sweep can cause a
appear as
damage caused by 46 larvae/stem
they were suffering from frost injury.
at the
30 per cent leaf loss;
peak of larval popula-
tion will offset the cost of treatment at that time. Alternative
when 25
thresholds for alfalfa hay crops are to apply controls
Damage
description
damage
Larvae and adults of this weevil feed on

adults
emerge from winter hibernation
Most damage
to alfalfa fields is
by the
which feed inside
and
larvae,
later attack the leaves. In a
done
leaf
to feed
on new shoots.
in late spring
buds
heavy
or
when 50
70 per cent of terminals show
Treat alfalfa seed crops
and summer
at the tips
or
when 35-50
when
there are 20-25 larvae/QO"
per cent of foliage tips
of stems
Management Strategy
Cultural practices
holes in shoots during egg-laying. These punctures are visible
Early harvest of
Newly hatched
larvae feed for three or four days inside the stem before moving up the plant to feed on developing leaf buds. Young larvae
severely damage shoot tips by feeding within the folded
leaves, but the damage is not readily seen. Older larvae feed
when
on open leaves and skeletonize them, leaving only veins and
days
after the alfalfa is cut. If
mine
the cause of the problem.
is
activity.
the field a grayish or frosted appearance.
Leaves notched
damage by weevil
is
most severe
to first-cut alfalfa, but
ond-cut alfalfa also occurs

for a
when
number of years. After
bud
to first
bloom)
new
always practical. Production of green

result in seasonal reductions of
stubble should be checked for signs of re-growth three to five
at
ticide
may be
green-up does not occur, deter-
A stubble treatment of insec-
necessary to control surviving larvae.
adults.
damage
to sec-
soil fertility will
promote more vigorous stands and
lessen the effect of larval feeding.
the insect has been present
the first hay crop
is cut,
larvae
Biological control
While under the windrow, they feed on buds of
the alfalfa crowns, retarding
alfalfa (late
about 50 per cent in total numbers of weevils. However, the
drop into the stubble and concentrate under the windrow for
protection.
growth
chop instead of dry hay can
Proper
Damage
first
larvae are present will reduce populations of
adults, but this is not
most severe toward the terminals, giving
the edges are characteristic of
sweep
show damage.
infestation, the leaves are
Adults cause scars on shoots by feeding and leave puncture
and indicate the level of egg-laying
injury.
alfalfa. In spring,
so badly shredded that the field takes on a frosted appearance.
stems. Defoliation
50 per cent of leaves on the upper one-third of the stem show
In Alberta, this weevil
growth of the second crop.
is
attacked by a parasitic
wasp
that
was
introduced into the United States as part of a biological

control program.
Alfalfa weevil infestation can reduce hay yield by 50 per cent;

the quality of hay
ly
is
also reduced. Feeding
reduce yields of seed
damage may
great-
fields.
ARMY CUTWORM
Euxoa
auxiliaris
Insect Life Cycle
Overwintering
Host plants
The female moths each lay about 1,000 eggs in soft soil in
late August through October. The eggs hatch in a few
days to two weeks. The larvae feed above ground on plant
foliage at night and remain below ground during the day.
Army cutworm
larvae eat the foliage of wheat, oats, barley,
mustard, flax, alfalfa, sweetclover, peas, cabbage, sugar

beet, various
weeds (notably stinkweed) and
grasses.
89
Development stops when the ground
The economic threshold
freezes; larvae are
usually about half-grown by this time.
They remain
throughout the winter just beneath the surface in
tive
loose
is
dependent,
among
other factors,
on the crop infested. Mustard is more susceptible to damage from this cutworm than are cereals and alfalfa. A den-
inac-
sity
soil.
of five cutworms per square metre
is
sufficient to
destroy a mustard field, whereas cereals and alfalfa can
withstand cutworm populations of up to 50 per square
The
crops can resume growth after attack
Appearance times
metre.
Larvae begin to feed in April and continue to feed until

pupation in May to early June. Moths appear in June for a
whereas mustard cannot.
brief flight period, aestivate
(summer
Other factors affecting the economic threshold are the
hibernation) in build-
plants'
ings and under trash and clods during June and July, and
then
become
latter
growth condition and the number of weed hosts
the field.
active again for the egg-laying period.
one. Forage crops and pastures must be watched closely in
April and early

that
Number
There
is
in
A weedy field will suffer less damage than a clean
of generations
30
for the presence of these larvae. Plants
cm of top growth
with 12 to 15
May
have adequate moisture and are vigorously growing
cm
in height
sent,
can withstand four larvae per
of row without loss of yield.
If plants are
and two or more larvae per 30
chemical treatment
is
under 10
cm of row
cm
are pre-
required.
Natural enemies
Five or possibly six species of wasp parasites have been
Management Strategy
recorded for army cutworm in Canada, mostly from Alberta.
Copidosoma is a tiny parasitic wasp (about 2 mm in length)

which lays a single egg in cutworm larvae. The egg produces multiple embryos from which over a thousand offspring may be produced. Sixty per cent or more of army cutworm larvae were parasitized by this organism during an
outbreak in Alberta in 1990. Copidosoma prolonged the larval stage of army cutworm into June; the cutworms caused
damage to spring crops, an unusual circumstance since they
Effects of weather
Each outbreak year is usually preceded by a year with an
abnormally dry July and wet autumn. A July with less than
3.8 cm of rainfall and a mean temperature of 17C or higher is favorable to a population increase. However, an outbreak
is
11.4
normally have pupated by that time.
it
may
not occur in the following year unless a dry July
followed by a
in
cm
Damage can be
tivation.
of over
of precipitation in August to October, with most of
Army cutworms
are reduced in a wet July

drowned or covered with mud during aesdry fall delays egg-hatching by up to two
September.
when moths
Damage Assessment
Damage description
total
are
months; eggs and
first instar
larvae are very susceptible to
desiccation and are killed in the
of any severity up to complete defoliation.
In severe infestations, the area defoliated has ranged
tality factors,
from
necessarily
soil.
Because of these mor-
an abundance of moths in early
mean
cutworm outbreak
fall
does not
the following year.
an individual field to thousands of acres with larval densities
of up to 200 per square metre.
The
first
signs of
dam-
age are holes in leaves and semi-circular notches eaten
Cultural practices
from the edges of leaves.
Spring crops can escape damage
if they emerge after the

cutworms have pupated. This is the usual situation and
occurs when cutworm development is advanced by favorable fall or spring weather or crop seeding is delayed by
wet weather. Crops can also be seeded later in the season to
avoid attack by this pest.
Sampling and monitoring methods

Army cutworm moths have been monitored in southern
Alberta with pheromone traps since 1978. Sample larvae as
for other subterranean
soil
50
cm by 50
cutworm
species.
Mark an
area of
cm. During the day, larvae should be
within the top 5-7
cm
Mechanical
of soil surface. Count the larvae
If
cm of row in the sample area. Multiply the

number of larvae by four to give the number of larvae per
within each 50
cutworms
are marching,
plow
a steep-sided trench across
the path of advance. Line the trench with a plastic sheet to
ensure that larvae will not climb out of the trap. Use of
square metre. Repeat the process in different areas of the
insecticides
field.
Economic thresholds
Economic thresholds for this insect have not been rigorously
tested. However, the following guidelines may be helpful.
90
on larvae
in this limited
space
is
economical.
WEBWORM
BEET
Loxostege
sticticalis
Damage
Insect Life Cycle
description
webworm is primarily a pest
beet. On hatching, beet webworm
Beet
Host plants
The beet webworm
field
attacks a
wide range of broad-leaved
underside of leaves. Eventually, only the heavy veins
and garden crops. These include sugar beets, canola,
flax, sunflowers, alfalfa,
mustard, cabbage, carrots, beets,
lettuce, onions, potatoes
and asparagus. Lamb's-quarters
and Russian
thistle are also host plants.
The
of canola, flax and sugar

larvae eat holes on the
remain.
Larvae can quickly eat the leaves of canola and
chew
larvae rarely
into seed
pods or
strip surface tissue
may
then
from pods or
attack cereals, although they can cause alarm to producers
stems. This gives the crop a whitish appearance. Crops with
by marching through cereals in search of more suitable

foods. This insect is found throughout Canada but is most
light infestations
common on
from the stem but
ing.
the Prairies.
On
may
suffer reduced yields
flax, larvae eat leaves,
rarely
chew
from pod peel-
flowers and patches of bark

into green
immature pods.
On
webworms feed on the underside of

leaves. Older webworms eat holes through leaves and sometimes leave only ragged veins. From a distance, a heavily
sugar beets, young
Overwintering
These insects overwinter as mature larvae
They pupate
in the soil.
infested sugar beet field looks slightly
in silk-lined cells
Damage
Appearance times
Moths from the generation that overwinters appear in late
May, June or early July. They are night-active moths but if
disturbed will fly readily from their daytime hiding places.
Female moths lay eggs on the underside of plant leaves.
Larvae appear in June and July, and adults emerge in July
and August. Larvae of
this
grown
often occurs to crops
from adjacent weedy
fields or
have been harvested,
mowed
control
weed
hosts.
The most
caused by larvae of the
a feath-
first
when
starving larvae
from other infested
march
fields that
or sprayed with herbicide to

serious
damage
to crops is
generation.
Sampling methods
second generation are active in
August and September. They prepare
brown and has
ery appearance.
in these cells in late spring.
For canola and most other host crops, beat the plants
for winter as full-
area
50
cm
x 50
cm
and count the larvae knocked
in
an
to the soil.
larvae.
Repeat the process three more times short distances away
to
number per square metre. Sample different parts

of the field to obtain an average number per square metre. For
sugar beets, count the number of webworms per leaf.
obtain a total
Number
of generations
There are two generations per year.
Economic threshold
Natural enemies
Economic thresholds on canola may be similar to those for

bertha armyworms. On sugar beets, take control measures
when counts of webworms reach one or two per sugar beet
leaf on more than half the leaves.
The webworm is attacked by several species of

which reduce the numbers of second generation moths. The soil in which cocoons are placed can
influence the degree of attack by one species of parasite.
Cocoons in sandy soil are more frequently parasitized than
those in heavy clay, because they are more frequently
exposed by wind and rain and more readily penetrated by
the parasite's ovipositor. The importance of natural enemies in the population dynamics of the beetworm is uncertain; direct effects of weather are probably more important.
Parasites
parasitic insects,
Predators
Management Strategy
Effects of
weather
In general, years in
tant as a pest
which beet webworms
weather affects beet
Franklin's gulls and crows feed on beet
weeds dry
are
most impor-
have relatively dry, hot summer weather. The
webworm 's
importance as a pest; as
march and frequently attack adjacent crops. Larvae destroy foliage more rapidly in hot
weather. In some drought years, however, weeds may dry
up so quickly that larvae die from starvation.
webworms.
Damage Assessment
up, the larvae
Economic importance
Beet
webworm
causes economic damage somewhere on
the Prairies almost every year. In any one area, however,

is
Cultural practices
To reduce the likelihood of infestation, keep
it
a sporadic pest.
dens free of weeds.
91
fields
and gar-
Check sugar beets, canola and flax for eggs and young
if moths are observed in the field. Large flights of
moths are not always followed by high numbers of webworms.
Biological control
larvae
Although parasites help keep the
webworm
under control,
only the use of insecticides will satisfactorily control the
problem when a
field is heavily infested.
BERTHA ARMYWORM
Mamestra configurata
occurred and a total of 1.75 million acres of canola were
Insect Life Cycle
sprayed to control bertha armyworms.
Host plants
Bertha army worms are a pest of canola on the Prairies.
They
also attack a large
number of other
toes,
Damage
plants including
turnips, potatoes, alfalfa, sweetclover, beans, peas,
toma-
garden vegetables and various flowers. However,
the
crops other than canola are generally a less preferred food
Damage on
source for the larvae.
main damage
yield as they
these plants occurs only
caused
is
chew
when
into pods. In bertha
armyworm
out-
may
A larval population of about 200 per square

metre can reduce seed production by one half. A popula-
be destroyed.
such as lamb's-quarters. They do not feed on cereal crops.
tion of
20 larvae/m^ consumes about
Larvae can feed on leaves and harm
Overwintering
Bertha armyworms overwinter as pupae in the
in canola foliage, but
older larvae reduce seed
breaks, up to a quarter of the pods in individual fields
have defoliated suitable food plants
after the large larvae
description
Larvae chew irregularly shaped holes
damage
chewed
soil.
results
when bolls
so that they
fall to
or stems
1.1 bu/ac.
flax.
However, the chief
below
the ground.
the bolls are
Damage
to flax
and
crop hosts other than canola does not normally occur until
larvae have
Spring appearance
Moths emerge from pupae
generally extends from
central Alberta
and
is
that overwinter.
mid June through
somewhat
The
flight period
Damage
July in southern and
later in the
Peace River
consumed
the cruciferous
weeds
to unsuitable host plants occurs in
in the field.
weedy
fields
during years of high bertha numbers. Average defoliation
district.
of potato in outbreaks has been over 10 per cent.

to,
up
to
10 per cent of the
fruit
On tomaOn
has been destroyed.
cabbage, larvae eat the foliage and bore into heads and in
Number
There
is
of generations
some
years and places have caused
imported cabbageworm.
ly to flowers
total loss
Damage
and seeds, and
of the seed in over
in
to
more damage than

sweetclover
is
primari-
one instance resulted
at least
in a
1,500 acres.
Natural enemies
Predators
Various birds, small
mammals and
insect
predators feed on pupae that are exposed during
fall
or
Monitoring methods
spring tillage.
In 1985, Alberta, in co-operation with Agriculture Canada's
Parasites
Lethbridge Research Station, established a province-wide
are the
monitoring program for bertha armyworms and other noctu-
- The two main parasites of bertha armyworms

ichneumon wasp, Banchus flavescens, and the
tachinid fly, Athrycia cinerea. These parasites overwinter
in the soil within the
id
damaged
many
larvae
when
gal pathogens
if
enemy of bertha armyworm,
location. Traps are
kills
moth
insect populations are high as will fun-
the weather
is
is avail-
district agriculturist's offices.
but late June to
the host crop. Nuclear polyhedrosis
virus, another natural
some
Moths can be on the wing at any time during June and July
mid July is the most likely time. The best
time to set out traps will depend on spring weather and trap
Insect parasites may kill up to 75 per cent of the armyworms. Unfortunately, larvae are often not killed until after
they have
(cutworm) species. Information on moth numbers
able from
pupal case of their host.
20
suitable.
flight in
to July 20.
commercially available. Monitor the
your location by putting traps out from June
Keeping records of numbers of moths trapped
will allow timely
and accurate management decisions.
Damage Assessment
Sampling methods and economic thresholds
Economic importance
Bertha
armyworms
infestations
on the
A decision to sample larvae may result from inspections of
are a perennial pest of canola.
have occurred ever since canola was
Prairies. In
1971 through
Minor
to 1973, a severe
first
the field or records of
planted
case, larvae should be
outbreak
92
pheromone trap catches. In either

sampled by mid July. The bulk of
have moved into the
the larval population will not
sixth larval stages at that time.
allows ample time to prepare.
enemies will intervene
armyworm
Bertha
An
It is
very close to the threshold level. Under these circum-
and
fifth
early decision to spray
stances, apply an insecticide
unlikely that natural
swathed for
field (or the infested part of
larvae have several parasites and dis-
eases but they do not
kill
the larvae until
growth
is
canola (larvae/m^)
(A)
(B)
Economic
Total
Value of seed to producer

(
($
($
bu)
10
armyworms
of
per m')
samples
26
29
32
34
12
22
25
27
30
19
17
16
14
13
22
24
26
19
17
16
14
21
19
17
16
23
21
19
17
13-17
23-27
1
Before taking samples, determine the economic
threshold for your particular situation from the table above.
28-32
for your crop and spraying will

$10 per acre then 19 or more larvae per square metre
you can get $9 per bushel
cost
33-37
will lead to an unacceptable crop loss.
Step
2 - Sample
the field for
samples, spaced
at least
paces inside the
field.
armyworms. Take
50 paces apart and
The best way
to
of
E, your
be treated.
armyworms sampled
m'
three 1
(D) More
samples needed
(E)
Treatment
needed
94
95 or more
159
160 or more
50
50 -220
221 or more
2 -118
less than
37
37 -203
79 -281
204 or more
142
143 or more
18-22
Values are based on an average of 20 larvae/m^ onsuming the

equivalent of 65 kg canola seed/ha (1.16 bu/ac).
If
Treatment
not needed
11
Step
number
Total
(C)
to
12
11
ac)
10
needs
number
threshold
Cost of spray per bushel:
it)
closer,
is
Column
armyworm sampling
Decision table for bertha
in
swathing time
com-
plete or nearly so.
Economic thresholds for bertha armyworm
If
don't spray. If your sample total lies in
prevent damage.
at this stage to
the crop will not be
if
week.
at least a
less than
21
21
less than
less than
19 or more
282
more
less than
79
less than
less than
55
55 -245
246
or
more
less than
108
108 -342
343
or
more
less than
14
less than
73
73 -287
less than
138
138 -402
less than
24
less than
96
96 -324
325
or
more
less than
175
175 -455
456
or
more
14
24
166
or
67 or more
288 or more
403
or
more
187 or more
186
50
at least
count larvae
is
as
Management Strategy
follows: Shake the plants vigorously so that larvae fall into

the sampling area, then count the larvae
Make
sure to look beneath leaf
you use the 50
cm x 50 cm
litter
Cultural practices
Effects OftHlage and snow cover-
on the ground.
and clumps of
dirt. If
number of larvae by four and record the numbers per

Calculate an average number per ml
m^
Step 3
Step 4
Calculate the total
number of armyworms
increase
control
when snow accumulation
Variety selection
be lower than
Use the following decision table to determine
is
due
if
by
in
The
parasites of
but to a lesser degree.
Infestations in Polish varieties tend to
1.
bloom period and
The date
this difference
may be
bloom. Egg-laying females are most
to maturity
bloom. Polish cultivars have a
are therefore less likely to
be in
during the peak of moth activity.
this susceptible stage
which your economic threshold
(Column A) from Step
is light.
tillage,
Argentine varieties;
attracted to canola at early
needed.
Determine the range

lies
in
to duration of
shorter
Snow
for the
m^ samples.
-
that overwinter.
depth also affects overwinter mortality; mortality tends to
the pest are also affected
three 1
Fall tillage reduces the
numbers of bertha armyworm pupae
sampling frame, multiply the
depends upon the cultivar and can
influence susceptibility of the crop to infestation. Thus,
Read across from

(Column B).
the total
number of samples taken
consider choice of cultivar along with economics, harvest
time and other
criteria. In
mature about 13 days
Find the column in which your
total
number of army-
may be
worms sampled lies (the total from Step 3). If your sample total lies in Column C, you have no problem. If your
sample total lies in Column D, you must take three
(for
Seeding date
numbers of all armyworms sampled

example, from samples 1, 2 and 3 plus samples 4, 5
By
If a
nine samples, the
number of armyworms
decision
still
cannot be
made
occurs.
selecting an early maturing variety and
armyworm problem can be
ed altogether unless moth
together the
and 6) and so on.
damage
weather and date of seeding.
seeding early the bertha
Add
Argentine varieties and
harvested before significant
Maturity can vary considerably depending on location,
more samples.
Alberta, Polish varieties tend to
earlier than
Indeed, canola harvested before August 15
after
suffer yield loss
93
is
unlikely to
from bertha armyworm. Mated bertha
armyworm females
in the field is
avoid-
flight is exceptionally early.
prefer to lay eggs on canola in the early
bloom
stage. Fields in this stage during the egg-laying peri-
od tend
to
be hardest
hit.
This
infestations tend to be spotty
field
even within a local
area.
must be inspected because the
ly to vary significantly
part of the reason
is at least
from
infestation level
is like-
field to field,
Each
CANOLA ROOT MAGGOTS

Z7e//dspp.
They may not follow
Insect Life Cycle
ciently as does the
Host plants
insects other than the
Root damage to canola crops in Alberta is caused mainly

by the cabbage maggot, Delia radicum, except in northeastern Alberta where the turnip maggot, D. floralis, is the
more numerous
species.
Both species also
Adult
fungi,
may be
infected
Many
infection causes quick death.
infest other cole
ceptible to this disease.
species of flies are sus-
The Strongwellsea fungus
maggots and may achieve high
ic to root
Although infected
flies are
specif-
is
rates of infection.
not killed, the females are
unable to mature eggs.
Overwintering
During the second half of July larvae leave the roots
pupate in surrounding
and 6-7
cabbage maggot on cole crops.
by two species of parasitic

Entomophthora and Strongwellsea. Entomophthora
flies
crops, including rutabaga, cabbage, mustard and radish.
in color
the rotation of canola crops as effi-
cabbage maggot, because they attack
soil.
The puparia
are reddish
to
brown
Damage Assessment
mm long.
Economic importance
While plant mortality from maggot damage alone is normally low, maggot infestation places the crop at risk of
yield losses due to late-season foot rot. A mortality rate
of 40 per cent occurred near Westlock in 1983 from the
combined effects of maggot damage and root rot under
persistently wet soil conditions.
Spring appearance
In northern Alberta, adults of the cabbage
from overwintering puparia from
May
maggot emerge
15 to July 15, with
most emerging during June.
The
life
Alberta
maggot in northeastern
emergence of adults from overwin-
history of the turnip

is
similar, but
tering puparia does not begin until the first
Crop
infestations of root
maggot
are higher in those areas
of Alberta where cooler temperatures and higher mois-
week of June,
ture conditions prevail.
about two weeks later than the cabbage maggot.
These conditions promote mag-
got survival and development, and
north and west of
Number
the canola plants suffer
maggot has one genera-
A few new adults emerge during the same season and
no second generation of larvae
is
commonly occur
in the
Peace River
regions. In the north-west region, nearly 100 per cent of
of generations
In northern Alberta, the cabbage

tion.
Edmonton and
found on canola.
On
July. In the
some
root
damage by
the end of
Peace River region, plants infested with root
maggots averaged 31, 15 and 25 per cent during 1981-83,
irri-
respectively. In the remaining regions, an average of 5,
gated land in the Lethbridge area, there are two generations
of cabbage maggot, with peaks of egg laying in June and
13 and 16 per cent of the plants in a field were infested
again in late August to early September.
during 1981-83, respectively. Most infested roots were

scarred on the surface only. However, tunnelling
The
maggot has only one generation throughout
turnip
its
throughout the roots and occasional plant death also
Alberta range.
occurred. In southern Alberta, maggots are a problem
only on irrigated land.
The economic
Natural enemies
Predators
The most important predators of the immature
of Tobin canola near Edmonton, exclusion of root

maggots and consequently of foot rot increased yields
about 50 per cent. During 1990 and 1991, maggot-con-
and rove beetles. The most abundant species of ground
Bembidion
maggot eggs. The rove beetles
beetles in canola fields in northern Alberta are

species,
that are
which feed on
common
root maggots, the
in
root
trol trials
using other varieties achieved yield increases
of up to 20 per cent.
canola fields are probably predators of
most abundant prey during
maggot damage and secondary
trials
stages of root maggots are larvae and adults of ground beetles
effect of
foot rot appears to vary with weather conditions. In 1989
The determining
factor
the weather in late July and early August.
July.
seems
By
this
to
most of the roots have been infected with Fusarium

Parasites
insect parasites attack a specific stage of the
host. Parasites of the puparia of root
maggots
be
time
rot
fungi (foot rot) around maggot wounds. If the preharvest
are found in
weather
Alberta, but their incidence in canola fields appears low.
is
hot and dry, further spread of the fungus will
be inhibited. But
94
if
there
is
a period of cool,
wet weather,
the rot fungi will spread throughout the roots
larvae on the roots while removing the soil.
and cause
lodging and mortality.
A less time-consuming procedure, if only a damage

assessment
is
needed,
simply to pull the plants while
is
grasping the base of the stem. Brush off the soil and
Damage
description
maggot feeding.
damage for the season
During August, damage may be
inspect the rootstock for scars caused by
Maggot feeding on canola typically produces irregular

vertical furrows on the main rootstock. Feeding by three
or more larvae may girdle plants and interrupt the supply
The
is
best time to assess cumulative
the last
week of July.
underestimated because dead plants are no longer obvious.
of water and nutrients to aerial parts. Scars caused by
Sometimes
maggot feeding are often invaded by fungi, especially

Fusarium (foot rot), from surrounding soil. While canola
plants can resist this infection under good growing conditions or low maggot numbers, resistance may break
down if wet soil conditions favorable to fungal growth
Damage caused by
is
more
first
To determine whether mag-
cm and spread this soil

maggots were present, puparia
with a trowel to a depth of 10-15
on the ground;
if
root
should be present.
Estimate the population of puparia overwintering in fields
late
after the
June to the end of July, by which time most larvae have
pupated and damage for the year
were
gots were present, scoop out the soil around the roots
rot.
accumulates from
larval feeding
not be apparent whether dead or dying
without prior maggot attack.
break off just below ground level from the com-
bined effects of maggot feeding and root
may
attacked by root maggots or were invaded by rot fungi
prevail during July. In such cases, the plants wilt and

finally
it
plants with rotten or broken rootstocks
crop has been cut (but before cultivation) by
turning over the soil within a one square metre area with a
or less complete.
trowel following a random sampling plan.
Monitoring methods
Adult
flies
water
set
Economic threshold
can be netted or trapped in yellow bowls of
Economic thresholds
around field margins. Their identification
many similar species

canola fields when the crop is in
requires expertise because
of
are attracted to
flower.
are not established.
flies
Management Strategy
Cultural practices
Sampling methods
Inspect the bases of stems and surrounding soil with a
mid
hand lens
in
from
June through July to determine the degree of
late
larval infestation
larvae and
to late
June for eggs. Inspect rootstocks
damaging
rootlets, cut a 5
lift
cm
effect of different cultural practices
root
maggot
rotation
is
infestation has not
on the level of
been investigated. Crop
unlikely to have an effect because the flies
disperse from fields in which they emerge and locate
and root damage. To avoid dislodging
around the roots with a knife,
The
new
crops by odor.
core of soil
the plant and count the
CLOVER CUTWORM
Discestra
trifolii
end of
Insect Life Cycle
May
through June with the peak in the
first
half of
may be delayed by
of emergence may be one or
June in southern Alberta. Emergence
Host plants
cool spring weather. Dates
Clover cutworm larvae are above-ground feeders on the

foliage of
most vegetables,
clover, peas, beans
complement
thistle,
flax, canola,
and sugar beets.
the clover
cutworm's
Many weed
diet
two weeks
later in the north.
sunflowers, alfalfa,
species
such as Russian
Number
lamb's quarters and redroot pigweed.
of generations
There are two generations per year. Moths of the second

generation appear in late July or August.
Overwintering
The species overwinters
as
pupae
Damage Assessment
in the soil.
Economic importance
Spring appearance
Clover cutworm
Overwintering cutworm pupae emerge as moths from the
the Peace River region and
and sugar beets
95
is
a recurrent
is
in the south.
problem
in canola
grown
in
a sporadic pest of truck crops
Clover cutworm infestations
on canola were prevalent
The
in the
Peace River area
Sample numbers of larvae by beating plants in an area 50

cm. Record the number of larvae on the ground.
in 1982.
cm X 50
insect is generally not present in economically injuri-
Repeat
ous numbers.
Then
this
procedure several times in different locations.
calculate an average
metre for the
Damage
description
There are two generations of clover cutworm
in Alberta.
Economic threshold
on the underside of leaves in late spring and

during summer. Newly hatched caterpillars feed on the
underside of lower leaves, gradually moving up the plant as
they mature. Damage from the first generation occurs from
Eggs
are laid
approximately
The economic threshold

to that for bertha
Second generation larvae of clover cutworm may be present at the same time as bertha armyworm larvae. While
armyworms tend
damage
is
to
be dispersed throughout
more clumped
is
probably similar
(See the bertha
armyworm
Second generation larvae frequently cause damage at the

same time as bertha armyworms. In years when both
species are present, clover cutworms may be mistaken for
bertha armyworms.
mid August through September.
clover cutworms have a
for this insect
armyworm
section to determine thresholds from sampling data).
June through July and from the second
late
generation from
bertha
number of larvae per square
field.
fields,
distribution, so
Management Strategy
more concentrated.
Cultural practices
Larvae eat the foliage and pods from canola plants and,
when
Normal
present in high numbers, strip plants completely.
rotation of canola with cereal crops will
infestations because adult dispersal to
Larval infestations and adult flights tend to be localized

Fall
with apparently suitable nearby habitat remaining undis-
plowing will expose pupae
new
areas
to predators
minimize
is
slow.
and freezing
temperatures.
turbed. Shortage of food, a result of severe infestation, will
cause larvae to march en masse into nearby
fields.
Biological control
Parasites, predators, disease

Clover cutworm
tored with
is
one of several cutworm species moni-
pheromone
traps.
Monitoring of this species
limited to the Peace River region,
where
it is
and inclement weather have
checked past infestations of clover cutworm on canola
grown
is
in the
Peace River region. High mortality of the
climbing cutworms
a recurrent pest
is
common from
natural causes after a
short period of high population density.
of canola.
DARK-SIDED
CUTWORM
Euxoa messoria
Number
Insect Life Cycle
There
Host plants
The dark-sided cutworm can cause serious damage to
seedlings and transplants of most vegetables and field
is
of generations
Damage Assessment
crops. Plants attacked include peas, beans, potato, tomato,
cucumber, melon, sweet pepper, asparagus,
Damage
alfalfa, corn,
description
at or below the soil surThey may completely consume above-ground por-
Larvae feed on emerging plants
barley, strawberries and spruce seedlings.
face.
tions of small plants, especially the succulent ones that
Overwintering
Eggs overwinter
have recently been transplanted. These larvae
in cultivated fields
on the
soil
climb trees to injure buds. Crop damage
beneath
from
plants and debris.
od of extended warm weather

at night.
from
in spring.
Mature larvae pupate
late July to early
15 to the end of June.
Dark-sided cutworm
first peri-
in
is
one of several cutworm species
monitored throughout the province with pheromone
During the day,
This provincial monitoring program began in 1985.
larvae remain in the soil at the base of plants
active
may even
most severe
Spring appearance
Larvae hatch from overwintered eggs during the
feed
May
is
on which they
the soil. Moths are
September.
96
traps.
Management Strategy
Economic threshold
An
economic threshold has not been established
for dark-
Cultural practices
sided cutworms.
Weed
control and the destruction or plowing under of crop
trash soon after harvest, preferably before August, will help

to
reduce egg production.
DIAMONDBACK MOTH
Plutella xylostella
Yield losses are caused by feeding on the surface of imma-
Insect Life Cycle
ture pods.
Host plants
Seeds under these damaged areas do not
fill
In severe cases,
more susceptible to early shattering.

damage appears from a distance as an
liflower, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, turnip, mustard, rape
abnormal white
color. After an infestation
and canola. The moth also feeds on several species of
pod
weeds
lished because of the rapid
properly; the pods are
The diamondback moth
in the
is
a sporadic pest of cabbage, cau-
mustard family.
does not attack cereals.
It
crop, a
new
infestation
is
not likely to
is
controlled in a
become
estab-
advancement of the crop toward
maturity.
In general, the second generation larvae cause yield loss
Overwintering and spring appearance

The diamondback moth does not overwinter
is
only during the peak flowering to early pod formation in
in Alberta but
canola (often about the
on winds from the United States each spring. The
carried
number of spring migrants and
ation
By
some extent.
number of additional immigrations, and
year.
generation larvae
Number
The
availability of suitable
may
food for
harvest
volunteer canola in the wheat field. This pest does not
first
attack cereals.
Sampling methods
migrating from the United States in early
May
Beat plants within 50
first
or June.
Later in the summer, generations overlap so that
same
at
develop from larvae that fed on mustard family weeds or
of generations
host plants at the
third gener-
maturing crops.
of Brussels sprouts. Pupae on the heads of wheat
also be important.
There are three generations of moths per year, the
may be on
The
in July).
broccoli and bore into the heads of cabbage and the sprouts
the size of
each are factors that determine the potential abundance of
moths each
week
Although they usually attack only the leaves of host plants,

older larvae often feed on the florets of cauliflower and
summer most canola fields

The size of the first immigra-
late
are infested to
tion, the
last
likely to affect only unusually late
their establishment is
weather dependent, so advance forecasts of early infestations are not possible.
is
all
the ground. Multiply
stages
cm x 50 cm areas and count larvae on

by four to get the number of larvae
per square metre.
time.
Economic threshold
Natural enemies
An
Predators
control
include mites, spiders, lacewings, predatory
plant bugs and three species of birds.
Parasites
No
least
they occur
Damage
at the
to
pods
same time
is
may
as canola
warrant
pod
most severe when canola
leaves have dropped. Normally larvae feed on leaves and do
10
not
species of parasitic insects attack the larvae and pupae; the

kills
when
development.
egg parasites have been found. At
most important of these
average of 200-300 larvae per square metre
move
to
pods unless leaves are not available.
an average of 50 to 60 per
cent of the pest population.
Patliogens
Management Strategy
Disease seems to be a minor mortality factor.
Effects of
weather
A major cause of larval deaths is rainfall. Larvae are
Damage Assessment
washed from leaves and drown
Damage
Damage
description
to canola
by young larvae
in
water in leaf axils or in
pools on the ground. This affects young larvae the most.

is
Older larvae are affected less because they are not easily
characterized by
small holes and surface stripping on the undersides of
washed
leaves as well as small white mines in the leaves. Older
if
young pods, and surface tissue of

stems and mature pods, usually from mid July to early
in cold than in
may
August.
the Prairies than elsewhere in Canada.
larvae feed on flowers,
97
off and can climb
dislodged. Larvae are
explain
back on the plants more readily
more susceptible
to
harm by
rain
mild weather. These effects of summer rain
why
infestations appear to be
more frequent
in
diamondback moth abundance

Cool cloudy
weather reduces moth flight activity. The longer that
inclement weather persists, the more females die before
Another factor
is
pest are the size of the spring immigration and the avail-
that controls
the weather during the egg-laying period.
egg deposition
of suitable food for
arrive before preferred hosts emerge, alternate host
first
generation larvae. If the
plants will include volunteers and other
weeds on summer
fallow. Tillage reduces the availability of suitable host
completed.
is
ability
moths
plants and thus the successful establishment of
Cultural practices
The
genera-
first
tion larvae.
abundance of this
factors responsible for the potential
EUROPEAN CORN BORER

Ostrinia nubilalis
al
Insect Life Cycle
enemies throughout
insects
European corn borer was accidentally introduced into

first Canadian record is from Ontario
Downy woodpecker,
stalks
and plant debris.

Three of the 17 species of parasitic wasps and
dam-
aged. Over 200 other plants are hosts including potato, toma-
tobacco, oats, soybean, white beans, sugar beet,
Canada,
borer control became established.
the preferred host, but grain corn is also
and various weeds and ornamental
example when corn
is
Native species of Trichogramma, a group of tiny wasps,
broom
attack the eggs of
absent.
European corn borer.
plants. In
Pathogens -
only under abnormal
this species attacks these plants
conditions, for
ring-necked pheasant and other birds
introduced to Canada between 1923 and 1940 for corn
flies
Host plants
millet, hops,
on plant sap
dig overwintering borers out of their chambers in corn-
Parasites
to,
beetles and other
and injure borers and crowd them out of the tunnels.
The species became so important in the 1920s that

the Government of Ontario passed the Corn Borer Act
which enforced the application of certain control measures.
The corn borer was found in Alberta in 1956.
in 1920.
is
Lady
larvae. Beetles enter the borer tunnels to feed
North America. The
Sweet corn
its life.
and predacious mites feed on the eggs and young
A protozoan, Nosema pyrausta, weakens the
borer so that infected larvae suffer heavier winter
However, since
moths
kill,
and
lay fewer eggs than healthy moths. This
corn was not native to Europe, this pest must have developed
infected
on alternate hosts and adapted
protozoan plays a moderate to significant role in reducing
to
corn over time.
borer populations.
Two
Overwintering
European corn borers overwinter
as fully
grown
other protozoa, Varimorpha species, infect the borer
under laboratory conditions. One
larvae in
corn stalks, cobs and plant debris on the soil surface.
Beauveria bassiana,
which
to pupate.
exit hole
and then returns
Beginning
early morning, they fly
in
from
its
to spin a
overwin-
cocoon
mid- June, moths emerge
during ample
in
The
between half-an-hour and
dawn. Wind does not prevent
into a slight wind.
hosts such as
tall
They
Females lay up
to
flight; the
are attracted to light.
grass, to
Peak egg laying and
flight
widespread fungus, will
They
with temperatures about SO^C.
potential of the bacterium. Bacillus thuringiensis, as a
microbial control agent of corn borer has been studied.
moths
This bacterium produces spores and crystals. In laboratory
fly
tests,
both spores and crystals retarded growth of the borer.
A combination of spores and crystals killed larvae. A
fly to
mate and begin egg development.
recently registered granular formulation of Bacillus
occur around the middle of July.
500 eggs during
rainfall,
thuringiensis
is
effective
on corn borer.
this time.
Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses isolated from
and a mint looper will
Number
more
kill
in
four-and-one-half hours after sundown, with a second minor

flight near
a.
given year. Outbreaks of B. bassiana occur most readily
chews an
tering cell in plant debris
extremely virulent and
than 50 per cent of the overwintering borer population in a
Spring appearance
In late spring the larva
is
looks promising as a microbial control agent.
of generations
alfalfa looper
infect the borer. Viruses hold
promise as control agents.
Only one generation per year occurs
in the Prairies,
although a second flight of adults, peaking in late August,
sometimes occurs
in the
Medicine Hat
Damage Assessment
area.
Damage
Natural enemies
Predators
European corn borer
description
All above ground portions of the corn plant can be

is
attacked by
many
attacked.
natur-
98
Young
larvae bore into growing whorls
where
of 20 and look for live borers. Check for live larvae; borer
they feed on developing leaves and give them an etched

or shot-hole appearance.
Young
larvae that bore in the
mortality in the
leaf midrib will cause leaf breakage. Feeding in develop-
first
three to five days after hatch
is
nor-
mally very high.
them so they are easily broken

by the wind. Older larvae bore into stalks and ear
shanks and disrupt the normal movement of nutrients and
water, which reduces yield. Stem breakage and ear drop
are common damage symptoms. Another symptom is boring dust or frass that resembles small balls of sawdust in
ing tassel stalks weakens
off
the leaf axils
and on kernels within the
ear.
Damage
Economic threshold
The economic injury level (EIL) is the pest population density at which the value of actual or potential damage equals
the cost to prevent the damage. The economic threshold
(ET) is the population density at which control measures
to
sweet corn ears makes them unmarketable. Tunnels per-
should be initiated to prevent the pest density from surpass-
mit secondary infection and damage by stalk and ear rot
ing the EIL.
fungi.
To apply
these concepts to the European corn borer, the
theory of a treatment
vae

Moth
sity
the
activity
flights.
effective.
two
During the day,
These
feed.
sites
all
killed.
a specific time period, or
in a
if
"window",
they are to be
given field
may
last
weeks, insecticides must typically be applied
eggs have been deposited; otherwise, larvae from
eggs deposited early in the egg laying period will enter the
plant.
of dense veg-
etation are necessary stopover points for female
is
Because egg deposition
to four
before
moths may be flushed from grassy field margins, weedy

fence rows and other areas of dense vegetation, where
moths congregate, mate and
introduced. Only lar-
during which pesticides must be applied
of moth flight and when to begin field scouting. Chart

number of European corn borer moths caught per night
monitor nightly
window must be
have not bored into the plant can be
Consequently, there
can be used to determine duration and inten-
in a light trap to
that
The decision
moths
The
field.
before egg deposition in the cornfield. Locating these
to treat
must be based on an
estirr ate
European corn borer population density
the potential
potential population density
may be
of
in the
estimated as
follows:
moth activity can be very helpThe number of female moths in the grass around field
edges, along waterways and between the rows of weedy
fields correlates with the number of egg masses deposited
action sites and observing
1.
ful.
on
com
plants.
your count of the hatched egg masses. Or, as previously
plant.
With good weather,
mean economic
this level
Walking through the action
of
losses.
site will
areas around the field for
adults.
2.
infestation could
weedy
described, flush the
Three females per square metre equals 0.5
egg masses per corn
Scout the field weekly for borer egg masses. Include
Begin counts of borer egg masses per plant with the
first
sign of borer eggs in the field. Researchers believe that
cause the moths to
is
the eggs are in the field. This assumption
The flush method correlates well with the drop-net

method for monitoring adult populations. An average of 61
moths (males and females) within a 1 m x 10 m area is
flush.
it
unlikely that eggs can be detected before 5 per cent of
becomes an
integral part of calculating the potential population density.
equivalent to an average of three females per square metre.

3.
A minimum of five flush samples should be taken in the
Calculate the potential population density (PPD) per

plant as:
grass for every 20 acres of cornfield. This adult flushing
technique
for
is
a useful
way
egg masses should be
The
to
determine whether scouting
PPD = (;SVV23yEM)
PO
started.
field
methods produce estimates of the total

population. You must take good, representative sam-
ples.
Take
where,
best scouting
minimum
secutive plants each.
SV =
of five random samples of 20 con-
The
first
to
sample should be taken
Be
careful to consider
graphical and other features that
all
may
is
by the average number of eggs per mass
PO
more than one
a separate field and sample separately. If the field
is
Examine
all
larger
4.
Sample
Assume
observations.
the field
at this
ment has been
week egg
plants for shot holes in the leaves and balls of
sawdust-like material in the leaf axils. Record the
= the proportion of the
total
egg complement deposited
before detection in the field = 0.05.
than 40 acres, divide the field into 40 acre blocks and con-
Record
(23).
influence plant
planted in the same field, consider each variety as
sider each block a field.
Based on studies from Iowa and

is recommended.
EM = the number of egg masses per plant. This is muhiplied
representative topo-
height, plant maturity and plant density. If
variety
corn.
Kansas, a value of 0.2
beyond the edge of the field to eliminate the "edge" effect.

Remaining samples should be taken randomly across the
entire field.
the average proportion of individuals that survive
damage
99
laid
PPD
again in eight days.
based on an assumption of a three

PO = 0.5 for the second
laying period. Thus,
calculation of
number
of plants damaged. Dissect two infested plants per sample
and calculate
time that 50 per cent of the egg comple-
PPD.
Although
ET is
EIL because we
usually less than EIL, in this case
making
are
of the borer population

is
destroyed before
(EIL)
1.
it
In this example,
than
all
economic
and the crop yield
(bushels per acre) at harvest.

3.
The ET
is
then calculated by:
ET
economi-
Calculated EIL*
loss
Plant stage
(/ECB/plant)
(/ECB/plant)
Early whorl
7.7
1.4
2.1
Late whorl
6.2
1.8
3.6
Pretassel
9.2
1.2
2.4
Pollen shedding
6.2
1.8
3.6
Kernels
4.2
2.6
5.3
Initiated
where,
population
= control costs
greater
is
Appl.
2 Appl.
Source: Iowa State University publication No. 327, 1989.

*Assume: Cost of control (CC)=$16.00/ac per application. % Loss
column = proportion of yield lost per ECB (DL). Market value
(MV)=$2.00/bu Expected yield (EY)=150 bu/ac. Proportion of ECB
CC/MV
(DL/100)EY
CC
is
injury level (EIL) for various corn growth stages.
Bu/ac loss
air.
the intended time of sale
at
(1.38 larvae per plant)
Corn loss caused by European corn borer and calculated
Estimate the market value of the crop (dollars per bushel

of corn)
PPD
(0.76 larvae per plant) and treatment
ET
reaches the damaging stage). The
estimated as follows:
by ground or
ET
cally justified.
present in the field (so the insect
Determine the cost of control (dollars per acre). This

includes the cost of insecticide and the cost of application
2.
may be
is
ET =
the control decision before
= 0.67.
killed
($/ac),
This procedure was used in 1981 during a pilot European
MV = market value ($/bu),
corn borer management program, and the proper treatment
DL = percentage damage loss (per borer per plant) at the
decision (based on a single insecticide application)
time of infestation (percentage loss column from the
reached in seven of eight Kansas
table at the
end of
this section),
and
verify results
from the U.S.A.
users of this procedure must
EY = estimated yield (bu/ac).
fields.
is still in
remember
one of the variables
factor that affects
Work
was
in Alberta to
progress. Potential
that virtually
any
in the equations
could change the decision. Incorrect estimates of variables

could cause you to reach an economically unjustified
At
this point the
treatment decision can be
made by com-
ment
paring the potential population density (PPD) to the eco-
nomic threshold (ET).

ET, then treatment
is
If
PPD
is
on the second sampling date
Assume
Assumptions
that
treat-
concern the length of the
egg-laying period (which influences PO), the proportion of
greater than or equal to
warranted. For example:
decision.
larvae that survive (SV), and the
that
(DL)
damage
loss relationships
are the weakest portions of the procedure.
(eight days after initial borer
detection and during pollen shed),
you counted 15 egg
masses per 100 plants sampled.
Management Strategy
Cultural practices
PPD= SV)(23EM)
PO
Corn borer
(;
adults are strong fliers and can be dispersed
by
wind. Transportation of infested plant material such as corn

silage or corn cobs can spread the larvae.
= (;Q.2y23yQ.i5)
Tillage
0.5
Cultural practices can greatly reduce corn borer
infestations. Ideally, all crop residues should
be cut for
silage or shredded for fodder immediately after harvest.
= 1.38 larvae/plant
The remaining stubble should be disced and plowed under

10-15 cm. Ridging
of soil erosion.
After talking with the aerial applicator, you determine that

control costs will be
cation.
You
$16 per acre
mented in the
plowed down
for a single insecticide appli-
estimated that the crop will yield 140 bushels per
may be
necessary to cut
fall,
May
1).
Avoid deep
down
culti-
to prevent
bringing up buried corn stubble.

Variety selection
that fields
Plant corn hybrids that mature early so
can be plowed as early as possible
European corn borer was eradicated

$16.00
the risk
corn residue and stubble should be
in early spring (by
MV
(DL/100)EY
down
proper cultural control cannot be imple-
vation of infested fields that were plowed
acre and that you will receive $3.40 per bushel at sale.
ET = CC
If
$3.40
ago by methods similar
(4.4/100) 140 bu
to those
in
in the fall.
Alberta 30 years
recommended above.
Tolerant or resistant corn varieties, are not yet available in

Alberta.
= 0.76 larvae/plant
100
corn borer larvae can be kept below economic levels by a
Chemical controls may be effec-
Population monitoring
tive if applied within a
few days
after
combination of grass and weed control with control of
eggs hatch and larvae
adult moths. Cornfields should be kept relatively free of
Once larvae enter the stalk, no controls are

available. Use light traps or pheromone traps to determine
the time of moth flight. Scout fields to determine the size
grass and dense weeds.
of egg populations and the time of hatching. This informa-
selected patches of grass and killed with non-persistent
start to feed.
tion will help the operator
More
insecticides.
depending on the length of the adult
may be
flight
edges should
These trap strips or patches of grass are neceswhere most grassy areas have been mowed. They prevent resident and immigrant moths from seeking cover in
and subsequent
Moths
untreated grass near adjacent fields.

native sites
field
then be confined to
sary
necessary
hatching period.
Trap strips
may
insecticides.
choose the best time to apply
than one application
Waterways and
be mowed. Corn borer moths
Recent research suggests that populations of
may
that find alter-
return to lay eggs in the fields with bor-
mowed.
ders and waterways that have been
FLEA BEETLES
Phyllotreta spp.
Psylliodes punctulata
plants typically have a "shot hole" appearance
Insect Life Cycle
when
the
tis-
sues around the feeding sites in the cotyledons and leaves die.
Host plants
Lx)sses caused
Adult flea beetles become active in April and early May,
vival, smaller
mate and feed on leaves of available weeds of the mustard
ment and maturity. All contribute
family such as flixweed, stinkweed, wild mustard, lamb's
especially true
quarters, volunteer canola
and pepper
by
flea beetles are
and weaker
if
plants,
the weather
is
due
to
reduced plant sur-
and delayed plant developto
reduced
yield.
This
is
hot and dry.
grass.
Canola seedlings can withstand significant leaf area removal

in the
cotyledon stage under good growing conditions with-
out significant reduction in yield. With heavy and continuous
attacks, seedlings
Flea beetles overwinter as adults under leaf
ground debris
areas.
The
litter
and other
ing
rows and wooded
in grassy headlands, fence
is
weather.
three economically important species of flea
may
wilt and die, particularly
combined with poor plant growth during
Heavy
reseeding
may
infestations
may be
when
feed-
hot, dry
destroy the entire crop and
necessary.
beetles have slight differences in timing of life cycle

stages; for instance, the
hop
flea beetle
from hibernation and the crucifer

than the striped flea beetle.
The
emerges
flea beetle
Once
earlier
emerges
age.
crucifer flea beetle,
most persistent pests and were introduced
to
common in
is
most
irrigated areas.
if
is,
Number
Natural Enemies
Parasites - Some wasp
however,
at greater risk.
canola
parasites of flea beetles affect only
the
amount of defoliation as a gauge for insecticide

The key point to remember is that the amount
application.
into canola crops
is
of defoliation
age.
is
frequently overestimated. Collect plants at
Flea beetles generally invade fields from the edges.
soil.
when
They chew small holes
the temperature
in the
damloss.
If
tem-
is
select plants at various intervals as
into the field.

field
This sampling procedure determines the extent and distrib-
higher.
cotyledons and leaves.
you walk
At each location estimate leaf loss. Check all
and slough margins where the insect overwinters.
you should
Flea beetles hop
from the borders when temperatures are

fly
the field and estimate the foliage
Canola seedlings can withstand 50 per cent leaf
peratures are above IS^C, however, and beetles are flying,
done by aduh beetles just before or
have emerged from the
below IS^C, and
beetle adults.
Sampling methods
Use
Damage Assessment
Damage description
to
Cool, wet weather reduces feed-
produced each year.
random throughout
after seedlings
flea beetles often
the seeds are sufficiently developed. Late maturing canola
mote crop damage by

is
a small proportion of the population.
Most damage
and can outgrow the feeding dam-
number of adult
ing activity and favors plant growth. Hot, dry conditions pro-
of generations
Only one generation of flea beetles
this time, the
The new generation of adults emerges in late July through

early August. They skeletonize leaves and chew the epidermis from stems and pods but do not cause economic damage
North America from Europe; the hop flea beetle, Psylliodes

punctulata, occasionally attains pest status and
At
begins to decline.
Phyllotreta cruciferae and the striped flea beetle, P. striolata, are the
the crop reaches the three- or four-leaf stage, the plants
are generally established
later
ution of damage.
Damaged
101
Daily inspection of newly emerged plants
damage
identify flea beetle
may be needed
insecticide
the plants or
on the
as
it
necessary to
Management Strategy
A foliar-applied
Cultural practices
numerous on
damage is in excess
beetles are
if flea
beetle feeding
soil,
is
develops.
Very few
is
warm and
dry. If
and beetles are
damage
still
is
may
only along the field margins
congregated there, then controls mea-
sures should be applied to
damaged
may have
in
summer
fallow fields
fields to starve out early spring populations. In addition, in
wintering sites and cultivate the remainder of the
impact than application of foliar sprays.
Spray
GRASSHOPPERS
grow
to
beetle populations are high.
if flea
the spring leave a trap strip of volunteer canola near over-
environmental
less
reduce damage
Control cruciferous weeds and volunteer canola in cereal
areas only. Seed dress-
ings and granular insecticides can be applied with seed to

control flea beetles. This
cultural or preventive controls are available.
Allowing cruciferous weeds
of 50 per cent of the cotyledon or leaf area, and the weather
this trap strip
before beetles
move
field.
into seedlings.
CLEAR-WINGED
Camnula pellucida
Natural enemies
Insect Life Cycle
Next
Host plants
enemies are the grasshopper's
to weather, natural
most important population control

The clear-winged grasshopper
Economic damage
is
is
mainly a grass feeder.
areas natural enemies
primarily to cereals, especially wheat and
may
factor. In
some
localized
cause even more mortality than
the weather.
barley. Clear-winged
and migratory grasshoppers have togeth-
and hay almost
er destroyed areas of range grass
The
Some enemies
entirely.
attack
when grasshoppers are still in the

nymph and adult stages.
soil
awaiting spring. Others attack

nutritional qualities of the chief food plant can affect
longevity and egg production of grasshoppers. Kentucky
blue grass
is
Predators
one of the best foods for high survival and egg
production. Western wheatgrass

for grasshoppers
is
one of the worst foods
and could be a factor
tion of this grasshopper
on the
bee
that limits distribu-
Prairies.
green grass available to attract females
It
at
may be
Among the
most important egg predators

ground beetles and
flies, blister beetles,
Common field crickets
eat the eggs
50 per cent of the eggs
in
some
When
the larvae of these
Spring appearance
fall
Spiders,
to hatch.
They hatch
last
in late
of the pest grasshopper species
May
to early June.
The
more of their development
and consequently need
may
and
to
blister
If
bee
and
flies
blister
destroy up to 80 per cent of
less time in the spring to
some wasps and many
birds feed
on grasshoppers
and consume large numbers of nymphs and

effect
embryos of this species undergo a maximum of 50 per cent

of their total development before winter. The other pest
species can complete
flies
eggs in a localized area.
was warm, eggs of the clear-winged
grasshopper will be the
Bee
egg predators hatch, they locate
egg pods and feed upon the eggs.
beetles are abundant, they
previous
and may destroy up
areas.
beetles deposit their eggs in the soil near grasshopper eggs.
the only
egg laying time.
the
If the
are
crickets.
on the
Parasites
total
grasshopper population
is
adults. Their
not known.
A few other insects, such as the tiny wasps of
the genus Scelio, parasitize eggs just after they have been
in the fall
The young parasitic larvae complete their development within the eggs in time to emerge as adults and parasitize the eggs of the next generation of grasshoppers. They
may destroy from 5 to 50 per cent of the grasshopper eggs.
complete
laid.
pre-hatch development.
Overwintering
Clear-winged grasshopper eggs are laid
in the fall
Parasites of
and
flies
hatch the following spring. Each female lays an average of

eight egg pods (about 175 eggs) usually in
The
short vegetation of dry,
over-grazed pastures
tion.
is
mowed
grasshopper
unbroken sod.
at
roadsides and sparse,
egg laying
sites; their
the female fly.
its
cent of the
nymphs and
Threadworms
eggs.
As
of Alberta's grasshopper pests, clear-winged
with
all
on the ground. Other fly

body by
inside the grasshop-
maggot leaves the

may parasitize up to 60 per
host as the
adults.
attack grasshoppers
encounter a grasshopper or
of generations
it
The maggot then feeds
body. This group of insects
become bright yellow during the mating and egg layThey stake out a territory and wait for females
come to oviposit.
ing period.
Number
Fly larvae burrow into the
they contact
per and eventually kills
under-
sides
to
when
adults include flesh flies, tachinid

flies.
larvae are deposited on or into the grasshopper's
especially favored for egg deposi-
Males are conspicuous
nymphs and
and tangled-veined
if
if
the
young worms
grasshoppers eat threadworm
Threadworms overwinter
in soil
and lay
their
eggs on
the soil or on vegetation.
Pathogens - The fungus, Entomophthora
grasshoppers have one generation per year.
tively control grasshoppers
102
grylli,
can effec-
under warm, humid conditions.
may
This fungus
the intensities of outbreaks in Manitoba. This
occasionally reach epidemic proportions.
The disease leaves
the corpses of
its
The microsporidian parasite, Nosema locustae, is an effective enemy of grasshoppers. A grasshopper becomes infectif it
organism
year.
the
It
Damage
eats contaminated vegetation or a diseased
grasshopper.
Damage
A grasshopper population infected with this
may be
relat-
populations of certain grasses.
stems of plants.
ed
may be
ed to changes in agricultural practices that have reduced
victims clinging to the
reduced by as
much
as
number of eggs
also reduces the
movement of individuals and
margins and
60 per cent in one

laid
and
tends to be
thus affects grasshopper
is
caused when hatchling grasshoppers
is
out of egg beds into field edges;
restricts
more evenly
damage
when stems
for reducing food con-
are severed just
mature crops.
sumption.
When
below
move
to grasslands
Damage
distributed.
includes leaf notching and stripping but
populations. Perhaps this organism's greatest potential as a

biological control agent, however,
description
to cereal crops is generally concentrated near field
is
to cereals
most costly
the heads of maturing or
grasshopper numbers are extremely
high and natural plant hosts in short supply, grasshoppers

Since most of the natural enemies of grasshoppers are
already widespread,
it
is
will
unlikely that they could be used to
consume
prevent grasshopper outbreaks over extensive areas.
consume any plants or plant

come upon during their migrations in
or attempt to
products that they

search of food.
Nevertheless, natural enemies do control localized
grasshopper infestations and hasten the decline of

grasshopper outbreaks.
Poultry - During the depression,
some farmers
used turkeys to control grasshoppers. In years
Walk through
successfully
the infested area and estimate the
grasshoppers per square metre as they
when
grasshoppers were plentiful, the turkeys were simply
A sampling 'T'
released into fields. This resulted in a secondary benefit:
estimate.
the turkeys required
little
grasshoppers provided a plentiful high quality protein
Other birds
Gulls, hawks, crows, meadowlarks,
killdeer, partridges
horned
and cranes are
Many
will likely
of you.
improve your
The 'T' consists of a metre-long measuring stick,

by a handle so that a square metre can be visualized
crop height. Walk and carry the 'T' just above the crop.
at
diet.
crowned
larks, shrikes, curlews,

all
predators of
up the egg cases, and

have been credited with clearing from 5 to 150 acres of
grasshoppers.
below
number of
in front
carried
supplemental food since
larks, lark buntings, desert
as depicted
jump
birds scratch
1.5
grasshopper pods. Birds, especially gulls and meadowlarks,
some infestations in the early

more likely to happen if a habitat provides food and refuge for the birds. Farm habitat can
be made more attractive to birds and so encourage predaare credited with stopping
part of the century. This
is
tion of insect pests.
Vertebrates other than birds

tunists; they will eat
them. Mice,
rats,
what
is
Most animals
are oppor-
nourishing and available to
shrews, gophers and badgers
Late
all eat
snakes, toads, bobcats and kit foxes eat
nymphs and
summer and
fall
surveys of grasshopper adults have
been carried out by agriculture fieldmen
grasshoppers and their egg pods. Coyotes, skunks, lizards,
1932. Grasshopper forecast
adults.
maps
are
in Alberta since
produced yearly from
data collected in about 1,700 townships.
Spring surveys of grasshoppers and grasshopper eggs are
Damage Assessment
also conducted in years
when
high grasshopper numbers
way, improved estimates are obtained
Economic importance
are expected. In this
Clear-winged grasshopper has been on average, the most
for time of hatch, population density
although over the years
its
and the effects of
predators and parasites.
economically important species of grasshopper in Canada,
importance relative to other
Economic thresholds
The first record from the

was from Saskatchewan in 1800. Clearwinged grasshoppers did not become abundant, however,
until about 1900 when road-building, drainage and cultivaspecies has changed gradually.
for
Manitoba created favorable breeding

and greatly increased the abundance of suitable food
tion in southern
plants. In recent years there has
Field
Control not usually required

Control
sites
been a marked decrease
grasshoppers
Number
Prairie Provinces
may be
required
Control required
in
103
of qrasshoppers/m^
Roadside
0-6
0-12
7-12
13-24
13+
25+
the outside of a field.
Management Strategy
10
Effects of
weather
Population size
is
vegetation must be eliminated between the trap strips
summers and open
falls.
Dry weather increases
are to
the
The
motes nymphal development and adult feeding. Open falls

allow grasshoppers more time to feed and lay eggs. Cool,
The black guard
weeks before
should have adequate vegetation to
strips
five days.
Migration of young grasshoppers from the cultivated guard
stages.
tion
is
may take several days. Once the migra-
complete, the trap strips and a 10
m strip of adjacent
crop should be treated with insecticide. Apply the highest rec-
Cultural practices
ommended rate
probably the most effective cultural
is
of insecticide to ensure adequate control.
Before cultivating the trap
practice available to farmers for the reduction of grasshop-
strips,
allow three days to assess the
per populations. Tillage controls grasshoppers primarily by
effectiveness of the insecticide. If adequate control
eliminating the green plants on which grasshoppers feed.
achieved after three days,
of
tillage is
little
value for the sole purpose of
should be possible to complete
them
physically destroying grasshopper eggs or exposing
may
tillage
Tillage to eliminate
late
fall
in clean
summer fallow even when
it
it
insecticides six or seven times to a field border are a direct
fields during
consequence of improper grasshopper control on summer
will discourage female grasshop-
fallow.
pers from depositing their eggs in these fields. Grasshoppers
seldom lay eggs
strip,
without fear of displac-
tillage
Summer fallow that is not properly managed can be a major

source of grasshoppers. Many cases of growers applying
also increase the risk of soil erosion.
weeds from summer fallow
summer and early
not
ing large numbers of grasshoppers into adjacent crops.
so that they dry out or are eaten by birds and other insects.
Excessive
is
When
treat the trap strip again.
grasshoppers have been eliminated from the trap
However,
they
into the trap strips to feed.
to wheat, barley or oats several
Trap
strips to the trap strips
Cultivation
if
ensure that
feed even the largest of grasshopper populations for three to
nymphal development, reduces the numbers of eggs laid by delaying sexual maturity and reduces
move
strip will
effectiveness of trap strips can be unproved considerably
tillage begins.
diseases, retards
all
effective.
by seeding them
wet weather increases egg mortality by promoting fungal
the activity of grasshoppers at
be
grasshoppers promptly
probability of egg survival, hastens spring hatch, and pro-
Tillage
strip at least
often as necessary to produce additional trap strips. All green
primarily determined by weather.
Outbreaks are usually preceded by two to three years with

hot, dry
Leave an uncultivated green
m wide before resuming cultivation. Repeat the process as
has a
Early seeding - Seed crops as early as possible. Older plants
heavy cover of trash. Similarly, thorough cultivation of fields
can withstand more grasshopper damage than younger plants
immediately
that are not well established.
from laying
after harvest will help
all their
Complete spring
discourage grasshoppers
eggs within the
tillage
field.
totally
more time
before grasshoppers hatch to eliminate
summer falwhen grasshoppers hatch, they will

starve to death because they are unable to move long distances
to find food. Early tillage will also give good weed control and
all
green growth on stubble fields that are to be in
low. If no food
is
Trap Strips -
at
instar),
adjacent crops
Use
their
possible with a
move
insecticide
to
To make
strips, cultivate
will
may be
and migrating
soil
moisture
is
adequate and
insecticide over the
a suitable alternative to cereals
grasshopper infestations are
where
light.
Roadside vegetation management- Certain of our
common
roadside weeds, such as stinkweed, alfalfa and dandelion, are
be
nutritious food plants for
of insecticide.
a black guard strip 10
earlier
Canola seeded with an in-furrow application of a granular
food supply becomes exhausted.
where quick and economical control
minimum
mature
entire field is economical.
trap strips in these fields to collect grasshoppers into a rel-
atively small area
earlier will
where one or more applications of an
opera-
Once grasshop-
they usually are mobile enough to
when
seeded
Crop rotation - Whenever possible, avoid seeding cereals on
pers have fed and developed to the second stage of growth
(second
be reduced and
will
stubble fields heavily infested with grasshoppers. Seed cereals
tions begin, elimination of all green plant material in a field

will probably not achieve adequate control.
damage
will be available to apply insecticides. Also, crops
only on stubble fields where
when tillage
Although early seeding may not
grasshoppers are not as likely to be attracted to them.
no extra cost.
grasshoppers are present
If
that are
available
conserve moisture
prevent crop damage,
nymphs and
mote high survival and egg
m wide around
other hand,
104
is
laying.
adults.
Such
plants pro-
Western wheatgrass on the
one of the poorest food
plants.
GRASSHOPPER
MIGRATORY
Melanoplus sanguinipes
both spring and the preceding
Insect Life Cycle
in stubble fields
Host plants
were seen
The migratory grasshopper

in
is
in
fall.
Watch
for signs of hatching
and along roadsides and pastures where adults
August and September.
one of the most destructive pests
western Canada. Outbreaks can lead to costly losses for
Number
grain growers. This species attacks both field and garden

crops, especially cereals, tomato, celery, onion
and
carrot.
As with
all
of generations
of Alberta's pest grasshopper species, migratory
grasshoppers have one generation per year.
Overwintering
Females lay pods of about 25 eggs
between clumps of grass or
in stubble
and wheat
Natural enemies
fields,
in other patches of dry soil during
August and September. The eggs of this species and others

the genus Melanoplus can complete
up
to
See clear-winged grasshopper
in
85 per cent of then-
embryonic development before winter.
Damage Assessment
Spring appearance
The migratory grasshopper
is
pest grasshopper species in
Westem Canada and
Economic importance
Eggs hatch between
date depends
early
May and mid July,
although the
upon temperature and moisture conditions
normally the most numerous

is
often inju-
rious to cereals.
in
GRASSHOPPERS
PACKARD'S
Melanoplus packardii
Insect Life Cycle
Natural enemies
Host plants
See clear-winged grasshopper.
Packard's grasshopper prefers herbs to grasses and hence

causes
little
damage
to range land, but will
and garden crops and legume pastures.

stems and flowers of
many
It
damage
field
Damage Assessment
feeds on leaves,
plants. Cereals
and
Economic importance
alfalfa are
Packard's grasshopper occurs in the four western
heavily attacked.
provinces.
It is
the second
most important species of
grasshopper in Alberta, and the third most important in
Overwintering
Females lay one
to several
Saskatchewan where
egg pods in grain
fields or along
total
August and September. Each pod conabout 20 eggs. The egg stage overwinters.
it
has comprised 12 per cent of the
grasshopper population.
It
tends to be associated with
M. sanguinipes, and tends
roadsides, mostly in
the migratory grasshopper,
tains
occur especially in stubble fields and in light
to
soil areas.
Packard's grasshopper has caused considerable damage to

fall
rye and winter wheat.
Spring appearance
Eggs hatch between early May and mid July, depending
upon temperature and moisture conditions. Nymphs, which
Management Strategy
fawn colored, molt through five nymphal

instars before becoming adult in three to seven weeks. In
cooler seasons, development is slowed and nymphs persist
are green or
into the fall.
Number
There
is
of generations
105
GRASSHOPPERS
TWO-STRIPED
Melanoplus
bivittatus
Number
Insect Life Cycle
There
Host plants
is
of generations
Two-striped grasshoppers feed on grasses and broad-leaved

plants.
The broad-leaved
plants are necessary for
maximum
Natural enemies
growth. They prefer the lush growth around edges of streams,
marshes and cultivated
fields.
and shrubs. They were

after
Hosts include weeds and most
and vegetables, and occasionally
crops, especially alfalfa
The
trees
tory grasshoppers.
noted in large numbers in 1932
first
broad-leaved weeds became
common on the
two-striped grasshopper has a greater
number of natural
enemies of the egg stage than have the clear-winged or migra-
least
Prairies.
The nymphs and
adults are attacked
by
at
twelve species of insect parasites, two mermithid nema-
tode species, three microbial pathogens and by various birds,
small
mammals and parasitic mites.
abundant two or three years
Overwintering
after
Insect parasites are
most
an outbreak. There are vari-
ous records of heavy mortality from fungus disease to which

This species overwinters in the egg stage. Drift ridges of soil
in
abandoned
fields that suffered severe
favored egg laying

soils
sites.
wind erosion
the two-striped grasshopper
are
Red mites have
Other areas include heavier textured
and
field
up
seems
to
however, about eight per cent
along roadsides, closely cropped pastures, fence rows,
ditch banks, prairie sod
infested
on these grasshoppers
effect
particularly susceptible.
100 per cent of a population;

is
is
more normal
figure. Their
unknown.
margins, but not cropped
fields.
Air temperature must be above 20C and
soil
moisture
between 10 and 20 per cent for egg deposition

to
100 eggs are
laid per pod; only
Damage Assessment
to occur. Forty
two or three pods
are laid
by
each female during August and September.
Management Strategy
Spring appearance
First instar
nymphs appear
in late
May to early June.
GREENBUG
Schizaphis graminum
Insect Life Cycle
Number
Host plants
The greenbug produces many generations each season. The

number of generations that can be produced in Alberta
The greenbug feeds on cereals and forage grasses. Latesown oats, barley, fall rye and wheat are usually suscepti-
depends on the time of
ble
when
this
aphid
is
of generations
initial infestation,
crop condition,
and temperature.
abundant, although in one year the
was to early-seeded fields of winter cereals.

Timothy grown for forage is most susceptible because of
greatest injury
Natural enemies
succulent growth that appears after harvest.
Predators
Lady
Parasitic wasps.
beetles (lady bugs), lacewings, big-eyed
bugs.

The
species
is
Parasites
normally unable to survive the winter in
Canada. Infestations are begun mainly by flying aphids

are carried into
fall
Oklahoma and Texas.
planted wheat and volunteer grains

It
Various fungal pathogens.
Damage Assessment
migrates north in the spring, and
passes through several generations during migration.
numbers
Canada on southerly winds. The species
passes the winter on

in
Patliogens
that
that eventually reach
Canada
are
Economic importance
The
presumably
The greenbug, an introduced
influ-
enced by whether migrating individuals find suitable food

plants, conditions suitable to successful colonization,
southerly winds
when
Prairies since 1907.
species, has been on the

Greenbugs are not normally a problem
because they do not overwinter
and
populations are flying. In 1986, infes-
tion
tations in southern Alberta did not arrive until early July.
in the
106
in Alberta.
Heavy migra-
and outbreaks do occur and large areas were infested

1930s and in 1986. This species of aphid injects a
toxin into plants while feeding.
The
toxin causes
brown
attributed to severe scald
where aphids feed and causes the plant to turn

yellow. Plants are set back from their normal maturity date.
The aphid can carry barley yellow dwarf virus and maize
dwarf mosaic
Economic threshold
virus.
From 5
to
25 aphids per stem warrants chemical control
action, that
Damage
description
uted to the coincidence of aphid flight with a time
crops were
at a
conditions.
is
have more
less likely to
attractive succu-
is
on the lower
are
weather
throughout infested fields during the 1986 outbreak.
that
was
many
may
prevent population increases. Rain can
evident,
on
wash
air.
injected
parts of the
Biological control
(browning) of lower leaves occurred
a distance, however, fields took
parasites should enable
species has been abundant in hot dry weather. Cool
migrating aphids out of the
Aphid colonies
plant; necrosis
dependent on the
weather
Effects of
The
produce a crop should
caused primarily by the toxin that
into the plant.
is
Management Strategy
when
plants recover.
Damage
economic threshold
Abundant predators and
succulent stage of development.
less able to withstand attack,
and are
the
greater populations to be tolerated.
Late-seeded crops are more susceptible because they are

lent growth,
is,
stage of crop growth, the health of the crop and growing
The condition of host plants may influence infestations;

in one instance damage to late seeded barley and oats
was highest in low lying land that had been flooded earlier. In another instance, serious outbreaks were attriblate
and net blotch, which were preva-
lent in 1986.
spots at sites
Predators, especially lady beetles, have prevented popula-
From
tion increases
and controlled outbreaks.
yellow appearance
on close inspection,
in the top
barley fields, the unnatural yellow color
growth. In
was
likely
LYGUS BUGS
Lygussjii\i.
Parasites - Lygus bugs are attacked by a nematode and

by an insect parasite that also attacks four other species
of plant bugs found in forage crops.
Insect Life Cycle
Host plants
Lygus bugs feed on
alfalfa
wide variety of crop plants but
and canola are preferred.
Weed
hosts include
Damage Assessment
flixweed, kochia, lamb's quarters, mustard, Russian
knapweed and Russian
thistle.
Economic importance
Lygus bugs
are general feeders
and are found on many
herbaceous plants. They are most damaging
Lygus bugs overwinter
grown
as adults under debris, litter or
plant cover along fence lines, ditch banks,
nished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris,
hedgerows
and flowers and is

most economically important lygus bug on the
prairies. Two other Lygus species, L. borealis and L. elisety of forage crops, vegetables, fruits
and in wooded areas. In the spring, adults become

active, feed on early growing plants and mate. Lygus
bugs migrate
to crops
when
they
become
feeding and egg laying. This
may be
May
and as
in the southern prairies
the
suitable for
as early as
late as
us, are also pests of
mid
mid June
to alfalfa
on canola. The tarfeeds on a wide vari-
for seed but also actively feed
canola and alfalfa seed production.
in
the Peace River areas.
Damage
description
In northern parts of the Prairie Provinces and British
Number
Columbia these bugs often cause bud blasting and
of generations
Lygus bugs have two or three generations per
vent alfalfa from blossoming.
year.
When
while in bud, the buds turn white and

flowers
Damsel bugs, ladybird
fail to
without forming pods, the pods
develop, the
fall
off
before they are mature, or the seeds are discolored or
Natural enemies
Predators
fall
pre-
alfalfa is attacked
shrunken. In one instance 10 to 25 per cent of blossoms

were destroyed and in another, lygus-damaged seed
averaged 25 per cent of yield. One heavy infestation in
beetles, green
lacewings, pirate bugs, big-eyed bugs.
107
was caused by bugs
alfalfa
snowberry.
On
alfalfa,
that
migrated from nearby
Sampling methods
eggs are laid in upper parts of the
Sample
up quickly when alfalfa

is grown under irrigation and when the weather is damp.
However, lygus bug populations tend to remain low
when the weather is hot and dry. Wet weather may prevent seed from setting and in turn may obscure any damage that the bugs cause. Cool weather reduces feeding
cm
the top 20-25
of the crop with a sweep net.
plants. Populations tend to build
Economic threshold
grown
economic threshold is two

per sweep during bud and
bloom and four adults per sweep after bloom.
In alfalfa
for seed the
or three adults or five
nymphs
activity.
Lygus bugs puncture
tissues
and suck plant juices.
Management Strategy
Plants also react to the toxic saliva the insects inject
when
to
they feed. Lygus bug infestations can cause alfalfa
Biological control
have short stem internodes, excessive branching and
Controls in alfalfa grown for hay are not necessary
small, distorted leaves.
because natural predators and parasites, along with
Lygus
adults also feed
on the base of canola buds and
mowing and
harvesting, reduce lygus
bug populations.
flowers and cause blast damage quite similar to that in

alfalfa.
Buds
that are attacked appear
shrunken and
bleached. In late July and early August, older
nymphs
Cultural practices
and adults puncture pods and suck out the contents of

immature seeds. Damaged seed appears dark brown and
shrivelled.
the
pod
Control tarnished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris, in orna-
mental plants by removing weeds and keeping lawns or
A droplet of fluid may be on the exterior of
at the
puncture
grassy areas
mowed
to eliminate
breeding
sites.
site.
PALE WESTERN
CUTWORM
Agrotis orthogonia
Natural enemies
Insect Life Cycle
Frequent rainfalls saturate the
Host plants
soil
and force larvae
to the sur
face where they are exposed to attack by predators, including
Pale western cutworm
is
important as a pest of wheat.
can also damage rye, oats, barley, mustard,

beets and legumes. Pale western
flax,
cutworm feeds
It
birds, beetles
sugar
thistles
and ambush bugs.
and
On
the surface they feed on
where tachinid
the upper parts of plants
fly parasites lay
eggs. Excessive moisture apparently has no significant effect
various other weeds.
in reducing
cutworm numbers
in the
predators. In dry weather, parasitism
absence of parasites anc

is
low and the
effects o
predatory birds and insects are negligible.
Overwintering
Eggs
are laid just
below the surface
lay
150
to
frost kills the adults.
noon and
in loose friable soil, in
Females
400 eggs during August and September before
cracks in hard-packed
soil,
Egg
and
in stubble fields.
Damage Assessment
Damage
deposition occurs in late after-
The
early evening.
first
description
sign of injury
is
the appearance of small holes in
rows across the leaves. These holes are caused by larvae
that
when they are underground. As the

leaves emerge the holes become apparent. Cutworms at this
stage are very small and difficult to find. As larvae increase ir
size, they move along the row and cut off leaves and often
feed on the curled leaves
Spring appearance
Eggs hatch between the end of March and the beginning
of May. There is sometimes abnormal hatching in the fall
if the weather is cool. The newly hatched larvae can
entire plants. This behavior
is
similar to that of redbacked cut
withstand starvation for several weeks. Freezing temper-
worms. Injury caused by older cutworms may be distinguishe
atures are not a serious hazard to survival and hatching of
from drought by pulling up the
the egg. Larvae feed
on growing leaves below the
likely cause
soil
when
If the entire plant
surface.
roots
soil level
There
is
Damage
of generations
injury
is
the
is
the prob-
chew and weaken stems just below
and make the crop susceptible
to
wind damage.
ranges from complete destruction of individual
to partial destruction
Cutworm
can be easily pulled up, drought
able cause. Older larvae
Number
plant.
do not come out with the plant stem.
fields
over thousands of acres. Outbreaks have
occurred on the Prairies with no apparent pattern since 1911.
108
Sampling and
surface. If the land
methods
nfionitoring
worms
Since 1978, pale western cutworm moths have been moni-
pheromone traps in southern Alberta. In 1985,

province-wide pheromone monitoring system was established for this and other cutworm species.
tored with
Sample
worm
for
Mark an
Do
Control by starvation
an average number
in
necessary. Infestations
may be
to
be sown
in place of wheat.
the shorter
Even
if
wheat can be
yield. In view
growing season may reduce
Crop rotation - Fields should not be disturbed between

August 1 and mid September to discourage cutworm egg
patchy
within fields, and evident especially on high areas and
production.
The following
rotation
may be
useful:
hill
1st year:
the edges of bare patches to determine the
Examine
may be
may
the previous year.
in spring cere-
are more, or if obvious thinning of the stand has occurred,
tops.
done properly but has a
used on fields disturbed during a heavy egg laying period
win-
generally warrant an insecticide application. If there
is
if
of the disadvantages this control method should only be
cutworms per square metre
wheat or three or four per square metre
immediate control
effective
delayed for too long. Barley, flax or a greenfeed crop
field.
Economic threshold
als,
is
serious disadvantage because seeding of wheat
sown
ter
plant to appear in the spring.
until later.
have
Infestation levels of 10
first
not feed on this plant,
larvae within the quarter square metre. Repeat the process
of larvae per square metre for your
weed growth. Stinkweed is

Cutworms do
however, and will not become active
to cultivate to destroy
usually the
cm x 50 cm. During
cm of soil. Count the
in different areas of the field. Calculate
not use stinkweed as an indicator plant for deciding
when
area of soil 50
the day, larvae are within the top 5-7
cultivated too early, before the cut-
they will simply remain inactive and
cannot be starved out.
of larvae as for other subterranean cut-
numbers
species.
is
start to feed,
Seed summer fallow

the rye
cause of an uneven plant distribution.
2nd
Management Strategy
year:
3rd year:
may be
to fall rye before
August
1;
grazed after September 15.
Harvest rye before August 15.
Seed oats or barley
as a nurse crop to sweet-
clover and cut for hay or greenfeed about July
Effects of
weather
15; the crop can
Many infestations have been halted,
4th year:
wet weather. Frequent rains also reduce damage by promoting

plant growth. Conversely,
spring
June,
is dry. If
damage can be severe when
there are fewer than 10
cutworm populations tend
delay egg laying and

explain
kill
larvae
wet days
to increase.
by
in
May
and
5th year:
needed
day
is
to
wet
to
A wet
weather.
use a disc-harrow.
cutworm populations.
tends to promote infestations in the following year because

is
more
suitable for
egg production.
A soil
disturbance that affects egg production can include harvest

activity, cultivation or grazing.
A crust on the soil of sum-
mer fallow
fields left undisturbed during
September
inhibits infestations in the following year.
August and
Tillage for weed control - In May, a delay of five days or

more between cultivation and seeding can stop an infestation. The larvae will die if they feed after they hatch and
then are deprived of food for several days, or
feed
10 to 14 days.
at all for
if
they cannot
Warm, sunny weather
will
shorten this period.
Timing of this
the field
when
first tillage
operation
the vegetation
is
2-5
Plant spring wheat and follow
it
with a year of
fallow.
Parasites and predators are unlikely to be effective in dry
Disturbing the soil during August and early September
the soil surface
15.
Biological control
are
Cultural practices
Cultural practices can influence
15.
which may
where two or three dry springs
soil is too
September
in dry than moist soil.
develop a population that can cause damage.
any day the
September
summer
Usually a spring with 12 or more wet days will reduce the cuta point
after
Cut sweetclover for hay in late July or for seed

after
the
Drought can
desiccation,
why there can be less damage
worm population to
be pastured
reduced or prevented by
is
cm
important. Cultivate
above the ground
109
PEA APHID
Acyrthosiphon pisum
die.
Insect Life Cycle
Yield and quality of hay
may be
greatly reduced.
From
a distance, the affected area of an alfalfa field appears
Host plants
brownish, and close examination reveals shed aphid skins
Field peas and alfalfa in the irrigated areas of southern
may be
on the ground beneath the plants. Where growth of alfalfa

is retarded, weeds may take over and crowd out the alfalfa.
Large numbers of aphids are a nuisance during haying,
cubing and dehydration.
damaged by the pea aphid,

Acyrthosiphon pisum. This insect, which also feeds on
Alberta
sweetclover,
severely
trefoil, vetch,
several varieties of clover,
sweet peas, broad beans and

is
found
in Alberta
wherever
This aphid transmits viruses such as alfalfa mosaic, alsike
peas and forage legumes are grown.
clover mosaic, bean yellow mosaic, pea enation mosaic, pea
mosaic, pea streak, and red clover vein mosaic. However,

these diseases have been of minor importance in Canada.
Overwintering
Pea aphids overwinter as eggs on leaves and stems of various perennial legumes.

The simplest way to determine aphid densities in alfalfa is
with a sweep net. A 38 cm diameter fine net bag with aim
handle is commonly used. Move through the crop and
sweep the net in a 180" arc through the tops of the plants
five times; that is, make five sweeps. Count the aphids collected or estimate their number if they are too numerous.
Calculate the average number per sweep. Repeat the
Spring appearance
A small, light green, wingless female hatches from each egg

when
plants
resume growth
in spring.
These female aphids,
called "stem mothers", reproduce without mating.
on the growing plants and give
Some
aphids of the second and third generations
winged and migrate
to
Number
become
process in four different spots in the
peas and other acceptable host plants.
Here they feed and produce wingless females

to other generations
They feed
birth to other female young.
count the aphids on
that give rise
by temperature and food
develop from birth to maturity
of pea aphids in field peas
50 days. All pea aphids are female throughout
If the
summer; a summer female can produce from 50

150 young during its life.
spring and
to
taken from
The economic threshold varies with yield expectation,

commodity price and cost of control. In alfalfa, 150-200
pea aphids per sweep justifies control. Assess the density
Generation time and numbers of offspring produced are fac-
in five to
tips
Economic threshold
of generations
quality. Accordingly, aphids
field. In field peas,
20-cm stem
four different spots in the field.
of both winged and wingless females.
tors greatly influenced in aphids
at least 20,
when
the crop begins to flower.
economic threshold of 9-12 aphids per sweep or
per 20-cm stem
tip is
yield loss with a single application of insecticide
50
exceeded, protect the crop against
75 per cent of the plants have begun
when
to flower.
Natural enemies
PredBtors
Syrphid
fly larvae,
and adults and larvae of
Management Strategy
ladybugs, lacewings, damsel bugs, pirate bugs, lygus bugs
and predacious plant bugs.

Parasites
lay
Effects of
weather
Weather favorable
Pea aphids are parasitized by tiny wasps, which
for rapid
growth of
alfalfa greatly
reduces the possibility of aphid damage. Aphid infestations
one egg inside each aphid. The wasp larvae eventually
may be reduced by
kill their hosts.
Heavy
weather.
very hot weather and retarded by cold
rains
may
dislodge and
kill
aphids.
Damage Assessment
Damage description
Cultural practices
This aphid generally infests the growing tips of plants.
peas, including Pride and
Both adults and young pierce plant tissues and suck juice
from leaves, petioles, stems and flower buds.
aged by aphids.
Most healthy plants can withstand moderate infestations

without showing damage. However, large populations
cause alfalfa plants to become stunted and wilted. Upper
leaves become light green, and lower ones turn yellow and
exceeded the economic threshold from 1980 to 1983.
Resistant and susceptible varieties
Most pea
fields in
Onward,
Several varieties of
are not severely
Manitoba had aphid densities
Aphids reached higher densities on the

than on Century. Thus, control is more
in fields
110
of Trapper.
dam-
that
cultivar Trapper
likely to
be requirec
Fababeans were severely damaged by pea aphids in greenhouse tests. In the field, however, this crop is planted early
and seems
to
Biological control
Predators and parasites help to keep the pea aphid under
be past the susceptible stage when aphids
migrate from perennial crops.
Harvesting
remove
Cut
hay
alfalfa
from the
the hay
aphid
bloom
in the early
field quickly
and
the
abundant. The predators are mainly adults and
is
lar-
vae of damsel bugs, pirate bugs, ladybird beetles and
stage,
irrigate
become abundant only when
control. Usually they
lacewings, and larvae of syrphid
immedi-
larvae of tiny wasps,
damage to new plant growth. This

allows the crop to become well established before the
aphid population again becomes large.
ately to reduce aphid
them.
ly kill
When
and birds also
which
flies.
The
parasites are the
and eventual-
live in the aphids
aphids are unusually abundant, spiders
eat them.
A fungal disease may sometimes eliminate infestations of

warm
aphids in
PRAIRIE GRAIN
moist weather.
WIREWORM
Ctenicera aeripennis destructor
Natural enemies
Insect Life Cycle
Parasites
Host plants
The
prairie grain
worm pest
wireworm
is
the
most destructive wire-
of grain in Western Canada.
and perennial grasses.
It
It
Parasitic
Patiiogens
prefers annual
is
nematodes attack
larvae.
Larval mortality caused by bacterial diseases
especially high in soils with a high moisture content.
also attacks potatoes, sugar beets,
corn, lettuce, sunflower, canola and onions.
Damage Assessment
Economic importance
Overwintering
Wireworms
soil
(the larval stage) live for several years in the
and are quite resistant
vae that survive
to adverse conditions.
their first winter
can go for
years without any food other than humus.

stage lasts
anywhere from four
in the soil
from 5
to
25
Those
at least
per cent annually.
from farm
The wireworm
They hibernate
Over 80 species of wireworms occur
wireworm
is
cm below ground level. Older larcm in the topsoil.
Damage
The
description
larvae feed
on germinating seeds or young seedlings
and shred the stems but seldom cut them
The
off.
leaves die but outer leaves often remain green for

time.
Damaged
stands.
adults, called click beetles,
the soil in
when
emerge
and then seek egg laying
sites.
From
is
late
in April
and
Poor seed and dry conditions can also cause thin
Wireworms do
many wireworm
the
most damage
are near the soil surface.
above 10C, mate
May
some
infestations are
passed off as due to poor seed or poor germination.
which they overwintered. They
the air temperature
central
plants soon wilt and die, resulting in thin
stands; consequently,
Spring appearance
May from
in
of major
economic importance.
lowing spring.
active
to farm.
50
to
to other non-cereal crops varies
to 11 years.
than a month; however, adults do not emerge until the fol-
become
wheat crops ranges from one
Alberta, but only the prairie grain
When fully grown, usually in July, the larvae pupate about

5 to 10 cm below the soil surface. Pupation lasts for less
early
to
Damage
lar-
two
vae commonly feed to a depth of 15
Wireworm
damage
In Alberta,
in early spring
when
they
During summer months, larvae
move deeper into the soil where it is cool and moist.

Wireworms do not ingest solid plant material, but chew
through June
200 to 400 eggs in loose soil, or

Depending on the moisture, temperature
tis-
individual females deposit
under lumps of
soil.
and firmness of the
below the
soil,
soil surface to
sues, regurgitate fluids containing
imbibe the juices and plant products made soluble by the
eggs are laid anywhere from just

15
cm deep.
enzymes.
After three to seven
weeks, the wireworms hatch and begin to feed on live roots
Potato seed pieces are seldom
or seeds of cereals or grasses. If no food
stands result. However,
to four
weeks of hatching,
is
found within one
where poor
damaged severely.
to a point
is
generally higher in
less marketable.
silty,
medium
well-drained soils and in soils cultivated for
(4 to 1 1 years) varies with the quality
and availability of food. Wireworms
damaged
tubers can be
and the damaged tubers are
Damage
of generations
The generation time
new
Tunnels made by the wireworm allow disease organisms to
the larvae die.
enter,
Number
enzymes, and then
in all
years.
growth stages
Damage
Crops grown
are likely to infest a field.

for
111
one
to
is less
in
two
likely in
heavy or very
newly broken sod can
years, then the
textured,
at least
12
light soils.
suffer great losses
damage decreases
rapidly
only to gradually increase in succeeding years
worm
if
expose eggs and injure larvae. Thorough cultivation of
no wire-
summer
control measures are applied.
fallow during the
latter half
of July can destroy
pupae as well as larvae. Use a rod weeder and disturb only

the upper soil layer.
Sampling and monitoring

Whole
Summer fallow - Summer fallow for wireworm
potatoes buried in marked locations in a field in the
not recommended, because
spring or from early to mid August will indicate whether

wireworms are present. Bury the potatoes 10 to 15 cm deep
then dig them up after a couple of weeks, and examine
them for wireworm tunnels. Monitor your fields each year.
To sample
cm. Repeat
cm
x 50
cm
and sieve the
soil to a
mature larvae, which can survive for two years on
humus
wireworm damage
young larvae and eggs,
injure
If
depth of 15
summer
is
for
weed
used to starve and
all
Work summer fallow
control.
green growth during
as shallow as possible
Seed shallow, pack the seedbed
quick germination, and avoid very early or very
established. Treat seed for
sod
tive years after breaking
non-economical
to induce
late seeding.
Shallow cultivation or seeding combined with soil packing
Economic threshold
None have been
soil
more severe
fallow must be part of the rotation, starve newly
June and July.
average number of larvae per square metre.
is
plant a resistant crop.
hatched wireworms by destroying
determine an
in different areas of the field to
alone. In fact,
after fallow. If early spring cultivation is
Mark
for larvae, sieve the soil through a screen.
out areas 50
control
has almost no effect on
it
to
Pack behind
two consecu-
wireworm
reduce the problem to a
ellers.
level.
damage to grain in
Wireworms are very poor trav-
the seed drill to reduce
infested land.
Some remain
in the larval stage for nine or 10 years
during which time they travel only a few yards. Firming

the soil further
impedes wireworms. Use a press
best results. If a press drill
Management Strategy
is
hitched behind the seeder in such a
Effects of
weather
Larval activity
is
Cool weather
levels
92
to
them deeper
restricts adult activity
egg laying period. Eggs
compact
wireworm
wheels of
is
from
first
most of the worms will seek
their
low the seed rows they
will tend to leave
firming the intervening
strips.
dif-
food in the
two weeks of
cm
This
them loose while
may encourage
the
rows and cause heavy damage.
to follow the seed
Farmers should
eggs and young wireworms. Most
mortality occurs during the
packed firmly, making wireworm movement so
worms
when moisture
and temperature fluctuate rapidly. Mortality

in
that all
looser soil between the seed rows. If the packers do not fol-
into the
and lengthens the
high mortality
is
ficult that
to
laid near the soil surface or in
soil are subject to
98 per cent
row
governed by temperature and moisture
the surface; dry hot weather forces

soil.
way
the packer "follow" the drills of the seeder. Thus, the seed
wet weather forces wireworms closer
conditions. Cool
drill for
not available, use a packer
restrict tillage
operations to the upper 5 to
of the soil to maintain a compact soil layer beneath
the tilled layer.
larval life.
Adult click beetles are also affected by a compact sub-layer

because they are forced to lay their eggs close to the surface,
Cultural practices
Crop rotation
usually prevent
Crop
rotation
wireworms from becoming
in sugar beet fields.
major problem
attack can be
grown on
infested fields so that
tive
grown in a
rotation where wireworms have been a problem. Wireworms
can also be present when sugar beets are grown on land previously uncultivated or planted to grass or pasture. Deep
potatoes, corn, onions or beans should not be
in the fall
are suggested
and frequent cultivation
when wireworms
are
known
in early
to
On
advantage with weeds and to prepare a good seedbed.

land that
weeder
was
is
in
worms
survive.
in four
weeks. Thus, cultivate fallow land
Newly hatched wireworms must feed
is
dry, delay seeding until
compared with 5
was first
grow quick-
soil.
to
it
rains.
As much
as
10 per cent loss
when
Moisture also helps young seedlings
wireworm damage.
Shallow seeding
with-
drilling
seeds will
95 per cent of a crop has been destroyed when seeded
recover from
of eggs and young wire-
when
warm and
stubble,
If the soil
the soil
to
seeded into moist
to eight per cent
is
On
proper time.
90
into a dry soil
- The long life and underground habit

make them hard to control. The most vulnerfor the wireworm is from the egg to early larval
at the
ly. If
Shallow cultivation
Only two
fallow the year before, a rod
compact seedbed.
moist, seed 10 to 14 days from
of wireworms
stage.
summer
possible so that the soil
these fallow fields.
able period
in
will produce a very
use a one-way disc; then seed
summer
be present
by
Cultivate before spring seeding to give the crop a competi-
populations will not build up. Root and row crops such as
plowing
easily dry out or be discovered
Seeding practices - Avoid very early or very late seeding.

Use methods that speed germination and early growth of
the crop to help reduce the impact of wireworm damage.
Because sugar beets are normally grown
in a four-year rotation in Alberta, crops less susceptible to
wireworm
where the eggs can
predators.
and other cultural practices
Seed preferably
at a
depth of 2 to 5 cm.
This speeds the early growth of plants (as long as moisture
in early spring to
is
starve hatchlings. Shallow cultivation in early spring can
present).
Use
a drill press or standard drill with press
attachment. If not available, use a standard double disc
112
drill.
with a grass. Seedlings of sweetclover and alfalfa can be
if
seriously
Avoid the use of single-disc drills, and hoe-drills; but

you must use them, use press attachments or follow with
especially for wheat.
Use
as
much
Take
as an extra bushel per
acre, or for a patchy infestation, drill twice.
new
Use healthy
A light topping of rotted manure or an application of
phosphate
fertilizers will
The phosphorous
manure probably encourages
in the
destroyed, reseed immediately with a resistant
is
crop. This
wireworm damage.
help reduce
preferable to leaving the land fallow, since a
is
recurrence of the problem would then be likely.
root
Biological control
be incorporated into the
Parasites
Do not plant
soil.
susceptible crops
cessive years.
on the same land
in
that
two suc-
Pathogens - Wireworms are susceptible

fungal diseases, and mortality
Buckwheat and flax are not usually damaged by wireworms. If recommended seeding practices are followed,
oats
Predators
and barley can be planted except when infestations are
severe. Fall rye and winter

to early vigorous
growth
in spring.
legumes with a
fall
light nurse
resistant
to bacterial
higher in moist
is
The
adults are preyed
they lay eggs, the larvae are eaten in spring
near the surface or
them from
and
soils.
Click beetles and their larvae are prey to both
birds and small rodents.
owing
However, a wet autumn
has resulted in damage
wheat are more
preceded by a dry summer and

to rye. Plant
A few nematode parasites control wireworms
pupate below ground. At present these nematodes are
not available for commercial use.
A crop rotation with resistant varieties and
useful.
is
on
special precautions after breaking sod. If a crop
land
development and early maturity. Manure can be applied

late in the fallow year or early the next spring, and should
legumes
usually
aged by wireworms.
Increase the seeding rate in fields infested with wireworms,
seed.
damaged by wireworms. The seedlings
escape damage in a mixture. Mature plants are not dam-
a packer.
when exposed by
the soil, and
upon when
when
they are
cultivation. Birds pull
moles and shrews dig
for them.
crop or in a mixture
REDBACKED CUTWORM
Euxoa ochrogaster
Natural enemies
Insect Life Cycle
Parasites
Host plants
Redbacked cutworm
is
beet, canola, mustard,
also feeds
Natural enemies suppress outbreaks and pre-
sumably contribute
primarily a pest of cereals, sugar
and flax
in the Prairie Provinces.
It
low populations
breaks. Parasitism must be sufficiently
on most vegetables, sunflower, sweetclover,
alsike, alfalfa, various tree seedlings
to the relatively
that
usually occur in the two or three years following out-
infestation of redbacked
and garden flowers.
cutworms
low
to permit an
to develop.
No para-
were found in one severe outbreak and parasite

numbers were low in the year preceding an outbreak
sites
year.
Overwintering
Redbacked cutworm moths usually
below the
soil surface in
weedy patches
in crops.
Patliogens
lay their eggs just
weedy summer fallow and

The eggs overwinter.
Heavy
mortality of the larvae from disease
occurs in outbreaks. In British Columbia, this pest
in
is
attacked by 18 species of parasitic insects, five species
of fungi and three other kinds of microbial pathogens.
Spring appearance
Eggs usually hatch
in April as soil
Damage Assessment
temperatures increase,
Economic importance
Larvae begin feeding immediately on any nearby plants
jl
and feed for six
to eight
weeks with most of the damage
Redbacked cutworm frequently causes serious damage on

the Prairies and produces infestations of two to four years
duration followed by a minimum of two years of relative
occurring in June. Larvae generally remain inactive during
the day, but at night either
underground
Number
;
There
is
in search of
come
to the surface or
move
food plants.
scarcity.
of generations
Damage description
Damage by young larvae is
and notches
ally sever
113
in foliage.
them
at
characterized by small holes
Older larvae eat into stems and usu-
or just
below
the soil surface.
Infestations in cereal crops are characterized
by areas of
Management Strategy
bare soil that gradually enlarge until anywhere from one to
two acres
to
complete
fields are affected.
Damage
is
Effects of
often
weather
patchy and occurs on knolls and in light soil areas. These
Augusts
bare areas of exposed soil are often confused with areas of
moth feeding on
poor germination or moisture
worms
is
stress.
depend on the
The presence of cut-
and dry provide the best conditions for
that are hot
flowers.
Egg production and egg laying

from flowers. The same
nutrition obtained
weather conditions promote the loose, dry
characterized by severed, dead, dried plants.
sary for egg deposition. Cold weather

larvae and pupae. Wet,
and fungal diseases
Redbacked cutworm moths have been monitored with

pheromone traps since 1978 in southern Alberta. In 1985,
province-wide pheromone monitoring system was established for this and other cutworm species.
increase the severity of
for of larvae as for other subterranean
species.
Mark an
area of soil 50
cutworm
square metre for the
Warm,
dry weather can
damage from cutworm
attack.
Crusted soils on
summer
fallow help pre-
vent egg deposition from late July until late September.
cm x 50 cm. During the

cm of soil. Count the lar-
areas of the field. Calculate an average
in the larvae.
Cultural practices
Destroy weed growth that develops in August, because red-
day, larvae are within the top 5-7
vae within each 0.25 m-. Repeat the process
detrimental to
weather promotes plant growth
Tillags Practices
Sample
warm
soil surfaces neces-
may be
backed cutworm moths usually lay
in different
number of larvae per
field.
mer
fallow.
and
in fields of canola, peas, alfalfa
starve
They
also lay in
their
eggs in weedy sum-
weedy patches
in cereal crops
and sweetclover. To
young cutworm larvae before spring seeding, allow
volunteer growth to reach 3 to 5 cm, cultivate and then seed
10 to 14 days
Economic threshold
below the
Economic thresholds are not firmly

six cutworms per square metre may
justify control.
Well
good
patchy within
cm
edge of the damaged area.
Biological control
moisture conditions can tolerate higher numbers.
may be
Locate cutworms by digging 2 to 3
established but five to
established fall-seeded or spring-seeded crops with
Infestations
later.
soil surface at the
Because parasite numbers tend
Examine the
cause of uneven
fields.
edges of bare patches to determine the
to increase after
an increase
few parasites are found during the first year of an outbreak. However, after two years,
parasites are numerous enough to reduce the outbreak and
keep cutworm numbers low for at least two years.
in
plant distribution.
abundance of the
host, very
RED TURNIP BEETLE

Entomoscelis americana
Insect Life Cycle
Overwintering
Red
Host plants
The
red turnip beetle
mustard
in
is
an occasional pest of canola and
Western Canada.
most
common
trict.
The
in the
turnip beetles overwinter in the egg stage.
hatch in April and early May, shortly after the

It is
native to
Canada and
melted and usually before canola
in
May
Spring appearance
August
Upon
and September.
hatching, the black, rough-skinned larvae feed on
canola, mustard and
tal
plants of larvae include canola, yellow mustard orien-
wild mustard, flixweed,
Other
common
tall
weeds of the mustard
family. Larvae
normally complete development by the end of
mustard, brown mustard, dog mustard shepherd's purse,
tard.
planted.
is
aspen parklands and Peace River dis-
larvae and adults feed on seedling plants in
and June, and the adults feed on mature plants
Food
is
The eggs
snow has
May
and
enter the soil to pupate.
hedge mustard and black mus-
cruciferous
weeds
that
The
might serve as
fields in
mustard, wormseed mustard, gray tansy mustard, green
flax,
emerge during the
first
three
which the larvae
fed.
weeks of
same
in the
At the end of June, the adults
enter the soil to spend July in a resting state (aestivation).
tansy mustard, marsh yellow cress, pepper grass, small-
flowered prairie-rocket, false
adults normally
June and feed for two to three weeks, usually
food plants for the larvae include ball mustard, tumble
They reappear
hoary cress and hare's-
tard fields,
ear mustard. Neither larvae nor adults feed on stinkweed.
114
in
August, disperse to
mate and lay eggs
new canola and mus-
until late October.
Number
There
is
Economic threshold
of generations
Economic thresholds have not been established. However,

in assessing damage and potential for economic damage,
two factors should be considered: date of invasion and
Natural enemies
Predators
stage of plant development. Because adults feed for only
two or three weeks
Carabid beetles.
in June, they will
canola for less than three weeks.
Pathogens
A microsporidian causes disease.
after
emergence
many more
damage rapeseed and
If adults enter fields
in early June, they will
plants than
if
they enter shortly before aestiva-
tion in late June, because they have a longer time in
Damage Assessment
to feed
soon
probably destroy
and the plants are smaller. Beetles cause
less
which
dam-
age in fields with relatively large plants than in fields with
Economic importance
The only damage of economic
significance
is
small seedlings.
caused by the
adults in June.
Management Strategy
Damage
In
May
description
Cultural practices
and June, infestations of both larvae and adults
Infestations of red turnip beetle usually originate in canola
occur in canola and mustard stubble fields and in other

fields
with heavy stands of cruciferous weeds.
plants are all consumed, the larvae and adults
If
and mustard stubble
these food
may
invade
previous
nearby fields of seedling canola and mustard. They crawl

or
walk
to
moving
new
fields
front only a
and usually are concentrated
fly in
oles and stems of seedlings.
and thereby
Depending on seedling
and true leaves
loss of small portions of cotyledons
plete defoliation
more
readily
and death of
damaged than
plants.
kills
75
100 per cent of the next generation
most of the plants
com-
May
destroying
damage
in
kill
many
field
pupae.
edges next to fields infested the
applications that are required. Since beetles
cause sufficient
and mustard
and June will
Double seeding along
one or two passes with a sprayer along the
June to warrant control measures.
In August, adults invade canola
fields
soon
Crop
rotation to a non-cruciferous crop
have caused damage
normally are not large enough to significantly reduce seed
where canola was underseeded

and therefore not cultivated.
to protect yields are not required in
August and September.
Sampling methods
If large
numbers of
mustard
cides.
Examine
newly seeded canola and
adults invade
fields in June,
it
may be
necessary to use insecti-
fields carefully to
determine the extent of
invasion and whether the beetles are causing economic
Because they walk
into the fields at the
concentrated in a moving front,

spray only a small part of each
it
usually
is
field. If the
late in June, the adults likely will
dam-
margins and are

necessary to
invasion occurs
not cause economic
damage
because they will soon aestivate.

If the size
of the invasion
is
small or
if
small area (or both), chemical control
the beetles enter only a
may
margin,
is
another
way
to
prevent losses caused by this insect. But take care! Adults
of plants until harvest. However, the numbers of adults
measures
move en masse,
field
over and in front of invading insects, will provide control.
re-emerging and feed on the flowers, pods and stems
yield. Control
many
previous year should reduce the number of insecticide
problem because they complete development before the
may
will also
food. Mechanical injury and desiccation after cultivation in
as they go. Larvae generally are not a
crops have germinated. Adults
May
will starve because they can travel only short distances for
large seedlings. If beetles are

field,
and
eliminate most larvae through mechanical injury;
Small seedlings are
numerous, they gradually move into a
soil surface
food plants by cultiva-
tion or a herbicide application in April
size
to
in the
and spring. These infestations can be red jced
in the spring. Destruction of larval
peti-
and red turnip beetle abundance, damage will vary from the
age.
with heavy
fields
were not cultivated
because newly hatched larvae cannot reach the
Larvae and adults feed on the cotyledons, true leaves,
after
that
practices. Cultivation of fields after harvest buries the eggs
June.
new
fall
and other
weeds
considerably or prevented completely with good cultural
in a
few metres wide. Adults do not
fields
stands of cruciferous
not be necessary.
115
in canola fields situated next to fields

to fescue the previous year
SWEETCLOVER WEEVIL
Sitona cylindricollis
Damage
Insect Life Cycle
Host plants
Sweetclover
on
is
description
Adults chew crescent-shaped, jagged notches in leaves and
can completely defoliate plants. They
the preferred host, but this weevil will feed
milk vetch
alfalfa or cicer
no sweetclover
if
is
available.
most severe
in dry years.
Seedling crops can be severely
thinned or completely destroyed
immature condition
adults overwinter in a sexually
the stubble and trash of sweet clover fields
and wastelands where sweetclover
in
and in ditches
common.
is
if
adults
move
into a field.
Second year stands can be thinned or stunted from the feeding of overwintered adults. Sweetclover weevils drop from
plants when disturbed and are very difficult to find. The larvae are root feeders. Plant growth does not seem to be
Overwintering
The
may even eat the

Damage is
outer tissue of stems and green seeds in pods.
affected,
however, despite the presence of abundant larvae.
First-year sweetclover crops planted near or in succession

to older crops are especially liable to severe
Spring appearance
spring populations
The weevils
may number 40
fly readily
light intensity are
170 per square metre.
with the wind
when temperature and
high and humidity
night on the upper leaves and hide
The 7 hide by day
ticularly
to
at the
is
low. They feed
when
late
May
may be 50
to
800 times the
is
is
damage, par-
cut for hay.
attacked in grain stubble but apparently
at
clover are sometimes
disturbed by light.
is
damaged
nearby fields of sweet-
after
clover have been harvested. Adults are found on red clover
but apparently do not feed on
it.
to early
August by dropping them indiscriminately on the

populations
Sweetclover
the second-year crop
not harmed in corn crops or corn stubble. Alfalfa and alsike
bases of plants. Each overwintered
female lays several hundred eggs from
when
soil.
Larval
size of the spring
Sampling methods
adult population.
Inspect clover seedlings for weevil
seedlings emerge. Weevils
Number
damage
may not be
in spring as the
seen, but the typical
crescent-shaped feeding notches on the leaves are very notice-
of generations
midsummer and throughout August, inspect first-year

damage along crop margms. Invading weemove into these stands only as far as necessary to satisfy
able. In
There
is
clover stands for

vils
Pathogens -
Predators
up
to
are eaten
field
margins
is
usually
Visually estimate the
80 per cent mortality.
The weevils
ed
A fungus disease that commonly attacks the
adults has caused
food requirements, so an insecticide application to affect-
their
Natural enemies
all that is
required.
number of weevils per
plant.
This
must be done carefully because weevils fall from plants

easily and cannot be seen when on the ground. The damage
by toads and grubs.
is
more obvious than
the weevil.
Damage Assessment
Economic threshold
Economic importance
This
is
serious
the major insect pest of sweetclover.
damage
Damage
is
to sweetclover
It
In a seedling crop under slow
has caused
throughout Alberta.
leaves prior to true leaves).
mainly to young plants. There are records of
almost complete loss of crops in individual
fields.
tions
Because
don
harm caused by this pest is

improperly blamed on poor germina-
seedlings are killed quickly, the

often overlooked or
tion or
poor
tillage
one weevil
stage. In
at the
one
cotyledon stage
(first
Under normal growth condi-
for every three seedlings at the cotyle-
newly emerged second-year crops
9-12
weevils per plant.
methods. Severe losses can be caused
by the combination of damage by

rot
growth conditions
weevil for every five seedlings
this pest
and either root
Management Strategy
(which the larvae are suspected of carrying) or dry
weather (which retards seed germination and seedling
Effects of
growth). There are wide fluctuations in the relative abun-
Weather
is
dance of
ulations.
Wet weather seems
this pest in different years.
Populations can be
weather
an important regulator of the size of insect popto
be harmful to
more than 2500 larvae

and 1000 adults per square metre; in another, almost complete destruction of some fields was caused by an average
helps plants outgrow the damage.
of 1000 adults per square metre.
probably help spread the fungus disease that
high; in one infestation there were
Heavy
rainfall tends to
inhibit the
116
this pest.
reduce the effects of damage and
Dew
movement of weevils up
and high humidity
the plant at night
and
commonly
attacks the adults.
The
Cold dry weather
in
tion increase; but hot dry
seedlings. Cultivate clover fields, silage and hay, as soon as
weather are mixed.
effects of dry
May
may promote a populaweather may to favor larval sur-
the crop
and June
are
The dry weather augments the effects of attack by

Hot dry weather reduces pest numbers by
hardening the soil, which prevents larvae from reaching the
roots, and probably kills eggs and newly emerged adults. In
removed. Cultivation
is
on the
still
kills the larvae
while they
roots.
vival.
Blade cultivation following removal of a hay crop has been
the weevils.
recommended
effect
in
as a control
measure but apparently has no
on weevil populations. Plowing
to a
depth of 15
one survey a larval population of over 1,700 per square
from emerging from hibernation. Plowing, discing and
metre was reduced to only 300 per square metre after a hot
tivating 7 to 12
dry spell. In hot dry weather there
high adult mortality
is
tality
ranged from 95.5 to 99.9 per cent,
much
cm
cul-
of second-year fields immediately after
was harvested has
the hay
and complete mortality of larvae from eggs laid after July

in hot dry soil. Over a four year period in Manitoba, mor-
cm
October has prevented over 90 per cent of the weevils
killed
96 per cent or more of the

fall and planting
weevils. Tillage of field margins in the
new
of which
fields as far as possible
from existing ones are
believed to lessen the possibility of severe infestations.
occurred between the fourth instar and adult emergence.
Control volunteer sweetclover around fields the year before

planting the field to sweetclover to reduce the possibility of
field invasion
and damage by weevils.
Cultural practices
Several
management
practices reduce losses
from sweet-
clover weevil. Arrange crop rotations so that clover fields

are as far apart as possible.
and
late
crop.
summer will be
Sow clover early
moist seedbed and
Weevils
Biological control
that disperse in spring
Next
less likely to find the first-year
(before grain crops) into a firm,
at the
recommended shallow
promotes even germination, a
fast start,
to weather, diseases are
The weevils
control.
in population
by toads and grubs. A bioManitoba in 1959 that used
logical control attempt in
depth. This
most important
are eaten
imported parasites was not successful.
and hardy vigorous
WHEAT STEM SAWFLY

Cephas cinctus
Insect Life Cycle
Spring appearance
Host plants
Overwintering larvae pupate within their cocoons in May;
Wheat stem sawfly
is
native to North
grasses, mostly the wheatgrasses,
adults begin to
lives in
Within the wheats, spring wheat
some
is
start to
varieties of bar-
become
potential host in Alberta only within the last
few
first
June from stubble fields
common
for
many
insects,
males
followed within a few days by females.
occurred about June 15th and peak female emergence

a
about June 25th. They are rather inactive insects that
drift
years. In
Montana, winter wheat has been severely infested and

perhaps the major host there. Winter wheat
emerge
in early
is
A study in northern Montana showed peak male emergence
most heavily
attacked in Alberta; winter wheat appears to have
emerge
and native grasses. As
Agropyron. Cultivated
hosts include wheat, rye, triticale and

ley.
America and
from plant
to plant
and spend most of
their
time resting on
is
grass stems.
is
occasionally
attacked in southern Alberta in counties bordering
Montana. The old varieties of durum wheat were

to
wheat stem sawfly but some new
resistant
Number
varieties are suscepti-
Oats and broad-leaved crops are immune. Female

wasps will lay eggs in barley but the larvae don't live long
enough to cause yield losses. Plant age is important to eggble.
Parasites
(stem elongation) stage are not acceptable to females.
immune
to sawfly
control.
few
Overwintering
It
end above
cm
Bracon
cephi, a native braconid wasp,
insect parasites that can
the sawfly.
When weather
and sawfly
larval
move from
is
one of the
grass to crops with
conditions delay crop maturation
development, B. cephi can produce

its
control of the wheat
stem sawfly population. Bracon lisogaster, a close
relative
of B. cephi, attacks sawfly larvae in the stems of grasses.
then turns around, head upwards, and cuts
itself,
There are nine known parasites of wheat stem
another generation, thus extending
The sawfly larva feeds within the stem and burrows down
to or below ground level by the time the wheat heads begin
through the stem about 2
sawfly; only one species, however, provides significant
attack.
to ripen.
year.
Natural enemies
laying females. Plants that have not reached the jointing
Similarly, plants in the boot stage are
of generations
Wheat stem sawfly has one generation per
can significantly controll wheat stem sawfly on native
above the ground, seals the
grasslands and roadsides.
spins a cocoon in the stem and passes the
Pathogens
winter as a larva in diapause (hibernation).
117
Viruses cause disease in wheat stem sawfly
It
and
at
times are an important natural control agent. Certain
viruses are registered biocontrol agents in
on
Canada
Management Strategy
for use
weather
Effects of
number of pests (red-headed pine sawfly and
a limited
Most
douglas-fir tussock moth).
fluctuations in populations are caused indirectly
by
weather. The effects of rainfall or drought on the primary
food plants, grasses, can be important in determining the
Damage Assessment
size of infestations in the secondary food plants, cereals.
When
Economic importance
The sawflies
known
are all plant-eaters.
Wheat stem sawfly
is
best
wheat and has caused extensive losses

to wheat in the northern Great Plains. Its history in Canada
dates from 1895 when it damaged wheat near Moose Jaw,
as a pest of
to adapt to cereals but
in
achieved pest status in the
farming practices have affected the abundance
attack
to cannibalism.
When rain promotes
is
low and sawfly populations
an abundance of
trated near the field
margins
in
increase.
more than
During
especially after rain, the
sawflies disperse widely. Their attack
is
otherwise concen-
fewer plants.
Drought conditions can reduce infestations the following

year by killing plants that have larvae inside them. Drought
wheat stem sawfly. Heavy losses occurred

the 1940s and 50s. In 1941 losses totalled 50
increased, so did
can cause overwintered larvae to re-enter dia-
in the spring
pause but the influence of this on population size
Annual losses in
Saskatchewan over the period 1926 - 1958 ranged from 1.4
per cent to 10.3 per cent of potential yield. The development of solid-stemmed wheat varieties greatly decreased
million bushels on the Canadian Prairies.
Abundant rainfall tends

disease, which is harmful
is
not
produce outbreaks of stem
clear.
to
rust
to sawfly larvae. In
one
instance only 18 per cent of larvae survived in heavily rust-
ed wheat.
the importance of this pest.
A population decline in 1955 was attributed to
high rainfall and severe rust infestations that killed the
vae
The sawfly
its
warm, sunny, windless weather,
stubble farming of wheat on wheat stubble
Damage
a drought, the
few and the

on wheat instead of on grassSince only one sawfly will emerge per stem, a shortage
one egg
sawflies spread easily from stubble and native grasses to
primarily in
is
suitable stems, the proportion of stems receiving
oats grown. In addition, as strip farming gained acceptance,
As
suitable for attack are
due
abundance of wheat and decreased the proportion of
wheat.
But when there
numbers of grass stems

es.
of wheat stem sawfly. Tractor farming increased the relative
numbers
of suitable oviposition sites will result in higher mortality
1910s and 20s.
Changes
for sawfly populations.
sawfly concentrates
Saskatchewan and Souris, Manitoba. Wheat stem sawfly
was slow
the weather is rainy in the fall or spring, the
of large, head-bearing stems of native grasses are adequate
in 1954. Doubtless, various fungi
larval population during
description
larva bores down
infestations. In
inside the stem and
makes
wet
lar-
cause mortality in the
years. Hail, too, can reduce
one instance there was a small infestation
after a severe hailstorm but severe infestations persisted
discolored tunnel from about the top joint to the root.
outside the area of hail damage.
laid above the top node of

by larvae destroy sufficient vascu-
Sometimes, however, eggs are

the plant and tunnelling
lar tissue
Populations build up and damage often occurs
at field
edges where suitable grass and crop hosts coincide. Wheat
so that the head turns white.
stem sawfly
The greatest losses occur around the margins of fields.

Wheat stem sawfly losses are of two types. Larvae feed
within the stem of the plant and reduce both yield (a 5
is
weak
flier
and will not take
flight readily
during cool, rainy or windy weather. Sunny calm weather

during the egg-laying period will promote dispersal of
15
wheat stem sawfly.
per cent decrease in total seed weight) and quality of grain

affects populations of the parasite, Bracon
The parasites are inactive when the grass or crop is
wet but become active when conditions are drier. Wet condi-
Weather also
(from reduced protein and kernel weight). Larvae cut stems
and cause stems
become
to
break
in the
wind,
fall to the
ground and
cephi.
unharvestable. These effects of feeding by larvae
usually go unnoticed until the plants are toppled by
wind
tions will delay the maturation of host plants.
may
and the weight of maturing heads. Mature larvae chew part
way through and
all
around the inside of the stem just
ly require that
before cocoon formation in late summer.
Wet weather
also delay larval development since the larvae apparent-
stem moisture content be under 50 per cent
before they will cut the stems. This extended larval period
may
also prolong exposure to parasite attack.

Determine percentage of plants cut by sawfly per square
Cultural practices
metre prior
A number of practices reduce losses caused by this insect.
to harvest.
More
than any other practice, the use of resistant varieties
has reduced sawfly damage. Sawfly populations have
Economic threshold
increased in recent years, perhaps because of a neglect (or
Control methods are required

in the previous year
was
cut
if
reluctance) to use resistant varieties, because of a decline in
10-15 per cent of the crop
resistance properties of the
by sawfly.
tendency to use fewer
118
new
varieties, or
tillage operations.
because of the
A resurgence in
sawfly populations recently led to losses estimated
at
over
crop that
which
parasites,
Resistant varieties
unattractive to females at egg laying time. Late
is
maturing varieties allow production of two generations of
in 1990.
$5 million
fewer sawflies the following year.
results in
Lethbridge Research Station has
maintained a 'sawfly nursery' for a number of years and
since 1987 has evaluated wheat varieties for resistance to
cultivate in early June to bury pupating adults.
wheat stem sawfly. Two sawfly resistant varieties of hard

red spring wheat, Lancer and Leader, are currently registered in Canada. Resistance to wheat stem sawfly is closely
related to stem solidness
and
all resistant
wheat
Tillage
Deep
overwintering larvae and reduces adult

practical because
of the potential for soil erosion.
Tests of wheat stem sawfly resistance
at
the Lethbridge
Research Station are summarized in the following
table.
Burning infested stubble
it
also greatly reduces parasite
of returning stubble to the
soil. In
control options available, burning
1989
1988
Conservation tillage
1990
may
Burning
bers but
efits
Percentage of stems cut by wheat stem sawfly

1987
tillage in fall increases larval mortality.
tillage buries
emergence dramatically but may not be
varieties
have solid or semi-solid stems.
Variety
Shallow
infested stubble and then
is
reduce sawfly num-
numbers and the benview of other
not
cultural
recommended.
Continuous cropping of susceptible
crops and reduced tillage improve larval survival and

therefore increase the risk of infestation. Tillage in late fall
Hard red spring wheats
and spring reduces sawfly populations harbored

Lancer*
Lew*
Fortuna*
2
2
Leader*
13
Glenman*
11
Laura
31
Columbus
Katepwa
22
27
34
Neepawa
Conway
5
4
9
6
8
10
6
19
10
16
25
32
34
36
35
29
37
34
34
51
The
less the soil is disturbed, the
emerge from the
more
stubble. Conservation tillage
stem sawfly management appears
to
in stubble.
sawflies will
and wheat
be incompatible, but
producers might consider the benefits of moldboard plowing of small, heavily infested parts of fields.
54
57
59
50
Kenyon
Swathing
Swath sawfly
infested
wheat as soon as kernel
moisture drops below 40 per cent to save infested stems

before they
fall.
51
Delayed planting
wheats
Prairie spring
planting
HY320
Genesis
Biggar
is
Research from Montana indicates that
May
delayed until
20th,
damage
is
reduced compared to earlier planting. Yield and quality
44
50
52
suffer if planting
mends delayed
is
planting only
when sawfly
is
may
Montana recom-
delayed. Accordingly,
high and a susceptible variety
if
significantly
infestation risk
is
grown.
Durum wheats
Early harvest - Harvest early before sawfly
Sceptre
Kyle
53
63
damage occurs
and preferably before larvae have moved below the cutting

height. Cutting for forage or silage are options.
* Resistant varieties.
dard varieties of wheat
may
Some stanwhen
yield better than others
harvested early.
Crop rotation
immune or resistant to
Flax and durum acreage increased after
Plant crops that are
wheat stem sawfly.
Use an
farmers used flax to clear land of sawfly infestations.
Durum varieties
planted
now
have sawfly resistance. Oats
is
virtually
Trap crops
around a
to
adjacent to land that
was
fallow in early June
not plant a susceptible crop on or

infested in the previous year.
control measure
is
Biological control
reduce the number of larvae that survive
and headlands
to.
Parasitic insects are an important regulator of sawfly popula-
Plants that attract adults are
Some
tions.
then used to destroy the insects.
Susceptible varieties
may be used
the plants are harvested,
move
wheat
summer
Do
in barley.
used to collect a sizeable portion of the population.
larvae
before adults emerge.
A permanent trap crop of smooth bromegrass
field will
in ditches
immune
alternative crop.
parts of fields. Cultivate
for sawfly control should
stem sawfly. Larvae rarely survive
Do not re-crop infested stubble.

Summer fallow badly infested
Avoid harmful practices -
Reductions in infestations have been attributed to heavy
parasitism in the
same or
in the
immediately preceding years.
as a trap strip provided
mowed or cultivated before
Initially, sawflies in grain fields
the
asites;
to the base of the plant (before
were apparently
mid- July).
ally increased. Different parasite species
Resistant varieties or non-host plants such as oats,
bromegrass, flax or other broad-leaved crop
because females do not
fly far
from
Delayed seeding - Delayed seeding
effects
may be used
their site
in spring
vary in their
on sawfly populations, depending on whether the
infested host plant
of emergence.
free of par-
over time, the number of parasitized sawflies gradu-
is in a
native or cultivated habitat.
One
parasite, B. lisogaster, prefers larvae in grasses over cereals.
produces a
119
DISEASE CONTROL
Effective disease control can be attained by several methods. Control
rather
may
may
Fungi
not necessarily eradicate the disease, but
decrease the incidence to a level that
is
Fungi
no
that feed directly
on living plants and cause diseases
are called pathogens.
longer economically important. Disease prevention, crop
management
Actively growing fungi in an active stage of growth are
practices and genetic resistance to the disease
effective disease
composed of very fine hairlike threads growing together

a mat called mycelium. They are familiar as the fluffy
management program to obtain

control. The management program must
must be integrated
into a
in
be tailored for each specific disease, crop, cropping system,
growth on rotting food. Fungi reproduce by spores of vari-
location and production level.
ous shapes, sizes and colors. Spores can be produced

directly
from the fluffy threads as in the case with bunt

These bunt balls are actually masses of
balls in wheat.
Symptoms
of Disease
spores. Spores
may be formed
fungi, bacteria
and environmental conditions. Generally,
stem
the size, shape
and color of the spot
like structures that
ease.
Stem-eye spot of fescue
that causes distinctive spots
is
is
constant for the dis-
of canola produces
its
one of the most
common
foliar diseases
most
blights are
cereals, but the
infect barley
of barley
Canada.
common
kill
young stems and
agent
roots. Seedling
is
when
grow on
dry, cold soil conditions.
Spores are the "seeds" in the
Scorch occurs during very hot weather. The sun causes a
ing or rugby stocking.
They
They spread fungi
They survive over winter
is
is
the
cycle of the fungus.
are the reproductive structures of the fungus.
to
new
locations.
or other periods of adverse
Spores are dispersed by
air currents,
running water,
splashing rain, insects, and on or in seeds.
Some
Damping-off fungi most frequently attack seedlings and

the stems and roots near the soil line.
active under
life
The
symptom of
a healthy plant.
caused by drought or root and stem diseases.
caused by a soil-borne fungus that attacks
through the roots.
kill
wheat cannot
weather.
Wilt results from a deficiency of water in the leaves and
is
and even
a disease of
cereal seedlings, this
takes the form of distinct bleached bands called heat band-
stems and
that infect
is
a fungal spore or other infectious
able to infect and
the disease.
Flax wilt
Covered smut
smut fungi
numbers of canola fields must be reseeded

because of seedling blight. The disease is very active in
springs, large
On
mushroom-
resting structures
reaction of the plant to the infection
throughout the prairies. In some
browning or bleaching of leaves.
struc-
and vice-versa.
Disease develops
Blight fungi typically
spores in tiny
grow from black
Parasitic fungi are usually limited in the species
Blotch diseases appear as irregular-shaped leaf lesions. Net
in
rot
cultivars of plants they attack.
is
on specialized
called sclerotes.
an example of a disease
on the flowering stems of fes-
cue.
blotch
in or
tures called fruiting bodies. For example, sclerotinia white
spot diseases of leaves and stems are usually caused by
wet or water-logged
The disease
soil conditions
fungi, such as Sclerotinia and Claviceps, produce
special resting bodies called sclerotes or ergots. Sclerotes

is
about the size of cereal grains can survive in or on the
and caus-
for years. Sclerotia or ergots germinate during moist
es infected plants to rot and fall over. Alfalfa seedlings are
mer weather and produce
tiny
mushrooms
soil
sum-
that release
particularly susceptible.
infectious spores. Sclerotinia spores infect canola, sunflow-
Rots are caused by various organisms. Root rot of canola

a
common
ers
is
Smuts appear
as black pustules that break out
on the heads
of cereals. Loose and covered smuts of barley, wheat and

oats are
common
and beans, whereas ergot spores only infect the flowers
of cereals and grasses.
disease usually caused by Rhizoctonia.
Bacteria
fungal diseases.
Bacteria are invisible, single-celled organisms.
They
invade plants through natural openings or wounds. They
Living (Biotic)
need free water
Causes of Disease
Infectious crop diseases on the prairies are caused by fungi,

bacteria, viruses
to enter natural breathing pores
on plant
leaves and stems. Bacteria can multiply quickly and are
most destructive under moist warm conditions. They

spread by splashing rain, plant to plant contact, on seeds or
and occasionally nematodes. Other organ-
isms that cause disease are usually unimportant to northern
by
prairie agriculture.
120
insects.
They cause
soft rots
leaf
and head
blights, wilts, scabs, cankers
and overwinter on or
(shoots, buds, crowns)
and
crops. Nitrogen deficiency limits chlorophyll
and plant residue.
er
and
development
green or yellow and with-
in canola; older leaves turn light
in seeds of living plant parts
Plants are stunted and the flowering period
fall off.
and seed production are reduced.

Excessive nitrogen can cause heavy vegetative growth.
Viruses
Dense crop canopies
Viruses are visible only under an electron microscope.
They
are conducive to
many
diseases and
lodging, and both reduce yield and crop quality.
are found in all parts of infected plants but usually
Many
not in the seed.
Sulphur deficiency occurs in canola especially on well-
viruses are transmitted by insects
drained, sandy and leached
such as aphids, leafhoppers and mites. Viruses cannot surter in perennial or biennial
weeds and
in
Grey Wooded
soils.
Affected
canola leaves are cupped and purplish, flowers are pale yel-
They overwinthe case of a few
vive outside the host plant or insect vector.
low, and pods are poorly filled or missing.
manganese
viruses, inside seed embryos.
A deficiency of
can cause gray
in organic or alkaline soils
speck disease of oats and barley. Phosphorous deficiency

in cereals will cause reddish or purple leaf discoloration
may
predispose wheat seedlings to browning root
Nematodes
and
Nematodes are tiny worm-like creatures. They may exist

on organic matter in the soil or as parasites of plants. The
life cycle of nematodes may take from weeks to months to
Copper deficiency
coloration (melanosis), take-all, ergot and
complete with six growth stages: egg, four larval forms and
wheat, barley and oats.
the adult.
Potassium deficiency in canola frequently occurs during
Non-parasitic nematodes are
common
Copper
um is
is
yield losses in irrigated alfalfa
and cyst nematodes
may
Nematodes survive
in the soil as
essential for
a suitable host
is
eggs or cysts that hatch
They
are spread
restricted
by quarantine measures as
is
available to plants at a fast
ties
the case
movement of potatoes,
plant parts and soil have prevented this pest
addition, calcium
on the
from being
may
disease.
easily recognized. Plants are wilted or dry
Water
when the soil is

when potasrec-
is
pH
may have abnormally
high quanti-
needed for normal growth
is
often lack-
pH
cannot survive. High
alfalfa roots
pH
(alkaline soils)
also limit the availability of certain micro-nutrients.
best
when
the soil
pH
is
between 6 and
8.
Light stress can occur around heavily treed areas. Plants
and
that
A milder moisture deficiency is more difficult to rec-
ognize, especially
rate
Meteorologic conditions
moisture
is
enough
6 because nitrogen fixing bacteria that produce the nodules
other
Non-Living (Abiotic) Causes of Disease
dead.
indicate that potassi-
of minerals that interfere with normal plant growth. In
Most crops do
Drought
may
not released in a form that
ing in these soils. Alfalfa will not do well in soils below
introduced to the rest of Canada.
Soil
is
high. Potassium deficiency in alfalfa
Acidic soils below
on Vancouver Island and Newfoundland. Stringent
quarantine measures on the
is
by
with the golden nematode of potatoes, which occurs in

soils
dis-
ognized by white spots on the leaves.
humans, wind, water or animals. Nematode distribution
may be
rot.
head
cold. This is particularly true during flowering
cause problems in sugar beets.
present.
to
low grain yields.

seed production and development in
abundant, this element
sium demand
when
wheat predisposes plants
cool weather. Although soil tests
in prairie soils, but
only a few parasitic species are problems in some crops.
Stem nematodes may cause
is
in
if
stress
do not
grow
tolerate shade
tall
and spindly and are sus-
ceptible to root rots.
by parasitic
weakens plants and makes them more
the plants are also affected
Sudden changes
in temperature
can produce symptoms
similar to those of an infectious disease. Blast of oats
susceptible to infectious diseases.
is
caused by extreme heat or very cool weather shortly before

Excessive
soil
moisture deprives plant roots of oxygen
causing death. Canola seeds in cold wet soil
germination or produce
weak yellow
may
rot
the head emerges; seed-producing flowers are killed in the
during
boot stage and no grain
Heat from the sun
ceptible to infectious diseases. Alfalfa roots are sensitive to
thrive for
formed.
is
greatest at the soil surface
where the
tender leaves or young stems of cereals and oilseeds are
week of flooding. Grasses

many weeks under water.
water logging and are killed by a
may
is
seedlings that are sus-
damaged.
Cold temperatures may damage many crops during the

Fluctuation in soil water can cause irregular tillering
growing season
in cereals.
frost,
new growth
damaged
Soil nutrients
Nitrogen
is
(frost) or
When the growing point
the
most universally
area.
over the winter (winterkill).
of sunflowers or peas
will begin
is
killed
by
from dormant buds below the
This results in a distorted appearance or pro-
duction of an excessive number of branches. Soil surface

deficient nutrient for
temperatures of -3 to -5C for several hours can
121
kill
canola
seedlings in
May
and June.
Summer
nutrients and sugars.
or early fall frosts at
ty of
canola and cereal grain. Alfalfa and winter wheat can
be killed
when
soil surface
temperatures
fall
bacteria so that inoculation
legume seed
below -20C.
Typically, wind, hail and lightning cause mechanical
Under
certain conditions,
some
soils
contain high natural levels of these specific nitrogen-fixing
temperatures of -1 to -2"C can reduce the quality and quanti-
is
is
not needed every time
sown. Legume inoculant
is
particularly
important to ensure vigorous stands.
dam-
age and make crops more susceptible to infectious diseases.
Toxic emissions or
their
Chemical Seed Treatment
by-products in the atmosphere can
damage plants. For example, ozone in concentrations of

more than 80 parts per billion (ppb), which can be produced by severe thunderstorms, may damage field beans.
Purpose
many
Sulphur dioxide emissions from gas plants, in concentrations of 5 to 10 parts per million (ppm),
may
of seed treatment
Seed treatment provides economical insurance against

diseases and
some
insect pests of seed
and seedlings.
Chemical treatment can give seedlings a head
injure crop
start
by pre-
venting or reducing damage from certain crop pests.

foliage.
Diseases are controlled by contact fungicides that destroy
Mechanical injuries from almost every agricultural practice
done the wrong way,
at the
implements can damage

cultivation.
Rough
wrong time
plants.
fungi carried on the seed, such as
wrong
Roots can be damaged by
or with the
common bunt
the surface-borne smuts of barley and oats, and
of wheat,
some
leaf-
spotting and seed decay fungi. Systemic fungicides destroy
or improper handling of grain during
fungi carried in the seed, such as loose smut of wheat and
combining, cleaning or drying can affect seed germination.
and protect the early growth of the seedling.
barley,
Specific recommendations are:
Disease Development
Treat rye and flax to control seed decay.
Treat winter wheat to prevent bunt and seed decay and
For a disease to develop in or on a growing plant, there
must be a number of factors
in favor of that disease causing
organism. These include:
a susceptible host
a favorable
promote good seedling growth.
Treat grain used for seed
presence of the disease
an aggressive and virulent disease organism
ally or
sufficient
time for infection
is
bunt or smut and the
uncertain, treat the seed annu-
every second year depending on the susceptibili-
the longer the exposure
time, the greater the probability of infection. For

ple, six
bunt or smut was in the
of the variety.
ty
if
field. If a variety is susceptible to
environment
hours of continuous leaf wetness
is
exam-
Treat canola to control the seed-borne phase of blackleg.
Treat alfalfa seed to control verticillium wilt.
required
before spores of the tan spot fungus can infect healthy
wheat leaves.
The treatment of cereal and canola seed with fungicides

and fungicide-insecticide combinations has increased considerably in recent years. Ninety-five per cent of canola, 70
Non-Chemical Seed Treatment
per cent of barley, 37 per cent of wheat and 27 per cent of

oats
Hot water treatment

This method must be used with extreme caution because
seed
is
loosely
easily injured.
The seed
woven burlap
sacks
at
is
soaked
21C
sacks, drain and place in water bath at
Move
to the next bath at
52C
49C for
for 11 minutes.
stored
it
must be allowed
to dry thoroughly.
useful for canola seed in breeding programs
soft
white and prairie spring
some
may
treated.
Remove
1
minute.
Methods
Then place
the sacks immediately in cold water. If the seed
treated annually in Alberta. Ninety per cent of
be seed
in half-filled
for 5 hours.
is
wheat categories such as
is to
be
This method
of
Seed Treatment
Custom treatment
is
Fungicides are applied to the seed before planting. Seed
where seed
cleaning plants are equipped to treat seed with liquid fungi-
amounts are small.
cides.
Farmers can use a variety of methods for both liquid
and dry formulation application.
Inoculation of legume seed

Legume seed should be inoculated with
nitrogen fixing
Drill
bacteria specific to that species of legume. Alfalfa seed
Seed
should be inoculated with the bacterium Rhizobium

meliloti.
The
box treatment
is
treated directly in the drill box. Fungicide and seed
and then mixed thoroughly. This avoids the

problem of storing treated seed or treating more seed than
are layered
bacteria and alfalfa live in a symbiotic rela-
tionship; the bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen in the alfalfa
root nodules and exchange
necessary for planting.

it
with the plant in return for
122
Read and follow
Do not
The
prairies.
Precautions
earlier the infection, the greater the yield
may be more
reduction. Older plants
label directions carefully.
resistant to infection
and virus diseases develop more slowly. The best time

plant will depend
contaminate grain intended for food, feed or com-
to
on the time of migration of the vector.
mercial use with treated seed. Bury left-over treated seed
or store
it
safely in labelled bags for future use as seed.
Reduce plant spacing. Closer plant spacings tend
to
reduce infections. Use a planting rate that will provide
complete ground cover without reducing yield through
Treated seed offered for sale must be labelled with the
name of the
treated chemicals. This
competition. Aphids are attracted by yellow and well-
required by the
is
spaced plants with open growth habits that expose
Canada Seed Act.
young yellowish
leaves.
Treated seed in transit must be bagged and bulk loads
must be covered with a
tarp to prevent spillage as
Control aphids and mites, the primary vectors of plant

viruses in Alberta.
required by the Alberta Agricultural Chemicals Act.
make
to
Use
insecticides or neutral oil sprays
plant surfaces unattractive to insect vectors,
and non-chemical barriers against infection, such as
tall
cover crops of sunflowers
Foliar fungicides
In Canada, lower barley prices
make
application of foliar
Use immune,
Prevent long distance spread through quarantine and
resistant or tolerant varieties.
fungicides feasible only in those areas of high disease potential in
regions with high yield or quality expectations. In
Western Europe a range of foliar fungicides are used extensively
on cereals
may be
for disease control.
These
inspection.
foliar fungicides
applied up to three or four times a season on barley
(winter and spring types) to maintain yield and grain quality.
Mycoparasitism
This
is
sitizes
Economic consideration
The use of a
foliar fungicide
grow barley
produce malting barley
many
fungi that parasitize
other fungi under laboratory conditions fail to do so in nat-
on barley should be considered by
ural soils.
only those growers living in wetter regions of Alberta who:
form of biological control where one fungus para-
another fungus. However,
At
least
two fungi {Coniothyrium minitans and
Talaromyces flavus) have been shown

Sclerotinia fungus, the cause of white
for pedigreed seed
to parasitize the
mold of canola. They
occur naturally in the field but their ecological significance
and the extent

gus
is
to
which they
parasitize the white
mold
fun-
not known.
expect yields over 80 bushels per acre.
Higher
foliar disease levels in the barley
crop usually coin-
Interference
cide with the higher rainfall areas. Fungal diseases such as
Research
scald and net blotch will only spread from leaf to leaf dur-
Wet weather conditions or

dew from mid-June to mid- July result
ing prolonged wet weather.

nights with heavy
the highest incidence of leaf infections.
weather during
this
growing weather
is
in
Drought or drying
also
underway
to investigate the
use of interference
lated with a mild strain of disease or an
organism similar
the disease-causing organism, the plant
may
by the virulent
time results in a lowered incidence of
diseases with less effect on yield or quality. In reality,
is
to protect plants against disease. If the host plant is inocu-
good
to
not be affected
strain of disease.
The fungus Phialophora graminicola, which is closely related to the take-all fungus, colonizes the same place on the
roots of wheat but causes no disease. Once colonized by P.
good disease weather.
graminicola, the take-all fungus cannot infect the wheat
General Control Measures for Viruses
Remove
plant.
the source of infection. Control volunteers and
alternate hosts such as annual or perennial
Mycorrhizal fungi, which occur naturally in the
soil in
association with plant roots, can act as a protective barrier
weeds and
against infection by Pythium, Phytophthora and
headlands grasses.
species.
Fusarium
Experiments continue on bacteria such as Bacillus
species as seed treatments on canola to prevent seedling
Use
virus-free seed for the control of barley stripe
mosaic
virus.
known
to
No
other viruses or
be seed-borne
Break the cycle of
mycoplasmas
are
in prairie cereals.
infection.
Do
blight.
Presumably the
would
thrive in the soil
free-living,
harmless Bacillus species
and protect canola seed from
dis-
ease-causing organisms, such as Rhizoctonia spp.

Plant diseases are usually less severe on soils with a high
not plant spring wheat
may
next to winter wheat. This breaks the cycle of the wheat
organic matter content. This
streak mosaic virus.
increased plant vigor, but there
is
not only be from
an antagonistic effect of
various other soil micro-organisms that feed on organic
Change planting
dates. Early seeding is usually prefer-
matter and
able to avoid late migrations of aphids and mites on the
123
become more
active.
DISEASES OF CEREALS
ANTHRACNOSE
Colletotrichum graminicola
generally of
Biology
Anthracnose attacks cereals and grasses. This disease
common
not
in
Canada, but
it
central and western Alberta.
Spores of
this
It
does occur on oats
economic significance
in the prairie
is
in north-
infects all parts of the plant.
Diagnosis
Take representative soil samples at 0-15 cm below
ground level throughout the field and have them
checked for pH and fertility.
fungus overwinter on the seed and crop
residue. Initial infections usually result
from soil-borne
inoculum. Upper plant parts are usually infected later in

the season
little
provinces.
from spores spread by splashing rain or wind.
Spore production
is
favored by poor
soils,
high
pH
Management Strategy
and wet
weather. Crops that are nutritionally stressed are especially
Reduce spore
susceptible.
vorable to the pathogen.
Damage
Description
Brown lens-shaped spots appear on the leaves of oats.

Crown and lower stem areas become bleached and then
turn brown. Small black dots,
which
levels and
promote an environment unfa-
with recommended levels of
Maintain
soil fertility
fertilizer
and rotations
that
improve the
soil.
Do
Control grassy weeds as well as headland grasses.
Turn under crop residue
Do
are sexual fruiting
not use cereals in crop rotation for at least two years.
bodies, are produced on dead tissue.
Crown
infections reduce plant vigor and cause prema-
ture ripening.
There
is
also increased lodging caused
constrictions at the base of the
tillers.
This disease
by
not
grow
to
reduce spore levels.
oats on soils with a high pH.
is
ASTER YELLOWS
A mycoplasma-like organism (MLO)
because internodes are shortened. Heads of infected plants
Biology
may have
distorted
awns
or floral parts resembling leaves.
This virus-like disease can attack barley and other crops including canola.
The
MLO is transmitted by
Reduced photosynthetic area plus head
a leafhopper,
Macrosteles fascifrons. Aster yellows do not occur naturally

field
grown
tally
with leafhoppers. There
the
oats or
symptoms of
wheat but has been transmitted experimen-
may be some
aster yellows
Each spring, inoculum
is
also
become
and acquire the
pers.
When
tious and can transmit this
MLOs
are taken
organism
positively diagnose this disease a
complex procedure
the problem.
infec-
to healthy plants for the
span, which lasts up to a few months.
Management Strategy
Description
chlorotic. Plants appear
early. This allows the crop to
MLO can be
damage.
of younger leaves curl under. Blotches coalesce and the entire
becomes
of eco-
be used. However, general symptoms will probably identif)
up
Chlorotic blotches appear on the older leaves, and leaf margins
leaf
is
barley.
involving leafhopper vectors and electron microscopy must
Seed crops
Damage
cyclical and only occasionally
Diagnosis
To
from infected perennial weeds.
by the insect vector. After 8-10 days, leafhoppers become
life
is
brought into western Canada by infect-
leafhoppers feed on an infected plant,
remainder of their
The disease
nomic significance on
and barley yellow dwarf.
infected by leafhoppers that overwinter locally
MLO
causes yield
depending on the size of the population of migrating leafhop-
confusion between
ed leaf hoppers that migrate in from the United States. Barley
may
sterility
reductions. Severity of this disease varies from year to year
in
dwarfed and bushy
124
mature before the
spread by leafhoppers and cause extensive
BACTERIAL BLIGHT
Wheat
Barley
bacterial stripe
bacterial streak
and black chaff
and black chaff

basal
Xanthomonas campestris
pv. translucens
bacterial leaf blight
Pseudomonas syringae
rot
Xanthomonas translucens
and bacterial black point
Pseudomonas atrofaciens
Oats
halo blight
glume
Pseudomonas syringae
pv. syringae
pv. coronafaciens
Pseudomonas syringae pv. striafaciens
stripe blight
Rye
bacterial blight
Xanthomonas translucens
Black chaff appears on the kernels as dark
Biology
Bacterial blight, caused
by several different species of bac-
can cause head and
teria,
foliar diseases
symptoms occur on both wheat and
of barley, oats, rye
are
and wheat.
may
barley.
These diseases
sometimes confused with melanosis of wheat
that is
caused by copper deficiency.
The disease-causing bacteria overwinter on crop residue,

seed, fall sown cereals and perennial grasses. Spring infec-
Basal glume rot appears mostly on the inner side of the
glumes as a
from any of these sources. Bacteria are

spread by splashing rain drops, plant to plant contact and
tion
on the
stripes
glumes. These often join and the glumes turn black. These
result
grain
light
brown
may develop
color.
As
the disease develops, the
a black spot at the
germ
end,
known
as
bacterial black point.

insects.
The
disease
is
favored by cool, wet weather.
weather checks bacterial diseases and
may be
Bacterial leaf blight appears on the flag leaf
Warm dry
new emerging
leaves
Rye
Description
The
Barley
become water soaked. These join
stripes. Later, the stripes turn
may be
When dry,
easily
this
to
symptoms appear very
similar to
as
not
A milky
present on the leaves under wet conditions.
Diagnosis
exudate turns into small thin flakes that are
removed from
is
common.
form transparent
yellow or brown.
the leaf surface. This disease
superficially resemble fungus stripe.
However, the
Plant infections cause a lower photosynthetic area
may
in turn
reduces yield. Kernel discolorations
may
which
result
fact that
in
all
bacterial disease
those described for barley but exudate on the leaves
Bacterial streak begins as small pale green spots that
exudate
bright
occasionally on winter wheat.
relatively free of bacterial infection.
Damage
when
sunny weather follows a rainy period. This disease occurs
dockage or downgrading of the grain
quality. Bacterial
barley plants are uniformly infected in a given location
rules out fungus stripe since stripe is seed-borne
and
blight infestations are usually localized within the field

is
nor-
and do not usually cause major field-scale damage.
mally scattered throughout the crop.
Bacterial infections in cereals only occur after prolonged
periods of wet weather of several weeks or more.
Oats
Halo blight begins as small
light
green oval spots with dark
water-soaked centres. The spots join to form irregular
Management Strategy
brown
Avoid
blotches.
no pale marThese spots also have water-soaked centres and turn
Stripe blight produces elongated spots with

gins.
brown
infesting clean fields and reduce levels of bacterial
infection due to cultural practices.
Use seed from crops
Do
that are free of bacterial disease.
later in the year.
not use cereals in the crop rotation for three or four
years.
Wheat
Rye should
not follow wheat or rye, and barley
should not follow barley.
Bacterial stripe produces dark green, water-soaked lesions

that later turn
brown. Near heading, upper leaves develop
Mow infected wild grass along headlands before sowing

winter rye.
water-soaked spots that grow to whitish streaks or blotches

(white blotch).
125
BARLEY STRIPE, FUNGAL STRIPE

Pyrenophora graminea âsexual Drechslera graminea)
The
Biology
yield loss
directly proportional to the percentage of
is
infected plants.
Barley stripe can cause significant yield losses in barley,
A 1 per cent infection causes a 0.7 per cent

Some
direct yield loss.
other cereals are not affected.
crop compensation occurs from
neighboring healthy plants.

This fungus
is
or in the seed.
exclusively seed-borne and overwinters on
The fungus grows
internally within the
infected plant. Spores are produced
and are spread by wind
become
Diagnosis
on the infected leaves
Infected plants are most obvious just before heading out
nearby healthy heads. The seeds
to
infected only in the field and are
and the disease can be readily identified
most susceptible
heading out, infected plants
during early development of the seed head.
canopy. Seed samples

Infection of seedlings
is
higher
when
soil
temperatures
remain below 15C. Sporulation on the foliage of infected

plants
may
Canada Seed Laboratory
in
may be
at this time.
After
"lost" under the
be sent out to Agriculture
Ottawa
to
determine the per-
centage infection.
encouraged by high humidity.
is
Damage
Description
Use
Avoid
Use a fungicidal seed
disease resistant varieties.
Vivid longitudinal yellow stripes bounded by the veins

appear on the leaves and extend from the base of the leaf to
the
tip.
The
stripes eventually
become brownish and
leaves characteristically tear and fray. Infected plants are
become
stunted and heads
infested seed.
infected
treatment.
twisted, blighted or fail to emerge.
BARLEY STRIPE MOSAIC VIRUS (BSMV)

Diagnosis
Biology
Stripe
mosaic
is
a seed-borne virus. In Canada, the virus has
For a positive identification of the disease send infected (mosaic
occasionally been detected in pedigree seed, but losses caused
by
BSMV have been rare in recent years.
host.
On
occasions
it
Barley
is
the
symptom) seedlings
main
to
your nearest plant disease laboratory
along with some seed from the seed
lot that
was sown.
has been found in wheat and several
grass species.
The
virus
seed-borne and
is
when crop
transferred
from plant
Management Strategy
to plant
Avoid introducing
leaves rub against one another. Experimentally the
virus can be transmitted

linated this
is
by pollen, but since barley
method of spread
is
is
Canada
self-pol-
is
generally of no consequence.
Montana
generally infected to a 60 per cent level.
Disease builds up
when
infected seed
is
be
Use
the disease.
tested at the
State University,
requires seed from
Control volunteer barley.

the previous barley crop
Damage
Description
the virulence of the
BSMV strain and
time of infection. Infections appear as chlorotic mottling with

spots or stripes of a yellowish color. Infected plants
ed and
may mature
may be
stunt-
later than healthy plants.
Yield losses are proportional to the level of infection in the seed

lot.
Losses are caused by reduced grain production, fewer heads
per plant, semi-sterility and incomplete head emergence from the

sheath. Heavily infected crops have had yield reductions of
up
to
25 per cent. The percentage of infected seedlings indicates the

level of grain infection.
126
for
virus-free seed.
Do
not plant barley after barley
year.
Symptoms may vary with
Seed destined
Montana Seed Laboratory,
Bozeman.
planted year after
Montana
certified free of this disease.
Montana must be
Infected seeds produce infected plants. Seed from virus-infect-
ed plants
to
was
infected.
if
BARLEY YELLOW DWARF VIRUS, RED LEAF OF OATS
oats,
and
line soils this
is
considered the most
common
BYDV is transmitted by
occurs in
many
the cereal crop.
occurs in most parts of the world
It
viral disease of cereal
BYDV affects
several species of aphids and
and
strains or types.
failure to
move
in
In
These aphids may already be infective they but can also pick
SO per cent
mouth
transmit the virus through their
remain infectious for
life,
which
is
States, they generally arrive too
in the
United States, yield losses reach SO-
and 5-30 per cent for barley and wheat.
in oats
damaged
the Prairies, the only crops that are
ly are late
sown spring crops and
significant-
early sown, fall-seeded
crops.
The aphids can
parts.
some regions
On
As
in Alberta.
However, because the aphids must
kernels.
season to cause significant yield loss in Alberta.
late in the
they normally drift in every spring from the United States.
the aphids (winged or wingless) feed on the cereal crop, they
yields by stunting, reduced tillering, sterility,
fill
from the United
Usually the aphid vectors cannot overwinter in Alberta and
up the virus from infected perennial grasses
area, barley
may turn yellow in early July. In alkasymptom indicates a manganese deficiency in
seeded in June
that is
also called red leaf in
can infect barley, oats, rye and wheat as well as numer-
ous species of grasses.
crops.
McCleod/Claresholm
In dry seasons in the Fort
Biology
The barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV),
around 40 days.
Bright yellow flag leaves in barley by late June or early July
will indicate
Bamage
plants.
Bescrlption
at the
seedling stage
may
Leaves turn yellow from the
tip
Visual symptoms will indicate the presence of the disease.
the leaf margins
flag leaves, turn bright yellow; in oats, the leaves
may
Confirmation of
Heads may be wholly
must be carried out
at a
research
or partially ster-
There may also be an increase or decrease of
tillers
Management Strategy
pro-
plants. Cereal plants infected early in the
may be shaded
Use
resistant varieties.
out by healthy or late infected sur-
rounding plants. Winter wheat seedlings

cent infected with
this virus
facility.
turn
Discolored areas enlarge and progress to
the base of the plant.
season
BYDV.
Biagnosis
down along
or in blotchy patches. Infected barley leaves, particularly
duced by infected
strains of
result in
death or dwarfing as well as sterile heads.
to purple.
from one or more
the host species and the stage of crop
development. Infections
ile.
or no yield contribution from those
indicate crop failure
Symptoms vary with
from red
little
Severe stunting in winter wheat by mid-May could
may be 100
per
BYDV before freeze-up in the fall.
Seed early
in the spring.
This will allow for
maximum
growth of the cereal crop before possible infection by

migrating aphids.
BLUE DWARF VIRUS, CRINKLE

Biology
This disease
Flax
is
known
as blue
dwarf virus
in barley
and oats and
crinkle in flax.
The
ted leafhopper
[Macwsteles fascifrons), which does not usually
virus can only be transmitted
by the six-spot-
overwinter in Canada. Each year infective leafhoppers must

in
from the United
States.
move
is
and reduced
tillering.
called crinkle in flax.
results in stunting
Biagnosis
Reduced tillering and blasted heads result in yield loss.
Mild or suppressed symptoms on many hosts make field
virus-infected
leafhoppers into the prairie provinces early in the spring.
diagnosis difficult, therefore
more damage than
Bamage
It
come
Severe outbreaks occur following
weather that brings favorable winds which
This disease
BDV may cause significantly
realized.
Bescrlption
Oats
Management Strategy and
Early spring infection results in severe stunting. Plants are
Blue dwarf
dark blue-green with short rigid leaves that stand out
in the Prairie Provinces.
right angles.
Heads
may produce new
are usually blasted
at
is
Control
not usually of significant economic importance
and infected plants

Early seeding of cereals and flax in spring allows for more
tillers.
crop growth before infection and consequently less damage.
Barley
Symptoms
are generally similar to oats except that barley
plants do not produce
new
tillers.
127
BROWNING ROOT
ROT, PYTHIUM
ROOT ROT
P///;///mspp.
Infection during
Biology
All spring and winter cereals along with forage grasses
can be infected with browning root
The
rot.
rot is
autumn or spring can
kill
young
seedlings but late season infection usually causes a tem-
porary setback, which
caused
may
not significantly affect yield.
by one or more Pythium species. This disease was the

cause of considerable losses in wheat crops that were
A few isolated diseased areas in a field may be a warn-
grown after fallow in the 1950s. The cause was determined to be low or deficient levels of soil available
phosphorus for cereal crops.
ing sign of low amounts of organic matter and available
phosphate.
Diagnosis
Fungus spores can remain in the soil and crop residue for
five years or more. The spores germinate, invade the
roots and cause localized infections. New spores are produced in infected plant parts.
A soil sample taken according to recommended procedures (that

reveal
Browning
root rot
is
found
in
wet
soils that
have low
phosphorus and organic matter levels and a previous
is,
cores taken up to 15
cm
deep
at
represen-
tative sites in the field) for laboratory analysis will

if
the phosphorus levels and organic matter con-
tent are the cause of the
problem.
his-
tory of cereal crops.
Damage
Description
This disease occurs in patches. Infected plants become
promote vigorous crop
growth.
pale green, and lower leaves turn yellow and then

brown. Plants are slightly stunted. Diseased plants have
fewer tillers, poor root growth and delayed maturity.
Soft,
Maintain adequate phosphate levels or balance the

nitrogen: phosphate ratio to
Increase organic matter by incorporating straw or
manure.
wet brown lesions develop on the younger roots
near their
tips.
CEPHALOSPORIUM STRIPE
Cephalosporium gramineum
Infected plants are stunted and produce white heads.
Biology
Winter wheat
is
the major
economic
Infection stripes
host. Spring cereals
ceptible but infections rarely build-up to
economic
lev-
not appear on
The presence of the fungus
els.
all tillers
of individ-
inside the cereal stems and
leaves interferes with the flow of water and nutrients.
The fungus survives within 8 cm of the
wounds caused by
mechanical
stresses.
Yield losses result from reduced seed production and
on
soil surface
kernel size.
way
host residue. Spores germinate and invade roots by
of
may
ually infected plants.
and annual grasses {Bromus, Dactylis, Poa spp.) are sus-
insects, soil heaving, or other
The fungus moves through
Infection rates of 80 per cent and yield reductions of 50
the
plant's water-conducting system to the stem nodes
per cent have occurred in the United States. In Alberta,
and
this disease is not
leaves.
known
to
cause significant yield
losses.
Cephalosporium
stripe is favored
by
cool, moist
autumns, with fluctuating winter temperatures that result

in stop-start
Management Strategy
growth cycles of the crop.
Use
a crop rotation of
two or three years with
legumes, corn, canola or spring cereals.
Damage
Description
Bury infected crop residues more than 8 cm deep.
Control grassy weeds in the crop and headlands.
Diseased plants are usually scattered around the field

but
may be
concentrated in low wet spots. Longitudinal
yellow stripes appear through the
leaf, leaf-sheath
and
stem. Veins within the stripe remain green. Stripes
become brown and dark
areas are formed at the nodes.
128
COMMON ROOT ROT,
SEEDLING BLIGHT, DAMPING-OFF
Cochliobolus sativus, Fusariumspp., Rhizoctonias[i[i. Pythiumspii.
can be determined by pulling up plants and examining the
Biology
Common root rot
is
consistently one of the
ing diseases of wheat and barley.
It
crowns and subcrown internodes
most damag-
can also infect
oats,
triticale.
season, a possible leaf spot phase.
phase
is less
common on wheat
mature plant, root
rot
The seedling
composed of randomly
Collect 100 plants,
There are a number of phases to this

disease complex; seedling blight, root rot and later in the
rye and
for disease.
selected groups
of 5-10 plants each, and rate the disease level on the crown
and subcrown internode by the following
scale:
blight
than on barley. In the
caused primarily by Cochliobolus
is the major cause of crop loss. The leaf spot and

head infection phase is less important on the prairies than
sativus
Clean (0)
= no brown spots
Slight (a)
= up
Moderate
Severe
(b)
(c)
to
25%
(lesions)
of area with lesions
= 25-50% of area with lesions

= more than
50%
of area with lesions
in the eastern provinces.
Use
Initial infections originate
Seedlings
become
the formula ( a
+ 2b + 4c ), where
from soil-borne spores.
a, b,
c are the
10
infected following germination and
further infections continue throughout the
number of plants
son.
severe, respectively, in the 100 plants sampled. This gives
sue.
growing seaAbundant spore production occurs on diseased tisSpores are spread by wind, water, cultivation and
through infected seeds. Spores
may remain
for several years until stimulated to
25 plants in each of the
soils, as
were
17.5%, calculated as
25 + 2(25) + 4(25 ) = 25 + 50 + 100 = 175 = 17.5%
an infection.
10
gories: clean to slight
plied
damage has occurred. Brown

subcrown internodes
seed and crown) and
spots appear on the roots,
mate yield
(that part of the plant
and crown damage lower
no
specific data are
loss.
Avoid continuous wheat or continuous
Use
Avoid deep seeding, which reduces plant vigor; a

healthy vigorous plant is more likely to avoid or cope
with root or crown infections.
Apply adequate fertilizer especially phosphorus

mote root growth and reduce disease severity.
Use
Turn under of stubble
Use
respectively.
Cereal crops can withstand a certain amount of seedling

extra space, water, nutrients and light that
would have been used by missing seedlings are taken up

by neighboring plants to produce more tillers with larger
loss.
No
barley.
rotations with other cereal or non-cereal crops.
quality seed that
was grown
to pro-
the previous season.
definite
threshold levels are available.
Diagnosis
on
to obtain a disease rating
rye, but
yields.
average annual yield losses of 6 and 10 per cent,
severity of C. sativus
durum wheat and
Management Strategy
and fewer seeds per head. Some plants may ripen prematurely. Root rot in wheat and barley in Alberta causes
heads and kernels compensating for the
40%
available for guidance in the conversion factor used to esti-
Infected plants tend to produce fewer tillers with smaller
The presence and
The percent-
16%.
indication that
between the
leaves. Infected plants may be
stunted. Seedlings may die before or soon after emergence even though they only show slight damage.
Common root rot
to severe.
the rating. This multi-
severe category, then the yield loss would equal 0.4 x
for barley,
first
is
by 0.4 equals the estimated percentages yield reduc40 per cent of the plants are in the moderate to
These methods may also be used
usually the
10
tion. If
Description
is
and moderate
age of plants in the second group
or
Patchy emergence
10
A modification of this method only uses two disease cate-
cereals, will reduce root rot problems.
The
there
well as drought and high temperature
The strain of C. sativus that affects barley is different

from the strain that affects wheat. Thus, the severity of
root rot may be high in wheat and low in barley in a field
where a root-rot susceptible wheat cultivar was grown
continuously. The reverse is also true where barley was
grown continuously. Thus a crop rotation, even between
blight.
if
moderate and severe cate-
follows:
stress are important predisposing factors for
Damage
slight,
gories, the yield loss estimate equals
the presence
of a host plant.
Cold
moderate and
an estimated yield loss as a percentage. Thus,
viable in soil
grow by
that are rated as slight,
common wheat
129
to help
reduce infection levels.
COPPER DEFICIENCY
Management Strategy
Biology
Copper deficiencies can occur in the Black, Gray-Black,
Dark Brown, Grey Wooded, peat and transition soils.
Wheat, barley, oats, alfalfa and to a lesser extent rye and
non-cereal crops can be affected by copper deficiency. This
is
Apply copper sulphate
with
fertilizer or as a foliar spray.
pounds as a
a non-parasitic disease problem.
Damage
kg of bluestone per acre
Description
become dry
ley,
deficient plants develop light-green leaves that
may
at the tips.
fail to unroll,
Younger
or
may
Grow
may be
in
curl, twist
and
set seed.
cereals such as rye or triticale or a non- cereal
Yield increase (bu/ac) of wheat fertilized with copper
in
usually
Cultivar
Conway
Katepwa
Kenyon
fail to
wheat and sometimes
Laura
more
Park
severe.
Bear
Hilis
Roblin
13
1
7
4
18
Yield increase (bu/ac) of oats fertilized with copper compounds-1991
Central Alberta Locations
Calibre
and ergot infection. Barley grown
Cascade
in plots deficient in
cop-
Derby
Jasper
Waldren
grown
have adequate available copper;
Bear
IVIillet
Athabasca
per will head-out seven to ten days later than barley
13
15
19
15
17
32
Yield losses result from empty heads, poorly-filled grains
that
17
14
14
8
12
9
Biggar
Cultivar
comparable plots
Stony Plain
10
Columbus
ial infection.
in
Millet
Oslo
The heads and stems of copper deficient wheat, especially

the variety Park, become melanotic and either shrivelled
seed or no seed is produced. Neepawa and other wheats
may not show the melanosis typical of Park, but yields can
be equally depressed. The melanosis or brown pigment that
occurs in some wheats is associated with secondary bacter-
this
compounds
like
wheat. Heads are bleached and
is
soil.
Central Alberta locations-1991
and rosetted and stems are thin
may be common
Ergot
low copper
crop that tolerates lower levels of copper in the
pigtail.
incompletely emerged or appear normal but
barley, and crop lodging
Rates of 10-20
leaves, particularly in bar-
and spindly; elevated levels of take-all or take-all
symptoms may occur
will correct the
10 to 15 years.
Affected roots in wheat and barley are stunted and crowns

are excessively branched
Apply copper com-
foliar spray at late tillering.
availability for
Copper
(bluestone), copper oxychloride
or chelated copper to the soil alone or in combination
Hills
0
2
4
8
22
6
4
2
could be important in seasons with an early killing
frost.
Bushels per ac re of barley
in
1990 on
plots fertilized
with 18 kg of copper sulphate per acre
Diagnosis
The range between sufficient and deficient levels of copper
is quite small. Rye can take copper from soils that are deficient for wheat, barley and oats. Ten per cent or more of
the crop land in Alberta
Perhaps double
this
may be
maximum
yield in
cy in the
field.
wheat or
Original soil tests
the presence of take-all,
indicators of copper deficien-
at a soil testing laboratory.
Representative soil cores from across the field should be
taken
at the
0-15
cm
and 15-30
cm
soil depths.
Surface and
lower profile copper availability should be over
80
113
85
99
99
Virden
Specific soil tests for copper availability
must be carried out
Condor
Duke
Noble
barley.
Uneven stands of cereals and

melanosis and ergot are good
Copper
Harrington
deficient in copper.
amount of land may have available
copper insufficient to allow
Cultivar
ppm.
130
showed
in
1987, near Edmonton
No Copper
26
103
51
60
52
0.6 to 0.9
ppm
available copper.
ERGOT
Claviceps purpurea
0.5 per cent
Biology
many
Ergot infects
order of decreasing susceptibility, rye,
triticale,
by weight of ergot
in the diet
reduced feed consumption and weight
cereals and grasses; these include in
causes
loss.
Economic
losses also result through reduction of yield and
wheat
through rejection or downgrading of contaminated
and barley. Oats are rarely affected.
grain by the elevator. Yields are occasionally reduced
Ergot overwinters as black grain-sized fungal structures.

In late spring, these ergots germinate and
form
by
tiny
as
much
as 5 per cent in rye and 10 per cent in
wheat.
spore-producing mushrooms. Infectious spores are carried
by wind currents
to the host during the
flowering
may produce a sechoneydew. Honeydew is a shiny
stage. Infection of the cereal flowers
Diagnosis
ondary phase called
sticky liquid that oozes
The Canadian Seeds Act (July 1987) defines the maximum

number of ergots allowed per kilogram of seed before the
tains large
sample
from infected flowers and connumbers of ergot spores. The spores spread to
adjacent flowers and heads by insects and rain splash.
is
downgraded.
Ergot that germinates in June can infect early flowering
weed
grasses,
which produce honeydew when cereals
Maximum number of ergots/kg
are
Triticale
Grade
flowering.
damp weather
Cool,
in late spring
Canada Foundation
and early summer
favors ergot germination, helps prolong the flowering
Canada Registered
period of cereals and grasses and increases the probability of ergot infection.
Canada
The presence of ergot
in
wheat and barley
been strongly correlated with
in Alberta has
soils that are
low
in
#111
#111
#112
#112
Wheat
Certified
Common
copper
Barley
&
oats
and rye
2
#2
10
#2
10
#2
15
#2
15
4
4
management practices that cause a copper defiWheat and probably barley grown on
or with
ciency in cereals.
copper deficient
have a high
soils
rate of pollen sterility.
Ergot can
move
into a field through contaminated seed but
Barley and wheat are self-pollinating and the florets nor-
usually the source of inoculum
mally do not open.
headlands.
If the
pollen
is sterile, florets
of
wheat and barley open and expose the stigmas to ergot

infection. Male sterile lines of wheat and barley are very
susceptible to ergot infection and have been abandoned
in plant breeding. Open florets are very obvious in wheat
growing on copper deficient soils.
Some
herbicides
may
disrupt copper availability.
larly
on
may
fertilizer
soils already
tie
is
infested grasses in the
disease source
is
the headland grass
the highest density of ergoty cereals
is
around the perime-
ter
along the headlands.
If the infected plants are
more
evenly distributed throughout the crop, the disease source

is
likely
from contaminated seed or a previously infected
Knowledge of the distribution pattern

grain harvest. Under very windy conditions
crop.
Manure
grain that
applications and high application rates of nitrogen and
phosphate
When the
mature or nearly
is
is
important
at
in standing
so, the ergots often protrud-
ing in infected heads will get shaken or knocked-off. This
up available copper, particu-
will reduce
low in this micro-nutrient. All of

combined may contribute to cop-
by up
to
70 per cent or more the amount of
ergot in the harvested grain.
these factors singly or
per deficiency resulting in greatly reduced yields and
Cereal spikes containing ergot have fewer kernels per head
increased infection rates of ergot in barley and wheat.
with less weight per seed. Yield loss percentage for rye can
be estimated as follows:
Damage
Ergot
is
Per cent loss =
Description
most
easily recognized
% ergoty spikes x (1
seed weight of ergoty spike)
seed weight of healthy spike
by the hard black bodies

Heads may
that replace the grains of the affected head.
contain one or
more
ergots. Earlier in the season, before
the ergots are produced, an
amber
liquid or
IVIanagement Strategy and Control
honeydew
Reduce inoculum
can be detected on individual flower heads. Heads collect dust and pollen on the sticky honeydew and may
appear
levels
adequate
dirty.
soil copper, all cereals
or no ergot infection.
Ergot bodies are highly poisonous. Alkaloids in ergot

are extremely toxic to humans and livestock. Ergot
conditions
human
may
Some
fertilizer to
except rye will have
infection.
interfere with
as well as animal feeds. For cattle.
131
Research
in
little
herbicides and environmental
normal growth and reduce
available copper and consequently
alkaloids have been detected in flour and cereals
intended for
and apply copper
reduce or eliminate this disease in wheat and barley. With
may
result in ergot
Finland has shown that soils low in
boron induce pollen
manner
the flowers
Ergot in Park wheat, Stony Plain, Alberta***

Grain yield
bu/ac
Ergots/sq. yd.
No copper*
13
11
Copper**
42
Treatment
of crop
Test soils for copper availability; an application of cop-
Use
may be needed
if
levels are
below
ppm.
a rotation with non-host crops to reduce inoculum
levels. Ergots rarely survive
in a similar
caused by copper deficiency,
open and ergot infections occur.
per fertilizer
Thus
sterility in barley.
to the pollen sterility
Bury crop residue
2.5
more than
cm or more
a year in the soil.
*no copper added (DTPA extractable copper 0.6 ppm)

**18 kg of CUSO4 (4.5 kg actual copper)/acre applied in 1987.
*** Dark grey chernozem
into soil to prevent
spore-producing mushrooms from emerging above ground.

Ergot
Delay swathing particularly

ble,
headland areas
possi-
if
in
Katepawa wheat grown on organic
grain.
Grain yield
Ergots/sq. yd.
bu/ac
of crop
Treatment
Mow headland grasses on a regular, annual basis well

before seed
set.
No copper*
This will prevent ergot production.
Meadow foxtail
is
extremely susceptible to ergot.
CUSO4**
6.8 kg
13.6 kg CUSO4***
45
34
43
Harvest headland area swaths separately because they

*no copper added (DTPA extractable copper 0.6 ppm)
are likely to have the highest ergot contamination.
**(1 .7
soil,
Westlock, Alberta
because windy weather will shake out the ergots
from standing
in
Store ergoty grain intended for seed for two years.
The
ergots will die, but the grain will remain viable for
many
more
kg actual copper)/acre applied
in
1989.
***(3.4 kg actual copper)/acre applied in 1989.
years.
FUSARIUM HEAD BLIGHT, SCAB, PINK MOLD, WHITE HEADS, TOMBSTONE SCAB
Gibberella zeae âsexual Fusarium graminearum), F. avenaceum, F. culmorum, F.
nous, especially to non-ruminant animals. Vomitoxin
Biology
This disease affects
in
humid
areas.
all
grain crops, especially those
The causal fungi may
grown
also incite different
diseases on other plant parts. Therefore, head blight
may
appear with root rot or leaf infections or be the precursor of

future seedling blight infections.
seems
to
be particularly prone
Wheat planted
to this
after
corn
problem because corn
occurs mainly in soft white winter wheat grown in eastern
Canada. Wheat
when
On
base of the plant.
These spores are spread by rain or wind

parts,
are
glumes or other portions of the head. This fungus
human consumption
only
Mycotoxins reduce
These losses outweigh yield
may be more
severe on semi-dwarf and

cultivars.
the prairies vomitoxin usually only occurs in
There are no records of
this toxin in
Manitoba
Alberta cereals
some instances in soft white spring wheats under

The scab or head blight phase of this disease is
common in some years but mycotoxins are absent.
except for
irrigation.
fairly
to infect flower
acceptable for
durum wheats than on hard red spring
grain.
at the
is
virtually free of mycotoxins.
losses. This disease
The fungus overwinters in crop residue and grasses.

Seedlings may become infected at emergence. Spores
produced on stem infections
it is
quality and marketability.
residues can produce large quantities of this fungus.
first
poae
is
favored by prolonged warm, moist weather.
Management Strategy
Damage
Description
The disease
Head blight
is
most conspicuous on wheat and barley.
is
recognized by premature bleaching of one or
all
of the spikelets in the head. Infected spikelets are often
sterile.
The seed
infection
may
in the spikelet stalk
Turn under crop residue
Use two-
to reduce
inoculum
to three-year-crop rotations
levels.
and avoid cereals
and grasses.
Control barnyard grass and quackgrass, which are also hosts.
Do
not seed wheat into corn stubble.
Do
not seed spring or winter wheat near corn fields
above the point of
not develop. Diseased heads have small dark
spots and fungus growth with an orange to pinkish tinge.
Infected grain
is
shrivelled and lighter in weight with indi-
vidual kernels usually whitish in color.
Yields are reduced by floret
sterility
and poor seed
infected by fusarium fungi.

filling.
A more important factor is the contamination of the grain

by mycotoxins. Mycotoxins such as vomitoxin are poiso-
Plant cereal varieties that mature early and escape

infection.
GREY SPECK, MANGANESE DEFICIENCY

Manganese
Biology
Grey speck
is
a non-parasitic disease caused by
may be
deficiency. Soils
Grey speck occurs
in a
form unavailable
in scattered areas
throughout
is
necrotic area
3rd leaf from top, June 30, 1990
0
2
Waldern
2
3
5
Terra
Cascade
associated with neutral to alkali soils that are
often high in organic matter.
with a
6.8)
Tibor
and rarely on wheat.
This condition
pH
for plant
Western Canada. This disease occurs mainly on oats and barley
deficiency in cereals at the University of Alberta
Ellerslie (soil
Variety
deficient in the micro-nutrient or the
manganese may be present

uptake.
Farm,
manganese
The
Derby
disease rarely occurs on soils
pH below 6. Wet, poorly-drained soils cause an
Grizzly
13
Riel
20
22
22
23
27
28
Foothills
increase in disease severity.
Athabasca
OT 760
Calibre
Damage
Harmon
Description
the disease
light
in
OT768
OT334
Robert
usually seen at the four- to five-leaf stage as
grey oval spots on the leaves, which
become
irregular
shape and turn light brown. Spots usually appear about
halfway
to
is
30
30
33
43
Jasper
The deficiency symptoms appear as brown, unthrifty patches of oats. However, whole fields of barley in southern
Alberta may turn yellowish in color. The first indication of
down from
break over and
the leaf
tip,
In southern Alberta, barley that
with a
sometimes causing the leaf
die.
pH of 8 may
is
seeded in July into
turn yellow or the leaves
may become
stippled with yellow spots during dry periods.
with additional moisture

healthy and
Take representative soil samples

them for manganese availability.
soils
0-15
cm
and check
to
manganese
However,
new growth may be green and
show no evidence of manganese
at
Management Strategy
deficiency.
The degree of yield loss is related to the unavailability of

manganese. Grey speck is usually of minor importance but
can cause crop failures in some areas. Loss of photosynthetic area and, in some instances, failure to produce heads
Use
known
to
barley,
which
oat varieties
be tolerant
deficiency.
Grow wheat and
are less affected
by
this
deficiency.
contribute to yield loss.
Spraying the crop with
per cent
phate will reduce losses, but
may
manganous
sul-
not be economical-
ly practical.
NET BLOTCH
Pyrenophora teres fasexual Drechslera teres)
Damage
Biology
Net blotch
is
common,
ley in western Canada, second only to scald as a cause of

yield loss.
warmer
Net blotch
is
more common than scald
terns appear
brown
stripes.
There
is
also a
spot-producing form of this fungus that produces dark
brown
the seed or crop residue.
Spores are produced and spread by wind and
on the leaves, sheaths and glumes. Spots
enlarge and join into dark
in the
drier regions of the prairies.
The fungus overwinters on
Description
Light brown spots with distinctive dark brown net-like pat-
destructive foliar disease of bar-
rain.
spots surrounded by a yellow zone.
Symptoms vary
with the variety and weather.
Spores
produced on infected plants are mainly responsible for
Yield loss
destructive secondary spread of the disease within the
destroyed on the upper two leaves. The average yield loss
crop.
in
Alberta
is
is
proportional to the amount of leaf area
about 1.5 per cent. Losses of 50 per cent and
more have occurred

Seedling infection
is
greatest during periods of cool
in highly susceptible varieties
such as
Elrose. Net blotch lowers grain yield and brewing quality
humid weather (10-15
C). Spore production and infecgrowing crop is favored by high relative

humidity and temperatures around 20 C.
by reducing the carbohydrate content of kernels.
tion of the
133
ticularly if disease levels
Diagnosis
Use
the barley scald assessment procedure to obtain an
If barley
must be grown
indication of crop loss.
susceptible cultivar the
were high the previous

in
year.
two successive years, use a

year and a resistant type the
first
second.
Management Strategy
Use
Bury crop residue and destroy volunteers.
Use balanced applications of nitrogen and phosphorus.

Heavy nitrogen applications generally produce condi-
resistant cultivars.
See appendixes.
Use
if possible. Seed may be sent to

Canada Seed Laboratory in Ottawa to
disease-free seed
the Agriculture
determine the percentage of infection.
ical treatment.
tions favorable to outbreaks of this disease.
Follow a crop rotation for
at least
Control the seed-borne phase of net blotch with a chem-
Apply
a foliar spray. Tilt (propiconazole)
is
the only
fungicide registered on barley in Canada that
two years with non-
tive for the control of net blotch
is
effec-
and scald.
susceptible hosts. Barley should not follow barley, par-
Barley cultivar reaction to scald and net blotch**

Net blotch
Scald
Most susceptible
Abee
Deuce
(2-row feed)
Jackson
(6-row feed)
Sus
Int
Res
Sus
Field*
Int
Res
ratings
5
4
7
(2-row feed)
(6-row feed)
Otal
Samson
(6-row semi-dwarf)
Condor
Tupper
(2-row liulless)
(6-row hulless)
Harrington
(2-row malt)
Klages
(2-row malt)
Ellice
(2-row malt)
B1602
(6-row malt)
Moderately susceptible
Gait
(6-row feed)
Heartland
(6-row feed)
Johnston
(6-row feed)
Noble
(6-row feed)
Virden
(6-row feed)
X
X
Duke
(6-row semi-dwarf)
Argyle
(6-row malt)
Bonanza
(6-row malt)
Least susceptible
AC-Stacey
(6-row feed)
Brier
(6-row feed)
Leduc
X
X
5
7
7
5
5
(6-row feed)
Winchester
(6-row semi-dwarf)
moderate to severe disease levels. Int=lntermediate susceptibility to light disease levels. Res=Resistant to the
based on greenhouse tests.
*Overall field disease ratings were established under field conditions at several sites in Alberta. The ratings are on a 1 to 9 scale; 9 is excellent disease resistance and 1 is very poor resistance.
** See the appendix for a more detailed description of disease resistance/susceptibility
Sus=Susceptible
disease.
These
to infection,
ratings are
134
POWDERY MILDEW
Erysiphe graminis
becomes dotted with black pepper-like sexual bodies that

enable the fungus to survive between growing seasons.
Biology
Powdery mildew
is
one of the most
common plant
eases. This disease can be very destructive to
dis-
wheat and
barley and, to a lesser extent, other cereals and grasses.
ture
fewer
tillers
and grains per head and the grains
be resistant to a certain race of the mildew fungus, but sus-
poorly
ceptible to another race.
white wheat, are seldom affected
result
may be
Barley and spring wheat, other than soft
Winter wheat
is
economic
at
levels
on the
affected to a greater degree.
Considerable losses have occurred in some seasons on soft
persed in early spring by wind and infect susceptible
Secondary infections within the crop
filled.
prairies.
This fungus overwinters on crop residue. Spores are dis-
plants.
when
robbed of mois-
is
and food by fungal growth. Yields may be reduced by

20 per cent or more. Cereals affected by mildew produce
is
that are highly specialized,
of wheat or barley they
occurs from reduced photosynthetic ability
green surfaces are shaded and the host
made up of different races and

even down to the cultivar
can attack. Wheat cultivars might
powdery mildew fungus

forms
Damage
The
white wheat. The disease will seriously reduce yields
from
flag
spores produced abundantly on the white mildew that cov-
if
the
and second leaf are affected.
ers the surface of infected plant parts.
Development
is
rapid in
warm humid weather.
This fungus
Diagnosis
is
unique in that spore production and infection can take place

in the
Use
growth over the leaf surface.
to spore production or fungal
canopies caused by high nitro-
Rapid growth and dense
foliar
gen
encourage disease development.
fertilizer application
Damage
Description
the host and feeds

plant. Small,
on the living green
white or gray
most prevalent early
tufts
in the
cells
Follow a crop rotation of
one
at least
to
two
years, or
other types of wheat.
Bury crop residue and destroy volunteer
Use balanced applications of nitrogen and phosphorus.

Heavy nitrogen applications generally produce condi-
growing season on the upper
cereals.
tions favorable to outbreaks of this disease.
surface of the lower leaves. Tissue on the opposite sides of
may
of the cereal
of spore-producing fungus
the leaf turns pale green to yellow.
join and
Use
grow
Powdery mildew attacks the leaves, but stems and heads are
also affected. The fungus grows primarily on the surface of
are
the barley scald assessment procedure.
absence of free moisture. Heavy rains are not favorable
The fungal
tufts enlarge,
Apply
a foliar fungicide.
turn a reddish brown. Later, this fungal growth
RUSTS
Rye
Barley
stem
stem rust
Puccinia graminis
i.
graminis
sp. secalis, P.
leaf rust
stripe rust
f.
rust
crown
sp. tritici
rust
crown
P.
grammis
rust
P. graminis
rust
stem
rust
sp.
f.
P. recondita
Wheat
avenae
stem
P. coronata
rust
P. graminis
leaf rust
f.
sp. tritici
P. recondita
must be blown in from

These rust spores
Biology
found
Many
rust-infected crops in the United States.
species of rust affect barley, oats, rye, triticale,
wheat and grasses. Each
rust species includes a
no known
life
A single spore pus-
on a cereal leaf or stem may produce millions of infectious spores, which can infect other susceptible cereals.
tule
crop varieties. Both stem and leaf rust require two different
rust has
in Alberta, infectious spores
directly infect susceptible cereal crops.
number of
strains that differ only in their ability to infect certain host
unrelated host species to complete their
avenae
P. coronata
P. graminis f sp. tritici
leaf rust
f sp.
Triticale
P. hordei
P. striiformis
Oats
stem
cycle. Stripe
The
alternate host.
stripe rust
fungus occasionally overwinter in Alberta
as the infectious
brown spore
stage on susceptible winter
wheats such as Norstar. Infectious brown spores from
Because the alternate hosts for stem and leaf rust are not
135
infected winter wheat are able to infect susceptible vari-
losses only in Manitoba.
of soft white wheat earlier in the season, causing con-
eties
Rusts, except for stripe rust
siderable damage.
Stem and
leaf rusts
may
is
in the
the crops'
and the black overwinter spores can only
infect the alternate hosts,
The same
which do not
to
growth stage
late
do much damage, except on suscepti-
at the
depend on
time of infection and the amount
of leaf tissue destroyed. Early infection of upper leaves, stems,
exist in Alberta.
situation holds true for the destructive
growing season
ble late-seeded and late-tillering crops. Yield losses
because the brown summer infectious spores die on
the crop residue
is
because the rust spores arrive from the eastern prairies too
cause some infection late in the
season, but they are of no consequence in the next year.
This
which may overwinter on winter
wheat, do not usually cause significant yield losses. This
QCC race
and heads can cause high yield losses

grain,
of barley stem rust in Manitoba.
form of shrivelled
in the
reduced baking quality and impaired germination.
damage from stem and
Serious
most years occurs
leaf rust in
only in Manitoba and sometimes eastern Saskatchewan.
Damage
Western Saskatchewan and Alberta usually escape losses from
Description
these rust diseases in both wheat and barley.
Stem
Stem
rust
rust
produces reddish-brown, elongated pustules on
the stems, leaves, glumes,
awns and
kernels.
These contain
masses of brown spores. As the plant matures
Diagnosis
later in the
These diseases can be assessed

barley.
Leaf rust
Management Strategy
Leaf
rust appears as small, round,
leaves and leaf sheaths.
As
same way
in the
season, the pustules produce black overwinter spores.
as scald of
orange pustules on
Stripe rust
Use resistant
the plant matures, the pustules
turn dark gray.
cultivars.
There are two types of resistance
to stripe rust: seedling resistance
and adult plant
resis-
tance. Seedling resistance lasts for the life of the plant
whereas adult plant resistance only develops between
Stripe rust
booting and heading. Disease progresses rapidly until
Stripe rust develops as elongated, yellow-orange pustules

in
adult plant resistance starts, then the
rows of varying lengths. This gives the appearance of
narrow yellow
stripes
heads. These later
disease slows dramatically.
mainly on the leaves and on the grain
become dark brown
pustules,
this latter
which pro-
No
advancement of the
licensed varieties have
form of resistance.
duce the overwinter spores.
Seed early and use early maturing

plete
Crown
Crown
rust
rust of oats is similar to leaf rust of
ley except the pustules
may be
wheat and bar-
On
com-
infected.
Destroy alternate hosts for stem and leaf rusts to reduce
inoculum
levels.
present on both sides of the
leaves and on the glumes. These are later replaced by black

pustules.
varieties that
most of their development before being
Do
not plant susceptible spring cultivars near winter
wheat
the Prairies this disease causes significant
fields that
may be
infected with stripe rust.
SCALD
Rhynchosporium secalis
as a source of disease spread in barley
Biology
Scald
is
regions of the prairies, particularly the parkland zone of

Alberta. This disease can also affect rye and
The
some
is
not well under-
stood.
the major foliar disease of barley in the wetter
The disease
grasses.
is
favored by cool (12-20''C) humid weather
and dense crop canopies where leaves remain wet for prolonged periods.
scald fungus overwinters on barley residue, grain and
grasses, particularly species of Bromus. In spring, spores

are
produced mainly from barley residue
left
on the
soil
surface from the previous year. Spores produced on infect-
Damage
ed leaves are transported to other barley plants by rain
Scald
drops and wind. Scald can attack a barley plant
sheaths and glumes. Large water-soaked, grey-green spots
at
any time
is
Description
primarily a foliar disease but
is
also found
on leaf
but levels of infection are usually most severe just before
appear on the leaves, rapidly dry out and become bleached
and during heading. The significance of scald-infected seed
with brown margins. Spots often join and
136
kill
the entire leaf.
Yield losses in Alberta have been calculated

although losses in particular fields
the second leaf
per cent,
at 2.4
may exceed 25
will give
per cent.
Losses are due to a decrease in photosynthetic area on the

flag
and second leaves resulting
in
from
and apply
to the following formula.
it
This
you a reasonable estimate of expected crop
loss
scald.
reduced seed weight.
Severe scald infections can cause damage that resembles

black point but
In general there
not confined to the
is
is
% yield loss =
2/3 X % area of flag leaf infected +
embryo end.
a direct relationship
between the amount
1/2 x
of disease present on upper leaves of cereals and the resulting loss in grain yield.
filled grain.
The top two leaves of the
most of the energy required
plant supply
to
cereal
produce well-
Management Strategy
This principal can be used to predict potential
yield losses at the milky ripe growth stage.
Turn under or deep
till
surface barley residue. This
when
reduces disease levels

If scald
% area of second leaf infected
barley follows barley.
appears on the upper leaves and sheaths in mid-
July, anticipate considerable yield loss. If the scald
does
not appear until early to mid-August, disease levels
may be
heavy but actual losses from
this disease will
Seed early with an early maturing variety

major build-up of disease
be consider-
later
maturing
to
miss the
that hits later-sown crops
and
varieties.
ably reduced since the grains are well filled by this time.
Use
a crop rotation of at least one year with non-host
crops such as other cereals or canola.
Diagnosis
Examine
scale).
dom
the crops at the milky ripe stage (see Feekes
Assess no
less than
25 main
tillers
Use
Apply
along two diagonals from one corner to the opposite
corner of the
ond leaves
field.
Assess the percentage of
affected.
Take
selected at ran-
first
and sec-
the average of the first leaf and
a foliar fungicide.
Control the seed-borne phase of this disease with a seed

treatment.
SEPTORIA COMPLEX, SPECKLED LEAF BLOTCH, GLUME BLOTCH

Leptosphaeria avenarial. sp. triticea fasexual Septoria avenaei. sp. triticea) Leptosphaeria nodorum fasexual Septoria nodorum)
Infections,
Biology
This group of diseases
because they
all
is
may be
even on the same
plant.
known
as Septoria
They
may
like dots (reproductive structures called pycnidia)
present in the same field and

The Septoria complex of dis-
appear in the infected areas. L. nodorum most often caus-
on the glumes and stem nodes rather than on

glume tips and work
downward and form purplish areas that later produce the
es blotches
is common on barley,
and grasses, especially Poa and Agrostis spp.
eases occurs mainly on wheat, but

oats, rye
which are initially water soaked, will become

and finally red-brown. Tiny black pepper-
dry, yellow
complex
the leaves. Infections begin at the
are widespread throughout the Prairie Provinces.
dark characteristic pycnidia.
The fungi overwinter on seeds
(S.
nodorum mainly) and
on stubble, straw and leaves of winter wheat. Spores

infect the new crop during wet weather. Secondary infection to nearby plants results from spores produced on
infected leaf spots transported by splashing rain and
Diagnosis
Lesions on the important upper leaves and glumes
cally reduce photosynthetic activity
wind.
depress yields. Seed set
is
not harmed but seed filling
impaired and shrivelled grain
Wet windy weather
favors this disease while dry condi-
tions reduce or prevent

tion
on diseased
new
may be
lost
is
with the chaff
at harvest.
infections and spore produc-
plants. Plants
must remain wet for
six
hours or more for successful spore infection. Increases in

the incidence of this disease are related to denser,
humid
criti-
and can severely
more
Use
Turn under the stubble and crop residue
a crop rotation with non-cereal crops.
foliage that occurs with higher nitrogen inputs.

to
reduce dis-
ease incidence and control volunteer wheat seedlings.
Damage
Description
The disease develops on all above-ground plant parts.

Yellow flecks generally appear first on lower leaves.
Use seed grown

be free of
137
in the drier areas of the province.
this disease or
It
may
very low in seed-borne infection.
Do
not use stubble mulching and
minimum
till.
These
nitrogen levels. These practices lower canopy density
and humidity, which favor infection.
practices increase the incidence of this disease.
Use wide row spacing and adequate but not excessive
Use
SHARP EYESPOT
Rhizoctonia solani
and
grasses.
rye.
R. cerealis
grain sprouting and
Biology
Sharp eyespot occurs on the lower stems of cereals and
some
Wheat
is
Winter cereals
When
more susceptible than barley, oats

are more susceptible than spring
weed growth.
disease levels are moderate, affected plants are sup-
ported by their healthy neighbors. In severe cases, large

areas will lodge.
cereals.
Lodging
is
non-directional and, unlike
crops lodged by wind, does not allow
The fungus overwinters on crop residues as a non-spore

producing mycelium. The sharp eyespot fungus has a wide
host range and infects plants directly through the soil. The
Check
eyespot fungus Pseudocercosporella herpotrichioides
first
recovery.
Diagnosis
areas of stem breakage for this fungus.
Under some
conditions, a post-emergence herbicide application
causes similar damage on winter wheat in Ontario and was

reported for the
some
may
have been responsible for the lower stem breakage.
time on spring wheat in Alberta in
1990.
Management Strategy
Infections can be severe, particularly on light, dry, acid

soils
during cool springs.
Reduce soil-borne fungus
Damage
Description
Distinct grey to
brown
The
of the fungus in the
that
can be rubbed off
white heads and lodging can occur from
Stem breakage,
present in the centre of the lesion.
this disease
kill tillers
reduce levels
to
Use management
practices such as deep cultivation that
shorten residue decomposition time.
this disease.
Sharp eyespot can
two or three years

soil.
spots spread outwards
and the centres darken. Dark fungus
may be
rotations with a non-cereal crop or use lower
risk cereal crops for
spots with dark margins appear at
the base of stems at heading.
Use crop
levels.
or entire plants.
Most often
Use wheat types with
stiffer
better able to withstand
reduces size and number of kernels and causes
straw or solid stems that are
stem breakage. There are no
plants to lodge.
It
also increases the risk of head diseases.
SMUTS AND BUNT

Rye
Barley
Ustilago hordei
smut
nigra
loose smut
nuda
stem smut
covered smut
false loose
Urocystis
common bunt
U.
(stinking smut)
loose smut
loose smut
U. kolleri
U.
common
avenae
Tilletia caries, T. foetida
Ustilago
bunt (stinking smut)
tritici
Tilletia caries, T. foetida
seeds are sown, smut spores germinate, penetrate the
Biology
All cereals are attacked by smut, but each crop
specific species of
number of
Wheat
Oats
covered smut
occulta
Triticale
U.
is
grow within the cereal host until the heads

Smut fungi replace all or most of the grain head
seedling and
host to
develop.
smut fungus. Each smut species has a
and form masses of black smut spores instead of seeds and
races that differ only in their ability to infect
chaff.
certain cultivars of that crop host.
These spores are released
at
grain harvest and conta-
minate the surface of other healthy kernels.
Covered and
false loose
smut of barley, bunt of wheat and

True loose smut of barley and wheat
loose and covered smut of oats will be dealt with as a
group because
their disease cycle is similar.
overwinter as spores on the seed surface.
When
differs
cycle in that the fungi overwinter within the
These fungi
seed.
infested
138
The fungus grows within
the plant
from the above
embryo of the
and produces
loose black smutted heads. Wind-borne, dust-like spores

infect healthy cereal flowers,
Canada Foundation
developing seed and infect the germ (embryo).

is favored by cool wet weather
which slows and prolongs the flowering period and
True loose smut infection

July,
smutty barley kernels

2
#2
4A
ft
4
o
#1
Certified
#2
#1
#2
Common
or early spring.
The
Damage
of
#2
All other smuts are favored by seeding into cold soils durfall
#1
RsgisiGrod
in
allows more time for infection.
ing the late
Maximum
Grade
where they penetrate the
Description
Most smut fungi
attack and replace the internal tissues of
the grain with dark
brown
from bunted wheat
fishy odor
is
detectable at less than
0.01 per cent thus rendering grain unsuitable for food even
at this
very low level of contamination.
or black smut spores.
Diagnosis
Covered smut
The
plant
may be
(barley, oats)
slightly stunted
The smut
upright, smutted heads.
membrane
that
Use
with hard, compact,

balls are
covered
the following formula to calculate losses
smut and bunt
in a
infected ears
in barley,
is
wheat and
oats.
from loose
The percentage of
directly proportional to grain yield loss.
remains intact along with the awns and
chaff.
Loss (kg/ha) =
x Pa
Pr
100-Pr
False loose and true loose
smut
a very thin covering
the spore masses.
The brown spores
away and leave bare spikes

from loose smut
in the ripening crop.
average less than
up
Pa = actual yield (kg/ha)
Losses
This
per cent, but
40 per cent have been recorded.

examination is needed to tell them apart.
losses of
ry
in barley
Pr = percentage infected heads
(barley)
membrane around
are blown or washed
These fungi have
to
A laborato-
done during heading (Feekes G.S. 10.1-10.5)
is
for
loose smut and true loose smut and during ripening (Feekes
G.S. 11) for bunt. Assess 50 plants along a diagonal
at sites
selected at random. Calculate the percentage of infected
heads.
Bunt (wheat and
Thus
a 10 per cent infection in a
333 kg/ha yield
triticale)
may be wholly or partially smutted. The

may remain green longer and glumes in the infected
head may be spread apart. Awns may be reduced or fall out
3000 kg/ha crop =
loss.
Infected heads
heads
as the heads ripen.

nels.
When these
Bunt
balls are rounder than
balls rupture, the loose black
wheat ker-
attack the grain directly, replace the contents and
cause a 1:1 direct yield
loss.
Use
Use smut
In southern Alberta bunt of wheat may be soil-borne.

Avoid continuous cropping of winter wheat and do not
powdery
spores have a distinctive fishy odor.
Smuts
A 10 per cent bunt infection, if
free seed.
km of a known bunt
the heads are completely infected, results in a 10 per cent
seed winter wheat within 2
from quality considerations). The presence

of covered and false loose smut and bunt also results in a
field of either spring or winter
yield loss (aside
are
infected
wheat because the spores
wind blown.
drastic reduction in grain quality because of the visible
contamination with black smut spores.
Use
a hot water seed treatment for loose smut.
Dip
seeds in 20''C water for 5 hours, drain and then dip in
Smutted grain should be stored separately from clean grain.

Heavily smutted or bunted grain will not be accepted at the
elevator and
may even be
difficult to sell as feed
owing
49C water
for 1 minute, then
52"C water for exactly 11
minutes, then immediately in cold water until seeds cool
to
off.
Some
seed
may be
killed
by hot water treatment.
respiratory or feed refusal problems that might result.
Smuts and bunts
Economic
are not toxic to livestock.
loose, covered smut and bunts in cereals are controlled

by any of the registered fungicide or fungicide combi-
Ttirestiold
The maximum percentage of smutty barley kernels
(true
nations.
loose smut) permitted under the Canadian Seeds Act, July

1,
Use systemic seed treatments that contain carbathiin for

loose smut control in wheat and barley. All other semi-
1987, are as follows:
139
STEM SMUT
Urocystis occulta
between 1977 and 1981, the
Biology
Stem smut
affects only rye
areas of southern Alberta

nificant yield losses
problem on spring
on
and
is
where
fall rye.
is
at
fungus to survive
loss in yield
from
this
one
dis-
$1.25 million per year. The ability of

at least a
year in dry
soil, failure to
varieties led to the build-up of this disease.
soil,
crop residues and on
and grows
infects the fall-sown rye
inside the plant. Infected seedlings
may
and heads. Spores
fall to
Diagnosis
die before reaching
The smut fungus produces spores on
leaves, stems
this
was estimated
use fungicidal seed treatments and the use of susceptible
seldom a
rye.
The fungus
maturity.
ease
except in
the disease has caused sig-
This disease
Spores persist for a year or so in

the seed.
uncommon
the
Infected plants can be identified at the heading out stage.
the top
Percentage infection can be calculated by infected
ground or are
tiller
counts.
dispersed by the wind onto adjacent land. Spores will cont-
aminate healthy seeds during combining.
The fungus
tures
is
Management Strategy
favored by low soil moisture and tempera-
between 10" and 20 C.
Damage
Use
Use
a crop rotation; include fall rye only once in every
three years to avoid soil-borne
Description
Just before heading, long grey-black streaks appear
blades, sheaths, upper stems and heads.
Heads may
on
leaf
distorted and
Infected
stunted and sometimes appear alongside
tillers are
tillers
from the same
form shepherd's crooks.
Do
known
disease-free source.
not plant rye adjacent to a previously infected field
because the
soil
could be infested by windblown spores.
plant.
Infected plants produce
Use clean seed from
smut spores.
fail to
emerge or become
healthy
little
or no grain. In Alberta
Use
a systemic seed treatment that contains carbathiin
for control.
TAKE-ALL
Gaeumannomyces graminis
Damage
Biology
Take-all
is
rye and a
number of grass species can
and so rotted
also be affected.
new
plants. Infection
may
most damaging because they move up
crown. This disease organism

infested soil or crop residue
Take-all
is
is
also
show
this shiny
black discol-
empty
bleached white heads. These white heads stand out
in
patches in the crop.
occur
into the plant
spread by transport of
from
may
to shiny black
can easily be pulled from the
oration. Severely diseased plants are stunted with
throughout the growing season, but the early infections are

the
that plants
ground. Stems
The fungus overwinters on infected crop residue. In spring,

the fungus grows in the soil, comes into contact with the
crop roots and causes infection. The fungus may grow from
root to root infecting
Description
Roots of infected plants are dark brown
primarily a disease of wheat but barley, oats,
most severe
Take-all
is
field for
two
after
wheat
is
grown
to four years. Light infestations
ticed because affected plants
in the
same
may go unno-
show no symptoms, but under
severe infestation levels, wheat losses of greater than 60
field to field.
per cent have occurred.
favored by cool soils (12-20C) and high soil
headed-out plants and in spring sown
moisture. Alkaline soils, compacted, poorly drained soils,
The disease
and nitrogen- and phosphorus-deficient
wheat, a 62 per cent infection of take-all reduced yields by
soils increase dis-
ease severity. Elevated levels of take-all and plants with
50 per
symptoms have been associated with copper

soils. The disease level may be greatly enhanced
cent.
kills
On
spring
sown
barley a 64 per cent infection
take-all like
of take-all reduced yields by 24 per cent. This disease
deficient
progressive, spreading from plant to plant throughout the
by some post-emergent
is
growing season.
foliar herbicide products.
Cultivars such as Roblin and Oslo in particular can exhibit
very high levels of take-all or take-all like damage
if
these herbicides are used on soils that are low or deficient
Diagnosis
in available copper.
Diseased plants have bleached white heads that pull up easily
140
and crowns and roots
that are shiny charcoal black.
Do
Management Strategy
not transport infested soil or crop residue from field
on equipment.
to field
Rotate crop with non-host crops such as canola, flax or

less affected cereal crops. Cereals in order of decreasing
Evaluate the effect of post-emergent herbicides. Check
susceptibility are wheat, barley, triticale, rye
and
oats.
not help reduce disease levels.
Summer fallow
sprayed.
An
may
wheat
soil
below
Treatment of wheat seed with Pseudomonas fluorescens
may
bacterial cuhures has increased yields
up
trol is
till
to
to
10 per cent.
haris
needed
to see if this
bor the fungus.
Deep
copper
in grain,
of copper deficiency.
Further research
ppm
in
increase disease severity.
Control volunteer wheat and grassy weeds that
copper levels; any
melanosis in wheat and pigtails in barley are indications
application of lime on acid soils
as well as an application of nitrate to winter

the fall
soil
could contribute to take-all severity. Ergot
Maintain adequate nutrient levels, especially phosphorus and potassium.
Check
being
there a difference in the levels of take-all?
Is
reduces
disease incidence in the following wheat crop.
may have missed
those areas in the field that
may
Planting alfalfa, beans or soybeans in the rotation
economically
method of con-
justified.
bury stubble for faster decomposition.
TAN SPOT, YELLOW LEAF SPOT

Pyrenophora
tritici-repentis fasexual
Drechslera tritici-repentis)
may
wither and die. Infected seed
Biology
infected leaves
Tan
smaller and shrivelled and
It
spot affects wheat as well as
occurs in
Provinces.
all
brome and wheat
wheat growing areas of the
Rye and
grasses.
Prairie
especially
if
flag leaves
wheat. Spores produced in early spring are

to infect other plants.
may become
do not appear diseased
head
until they
Use
infected but
of spores from crop residue and existing leaf infections.
wheat leaves must remain wet for
To
a mini-
mum of six hours. The presence of leaf infections on the

or on spring
sown crops
result in a rapid disease build-up if
the barley scald assessment procedure.
out.
Rain and dew encourage spore production and the release
May
lighter with a
Diagnosis
that are spread during
prolonged wet periods. Seedlings
winter wheat in
may be
possible grade reduction for shrivelled and off-color seeds.
sown
moved by wind
fall
Spores produced on infected leaves
become primary sources of disease
infected,
usually
and heads are infected. Following
high levels of disease, kernel weight
The fungus overwinters on crop residue and
is
a pinkish coloration.
Yield reductions result from loss of photosynthetic area,
barley are rarely affected and oats are
resistant.
become
may have
in
Follow a crop rotation that includes barley and oats,

which are not good hosts of this disease or non-host
crops such as canola, flax, corn, potatoes and
alfalfa.
June could
prolonged wet weather
occurs.
Turn under wheat
residue. This will reduce the
amount
of surface straw that can produce air-borne spores during the growing season.
Damage
Tan
Description
Do
not plant winter wheat on land adjacent to spring
wheat
brown flecks first appear on lower leaves. The

flecks become lens-shaped, expand and join. The centres of
the spots become dark brown. A zone of bright yellow tissue usually surrounds the dark brown centres. Heavily
or
that
was
infected with tan spot.
Where economically
practical, apply Tilt,
which
is
istered for control of this disease. Yield increases
reg-
up
to
15 percent have been recorded.
WHEAT STREAK
IVIOSAIC
disease overwinter on winter wheat and occasionally
Biology
Wheat
streak mosaic virus attacks barley, corn and
grasses, but
VIRUS
is
most
fall
rye.
some
common on winter and spring

may be infected but they do not
Wheat
wheats. Oats and rye
streak mosaic virus
is
transmitted by the micro-
scopic wheat curl mite, (Aceria tulipae), and mechanical-
appear to be seriously damaged. Mites that transmit this
ly
141
through leaf rubbing. The mite, a relative of the spider
mite,
is
small, white and cigar-shaped with four sets of
legs near the head.
It
has no wings and
so tiny that
is
jointing to boot stage, the flowers are fertile but kernels are
reduced in
it
can be blown from field to field by the wind. Both the
size.
Fall-infected plants do not produce grain the following sea-
mite and virus cannot survive without living host plants.
son.
The mite and vims overwinter on winter wheat. In spring,

mites multiply rapidly and are blown to other plants.
One
study found that stunted and diseased plants yielded
78 per cent
less than healthy plants,
was reduced
and seed milling quality
substantially.
These may be crops of spring wheat or volunteer spring

wheat, which then harbor the mite and virus over the
summer.
If
winter wheat
sown near unharvested
is
Diagnosis
spring
wheat, infective mites can be blown onto winter wheat
Mites in large populations on wheat will cause the leaf
completing the disease cycle.
blades to curl upward and inward. Tips of
Development of
this disease
often caught in the curled leaf above
depends on the population of
the presence of the mites and virus.
wheat plants and

moisture for good plant growth and rapid mite
mites, the presence of virus-infected

sufficient
reproduction. Severe outbreaks occur
when
there
is
good magnifying
Symptoms of the
disease
A microscope or a
necessary to see the mites.
(Management Strategy
was planted early.

become more pronounced when
wheat
is
new leaves are

may indicate
this
build-up of mites and virus on volunteer spring wheats in

fields next to winter
glass
it;
that
Break the
life
cycle of the wheat curl mite by preventing
infection of winter wheat.
temperatures climb above 10C in the spring.
Do
not
sow winter wheat near immature
spring wheat or
other cereals. Seed after spring crops mature.
Damage
Description
Mites usually
first
appear
at the
edges of fields and under
move throughout
favorable conditions
Control
all
volunteer host plants
before winter wheat
the field.
is
two weeks
at least
planted; include adjacent fields.
The mites cannot survive longer than 10 days

Winter wheat, although infected
symptoms
until spring.
in the fall, rarely
shows
These symptoms appear on the
leaves as dashes, streaks or yellow stripes parallel to the

veins.
Leaves become increasingly mottled
until the
green
ed; the degree of stunting
depends on
how
rable life cycle, and
by
may sometimes be
growing spring
when
mites
move from
cereals.
early infection
took place. Wheat spot mosaic virus, which

virus, is spread
Plant winter wheat as late in August or September as

feasible to avoid the period
areas disappear and the plant dies. Infected plants are stunt-
wheat streak mosaic
in the
absence of living cereal plants.
is
similar to
mites, has a
compa-
Do
not plant spring cereals, particularly wheat, next to
infected winter wheat.
present in winter
wheat.
Control volunteer winter wheat two weeks before spring

cereals are sown.
Wheat
infected in the fall or at an early tillering stage stops
growing and produces few
to
no heads. Infection
tillering to early jointing stages results in
the flowers
may be
sterile.
With
late
at late
head formation but
Do
not reseed a severely diseased winter wheat field
with spring wheat; diseased winter wheat plants are
dif-
season infection during
WINTER INJURY, WINTER KILL
Coprinus psychromorbidus (LTB and SLTB phase)

Gray snow mold Typhula
Pink snow mold Fusarium
Cottony snow mold
incarnata
nivale
Speckled snow mold
Typhula
Sclerotinia
Biology
An important cause
ishikariensis var. ishikariensis,
snow mold
damage from
snow mold
fungi.
Myriosclerotinia borealis
disease development. Cottony
is
snow mold fungi
are found
throughout Alberta, while sclerotinia snow mold
mon
disease or environmental stress. All
in the central
and northern
areas. This
cause damage under snow-covered frozen
cold hardy winter wheat varieties are susceptible to several
ishikariensis var. canadensis
under snow cover during conditions that are favorable for

of winter wheat damage in Alberta
winter injury or winterkill; these are terms used to

describe
T.
These fungi cause severe damage
When
142
there
is little
or no
snow
is
com-
fungus can
soil.
cover, winter wheat can be
damaged by environmental
stresses, including subfreezing
Diagnosis
temperatures, standing water, ice encasement, heaving
Five or more plants per square metre must remain alive to
and desiccation. In southern Alberta, warm chinook winds

melt the protective snow cover and cause decreased
produce an average crop
may
remain
hardiness of plants and expose them to drying winds and
black structures
(tiny
that are the overwintering bodies) or as a
Some
crop residue.
fungus
in soil or
fungi, such as S. borealis, are an
endemic disease of wild grasses. Each snow mold has a

specific geographic distribution on the prairies and characteristic
environmental factors that favor
Snow molds
cause the most damage
storm covers unfrozen
soil
its
when an
tissue
at soil level.
early
As long
as the cereal
crowns
remains white.
Management Strategy and
snow
Use
and snow persists throughout
Snow molds grow
yield.
leaves and roots can be regenerated.
growth.
tolerant varieties
Control
and produce an environment unfavor-
able for the disease organism.
the winter, maintaining high humidity and temperatures of
about 0C
new
Examine fall seeded crops in April. A quick way to determine if plants are alive is to remove some sample crowns
from the field, place them in a closed plastic bag and leave
them in a warm room. Crown tissue that is severely damaged will quickly turn brown in a day or so, while healthy
frosts.
These fungi overwinter as sclerotes
alive,
quite actively at
Cultivars of hard red winter wheat
recommended
for
southern Alberta are more tolerant to ice encasement
temperatures near freezing.
than those grown elsewhere.
Damage
Description
Because of the complexity of the causal

nosis of winter
in the spring.
damage
Damage
is difficult
is
often assessed on the basis of
the
hills
and on bare, wind-swept
from snow molds
first
week of September
are considered the ideal
freeze-thaw cycles and rain occur dur
ing the winter. Desiccation injury often occurs on
exposed
on whether
planting times.
water and ice encasement take place in heavy or poorly-
when
not plant winter wheat too late in the season. Plant
enough carbohydrate reserves have accumulated in the

crown and whether the plants are fully cold hardened
before the onset of winter. The last week of August and
when growth resumes
symptoms and a knowledge of the terrain, soil conditions,

management practices and weather. Injury from standing
drained soils
Do
resistance to winter injury depends largely
factors, the diag-
fields.
Damage
growth.
most prevalent and severe following

a long, snowy winter, especially where snow has accumulated in drifts. Damage from snow mold may occur in disis
crete patches, in large areas, or
may
Avoid heavy applications of nitrogen in the fall. Use

adequate amounts of phosphorus for vigorous root
Seed
into stubble to help trap a light protective cover of
snow. Ten centimetres of unpacked snow can prevent
cause thinning of the
soil
stand within the rows.
temperatures from falling below -11C, even during
the coldest periods of winter.
Winter injury
may
range from one or two dead
tillers
per
plant to large areas of dead plants within each field. In
1983,
snow molds destroyed 80 per
cent of the fall rye in
the Peace River region.
143
Seed
less than
cm
deep into a firm moist seedbed.
DISEASES OF OILSEEDS
ASTER YELLOWS
Diseased plants
Biology
This disease
a mycoplasma-like organism
is
affects canola, flax
ease
(MLO)
and sunflowers. The biology of the
may be
stunted. Healthy
and infected
shoots can occur on the same plant.
that
dis-
similar to the aster yellows described earlier for
is
Sunflower
cereals.
Aster yellows usually affect only a portion of the head.
Flowers grow larger than normal, remain green and do not
Damage
produce seed. The infected section turns brown and
Description
Yield losses result through flower

erally
occur
at trace levels,
sterility.
and rarely
Brown discolorations may extend down

heads may break off.
Infections gen-
more than two per
at
dies.
the stems and
cent infection of the crop.
Diagnosis
Canola and related crops
Diseased plants are obvious as the crop approaches
Infected plants produce distorted sterile flower heads. Pods
maturity.
are replaced
by
oval, bladder-like structures that
remain
green after the rest of the crop ripens.
Management Strategy
Seed early
to
allow the crop to mature to a point where
Flax
damage caused by
Leaves on upper shoots are bright yellow and do not turn
mized.
the aster yellows organism
is
mini-
brown. Flower parts are leaf-like and greenish-yellow.
BLACKLEG, CANKER, DRY ROT

Leptosphaeria maculans âsexual
is
Phoma lingam)
growing crop. Long distance movement of the disease

across the prairies is due to infected seed.
Biology
Virulent blackleg of canola
a fungal canker or dry rot
disease of the actively-growing crop that causes stem

girdling and lodging. In heavily infested crops,
per cent of the stems
may be
up
infected, resulting in
to
100
Distribution in Alberta
major
Virulent blackleg
yield loss.
Two
types of blackleg fungus infect canola
virulent.
mon
in
The
avirulent and
avirulent or mild type has always
canola
fields.
been com-
The disease appears on leaves and
damages
the
growing crop
in
The
June and July.
was not
practised.
in several locations in the
uncommon
in
Crop losses of 20
causes major crop losses by severely damaging or
Peace River region
western and southern Alberta. In gen-
from blackleg
in Alberta are minor.
disease organism, Leptosphaeria maculans, occurs
blackleg in Alberta, field infestation levels ranged from
blackleg spores
come
in contact
with growing
were confined
surveyed
blackleg cause dead patches that appear as pepper-like
leaves, indicating the presence of ascospores.
spots on canola leaves, pods and stems.
from germination
avirulent strain
Blackleg
is
nil
50 per cent in one east central municipality.

Blackleg was found in eastern Alberta in canola seed fields
to a high of
canola, they infect the live cells of the plant. Both types of
infects canola
in fields
The disease has
world-wide on canola crops. In a 1993 survey for virulent
killing plants.
When
is
in east-central Alberta.
a proper rotation
eral, losses
progressively
It
50 per cent of the expected yield have occurred
but
Virulent or severe blackleg infects canola seedlings and
detected in Alberta in 1983, and
to
been found
damage.
first
now common
where
stems in August but does not usually cause significant
was
is
is
The
to maturity,
in 1993. Infection
to
mature
virulent strain
while the
Damage Description
When blackleg-infected seed
only really active on the ripening crop.
spread by infected seed or by spores that are
is
sown, the seedlings
that
emerge may be infected with lesions on the leaves or

stems. These lesions can quickly form spores that remain
splashed about by rain or carried by the wind in the
144
infectious for only a
few
iiours
nearby healthy seedlings to
and are spread by rain
new
start
Another method of assessing yield
to
a canola crop planted
from
diseased seed could develop scattered areas of infection
over the
field.
These blackleg-infected plants
plants,
sampled
at harvest, is
calculated and used as a rat-
ing of blackleg severity. Yield losses are assessed by col-
all
lecting
result in
50 plants from each of the two disease classes and
infected stubble that continues to produce infectious spores
weighing the seed
(pycnidiospores) for three to five years.
caused by blackleg
each sample. Percentage yield loss
in
is
obtained using the formula: yield loss
(%) = 100
Recently, another kind of spore has appeared in the infect-
Saskatchewan border. This spore (ascospore)
two
results
from
distinct strains of the virulent blackleg
fungus. Both strains have to infect the
same
common
in heavily infested regions of
is
the total weight of seed
from the two samples, Wl is

from the healthy sam-
the average weight of seed per plant
plants to
hybridize and produce this sexual spore. Ascospores are
very
lOOW
NWl
ed stubble of a few fields in eastern Alberta along the

the mating of
by blackleg
The percentage of severely cankered
severely cankered.
season, one infected seedling could spread the infection to
many surrounding plants. Thus,
loss caused
only uses two ratings, healthy or slightly cankered and
infections. In a single
ple,
N is the total number of plants in the sample.
and
Saskatchewan.
Infected canola stubble discharges thousands of these
spores into the air from
May
until October.
The spores
wind-borne and can travel several kilometres
lUanagement Strategy
are
Prevent the introduction of disease to uninfested areas and
in the air
reduce inoculum levels where the disease
before landing. If they land on canola or mustard plants in
nearby
fields, the
spores can begin
new
infections and con-
is
present.
Purchase seed that has been tested for blackleg. In
tinue the disease cycle.
Alberta, a laboratory certificate will be issued for
The fungus overwinters primarily on canola stubble. The

fungus can survive on all canola plant parts, particularly
the stems and roots, which resist breakdown in the soil.
Canola stubble, especially larger stems, can take two or
three years to break
down and up
shown
Treat
all
be negative for the disease.

canola intended for planting with recommend-
there could be a
can con-
tinue to produce spores of the blackleg fungus until
to
ed fungicides. Even
to five years during a
series of dry seasons. Therefore, infected stubble
all
seed lots that were tested for virulent blackleg and
if
seed
tests blackleg-negative,
few infected seeds
in the
seed
lot.
fungicide treatment will decrease the chances of black-
it is
leg surviving
soil. The heaviest spore production

comes from two-year-old infected stubble.
buried and rots in the
on the seed. Fungicides reduce seed-borne
blackleg, but they do not guarantee a 100 per cent con-
Do
trol.
not treat below
recommended
rates.
Blackleg can survive crop rotations on volunteer canola.
Wild mustards may
A fungicide treatment minimizes the risk of blackleg conta-
also harbor blackleg infestations.
mination
if
blackleg-free seed
was
accidentally
mixed with
infected seed during seed cleaning operations.
Diagnosis
Blackleg
is
swathing.
Recommended
easily detected at flowering
and right
after
The black stem cankers stand out sharply
against
Practise a proper crop rotation.
the freshly cut stubble.
field
At flowering
select
20 equally spaced spots
line across the field. Pull all plants in a 1
ft
in a
diagonal
circle
count the number with severely or slightly
ber of plants
this
tion will disappear
formula to determine the degree of severity of stem canker.
total
Practise
Percentage of plants = No. of cankered stems x 100

infected
good weed
when
this
again
at
number of
number of
harvest time, but only count the
stems and multiply by 100. Use the following table to
mate
maximum
low
levels of disease infec-
the infected stubble has rotted.
trol
If
you do not
practise
weed con-
and eliminate volunteer canola and mustards, a long
crop rotation will be ineffective.
esti-
The following procedures must be adopted
for control of
yield.
blackleg on infested land:
Percentage
of plants infected
Estimated yield
At flowering
At harvest
More than 90
About 60
Less than 40
More than 80
About 50
Less than 30
is
Blackleg can live from one year to the next on volunteer
No. of stems
severely cankered stems. Divide by the total
grow canola on
years. There
control, particularly volunteer canola.
canola and wild mustards.
Do
not
your land by wind-borne spores; longer rotations will
increase the probability that
number by the total numpulled and multiply by 100. Use the following
cankered stem bases. Divide
Do
more often than once every four
always a possibility that blackleg could be introduced
and count
to
all plants;
treatments also provides protection against
other soil-borne diseases and flea beetles.
Bury canola stubble as deeply as possible in the fall.

where soil erosion is a problem, incorpo-
Alternatively,
(bu/ac)
rate the
tice
13
22
27-40
canola stubble just before planting. This prac-
speeds stubble decomposition and reduces the dis-
ease infection potential in the
145
field.
In the following three seasons, use shallow tillage or
direct seeding to avoid bringing infected canola residue
such
to the surface. Additionally, plant non-host crops
as cereals, grasses, alfalfa, clover
tre
from infested land
You may have
difficulty controlling volun-
newly seeded
alfalfa,
clover and peas.
and pulses.
do not plant canola closer than one kilome-
If possible,
infested land free of volunteer canola and wild
teer canola in
Keep
mustards.
Do
not plant canola seed from infested land.
See appendix
at
end of book for recommended
varieties.
for three years.
BLACKSPOT, ALTERNARIA BLACK SPOT, GREY LEAF SPOT

Alternaria brassicae, A. raphani
Diagnosis
Biology
These fungi occur every year
disease
most
is
common
in canola
in the shorter
growing
areas.
The
Check
season and higher
such as the Peace River and west-central
rainfall areas
regions of Alberta.
The
disease
Polish cultivars that are usually
is
most harmful
grown
have seed
It is
not
uncommon
surface infected represents a one per cent yield loss.
in northern Alberta to
lots that are infested at a level
become
Prevent disease introduction and minimize losses through
of 20 per cent or
early swathing.
this disease
infected.
Warm, humid
pod stage.
amount of pod surface area covEach one per cent of stem and pod
infection in the late green
in these regions.
more. Seed formed below a pod spot caused by

will
amount of
ered with black dots.
to the
These fungi usually overwinter on infected crop residue

and on the seed.
the
Infected area refers to the
conditions favor disease development.
Rotate with non-cruciferous crops.
Control volunteer canola and cruciferous weeds in the

rotation.
Damage
Description
Clean the seed to remove shrivelled infected seeds.
Infected seedlings have dark spots on the cotyledons and

first
true leaves.
Leaf spots range from grey
to
black
lesions are small brownish-black dots, later
becoming
black or grey with a dark border. Infected pods
prematurely and shatter while the crop
is
may
Purchase seed from the drier regions of the prairies that
may
depending on environmental conditions. Stem and pod
carry less disease, but do not
where blackleg
is
buy seed from areas
endemic.
ripen
standing or in the
Swath
Plant Argentine cultivars, which are
as early as possible to reduce losses
from
shattering.
swath.
Pod
infections result in shattering and shrunken infected
seeds. Yield losses of 25 per cent or
more may
more
resistant than
Polish ones.
from
result
the shattering.
CLUBROOT
Plasmodiophora brassica
into the soil
Biology
members of the (cabbage) crucifer
This disease has not yet become a concern in
Clubroot affects
family.
all
canola growing areas of the Prairie Provinces, but
problem
Canada.
in
ty to attack the different species
of the crucifer family.
soil
soil
in their abili-
pH must be
moisture must be 50 per cent above
water holding capacity.
more
rootlets
many
which vary
below 7.2 and
years.
soil for
These resting spores germinate
in the
Damage
presence of host roots to produce tiny mobile spores that
can swim
the roots rot away. There are
For resting spores to germinate, the
southern British Columbia and Eastern
Resting spores of this fungus can survive in the

five or
is
when
strains of the disease organism,
in the soil moisture.
and multiply
The spores
in the host cells. Infection
ules to large club root overgrowths that
causes
the roots to produce galls or clubs characteristic of this

disease. Resting spores
formed
Description
Infected roots produce galls ranging in size from tiny nod-
enter the
in these clubs are released
146
may
involve the
entire root system. Galls first appear white
and firm but
become
rot.
soft
and brown as they mature and
Above
ground symptoms are wilting during
warm weather and
The clubroot organism can survive passage through

digestive tracts of farm animals. Feeding clubroot
stunting of affected plants.
infested turnips to cattle can result in spread of the
Diseased roots are unable to transport food and water.
organism through manure.
Galls (clubs) allow other root rotting organisms to infect

the root system. Swollen lower stems
on some canola
culti-
vars are referred to as hybridization nodules. These nodules

are
common
in rutabagus
Very low
tious.
resemble club
The
damage
potential for
Candle
tively
canola
is
highly susceptible to race 6 of the clubroot
is
organism, whereas Altex, an Argentine variety,
root.
to Polish
attack canola varieties. For example, the Polish variety
may
induce a swelling of the upper root region of canola plants

that superficially
The clubroot organism exists in

number of strains some of which may or may not
large
and turnips and are non-infec-
levels of 2,4-D or related herbicides
Use
is rela-
immune.
high, particu
larly in acidic soils.
Use
a long crop rotation with non-cruciferous crops
(seven years) because spores can survive for a consider-
The clubroot organism has been found

on the
prairies in
in a
few locations
able time.
backyard crops (cauliflower, cabbage).
Management Strategy
Do
Provide drainage to reduce
into soil free of the clubroot organism.
Do
Do
to
soils
damage
if
they are growing vigoro jsly.
not use machinery from infested fields because rest-
ing spores can be carried in
Wet
Provide adequate nutrient levels. Crops are less susceptible to clubroot
soil moisture.
favor the clubroot disease.
not introduce the disease organism.
Seed
Control cruciferous weeds in the rotation.
soil.
Lime
the soil. Raise the soil
pH
above 7.2
if feasible.
not allow irrigation or drainage from infested fields
contaminate clean areas.
DOWNY MILDEW, ANGULAR
LEAF SPOT
Peronospora parasitica
This disease by
Biology
This disease affects canola and sunflowers and usually
occurs with staghead (white
infect seedlings
rust).
Downy mildew
the spring, spores germinate and infect leaves
little
economic significance. The
yield-damaging potential.
can also
residue. In
Diagnosis
and newly
Examine
formed stagheads.
is
of
and leaves of Brassica rapa CB. campestris.
The fungus overwinters on stagheads and crop
This disease
itself is
combination of downy mildew and white rust has more
the crop in the late rosette stage during cool,
wet
overcast weather.
favored by cool wet spring weather.
Damage
Reduce inoculum
Description
The fungus appears
as a white
mealy growth on the lower
surface of leaves and green stagheads.
The upper
levels.
Use
Control volunteer canola, stinkweed and wild mustard.
a crop rotation with non-cruciferous crops.
leaf sur-
face turns yellow.
FROST AND HEAT CANKER OF FLAX

Damage
Biology
Heat and
or
frost
canker of flax occurs under excessively high
low temperatures
injured
when young
soil or air at
at
the soil surface.
plant tissue
comes
The seedling
In
is
Description
plants,
stems become constricted
at soil level,
collapse or break-off. In older plants, a canker
is
which breaks when
into contact with
temperature extremes. In cereals, this
young
winds.
called
heat and frost banding or rugby stocking.
147
the standing crop
is
is
exposed
formed,
to strong
Direct loss of yield occurs as a result of the death of plants.
Damage may be
throughout the
field,
Damage
occurred.
confined to small patches or scattered
is
Avoid heat
stress
and prepare plants for
stress.
but losses up to 50 per cent have
usually most severe in thin stands on
Sow
early in a north-south direction at a high rate. This
reduces heat canker by providing
light soils.
maximum
shade for
each plant.
Diagnosis
Check
from heat and
damage during periods of weather extremes.
for
Prepare a proper seedbed. This will prevent damage

frost
canker by promoting even and vig-
orous stands that can better withstand temperature

extremes.
FUSARIUM WILT
Fusarium oxysporumi. sp.
For many years, flax was only grown on newly broken land
Biology
Fusarium wilt of flax
is
because yields were greatly reduced in
both seed and soil-borne. The fun-
number of years
in the
may
occur in cool soils but
warm
Management Strategy
Description
Use
Follow a crop rotation of three years with
may die before or shortly after emergence and

plants may stop growing at any stage of development.
Seedlings
older
wilt,
and then plants turn brown and
roots turn grey. Wilted stems often curve
shepherd 's-crook shape. Affected plants
die.
cereals,
canola or grasses.
Later infections cause plants to turn yellow, leaves and
stems
but
soils are
favored for disease development.
Damage
were
commonly occurs every year in flax growing areas

causes little damage due to resistant cultivars.
absence of flax. The fun-
gus invades the plant roots and causes wilting.

Infection
soils that
cropped repeatedly, becoming "flax sick". This disease
gus lives on flax residue but both the fungus and spores can
survive a
lini
Use disease
free seed.
Diseased
downward in a
commonly occur
Use
recommended seed treatment
to control seed-
borne inoculum and reduce the chances of introducing

the disease into
in patches in the field.
new
areas.
Direct yield losses result through death of plants.
GREY MOLD HEAD ROT

Botrytis cinerea,
Rhizopus sp.
Damage
Biology
Grey mold head rot is a fungal disease of sunflowers.
These fungi overwinter in crop residue as tiny hard black
Description
Botrytis cinerea
A brown area appears on the back of the head and soft rot
overwinter bodies (sclerotes). The sclerotes germinate and
develops. Infested areas
produce spores that infect the heads of sunflowers.
growth. Seeds
Moisture trapped on the backs of sunflower heads that are
may be
become grey with
surface fungal
contaminated.
hanging downwards provides ideal conditions for infection.
Cool temperatures (18-23''C) are required for disease development; damp conditions are necessary for germination,
Irregular,
spore production and infection. Gray mold head rot caused
these enlarge and turn brown, until the
by B. cinerea typically occurs on maturing plants during

wet weather in the fall. Rhizopus (a bread mold fungus)
and pulpy. Masses of surface-borne fungi with
infections are encouraged
fungus can invade the seed.
by
injuries
from
hail, insects
Rfiizopus species
water-soaked spots appear on the back of heads;
whole head
is soft
visible,
stalked, black spore-producing structures are present. This
and
birds.
Losses result from reduced seed yields. Contaminated seeds
may
seriously affect the following years' crop establishment
and yield due
148
to seedling blight or
poor germination.
Diagnosis
In a cross section of the crop inspect the flower heads as
Use
Turn under crop residues.
Avoid harvesting delays
a crop rotation of three or
more
years.
they approach maturity.
if at all
possible.
GREY STEM, WHITE LEAF SPOT

Pseudocercosporella capsellae
as plants mature, grey to purple speckled patches appear
Biology
Grey stem of canola
is
the Prairie Provinces.
found
in all
canola-growing areas of
usually most conspicuous just
It is
on
the stems and pods.
Because
maturing,
this disease affects plants as they are
after swathing, but causes little yield loss.
little
This fungus overwinters as mycelium in the canola residue.
This disease
significant yield loss results.

is
conspicuous
after swathing.
In the spring, spores are produced that infect canola plants
and form white leaf
The disease generally spreads
spots.
rapidly only after the canola seed
fully
is
Management Strategy
developed and the
crop has reached maturity.
low fertility or competimore adversely affected by
Use
Control volunteer canola and related crucifers.
Use good crop production techniques
Plants under stress from drought,

tion
by weeds
are likely to be
this disease.
a crop rotation with non-host crops.
that
reduce plant
stress.
Damage
In the
Description
summer, white
leaf spots appear
on the leaves. Later
Plant Argentine {Brassica napus) varieties

less affected than Polish {B.
which
are
rapa) varieties.
PASMO
Septoria linicola
crop
Biology
Pasmo
attacks all
above ground parts of
is left to
be straight combined, and strong winds and
heavy rains cause bolls
flax.
to break-off.
This fungus overwinters on diseased flax residue. Infested

seeds, chaff and residue can be
lot.
mixed together
in a
Under
Diagnosis
seed
Spores are spread to growing plants by wind and
rain.
suitable moist weather conditions, disease spread
In Alberta, this disease usually occurs late in the season
and causes
is
light
damage
to the crop.
extremely rapid.
The disease
is
favored by
warm
moist conditions.
Management Strategy
Damage
Symptoms
seeded to
As the
Brown
appear as brown spots on the leaves.
disease progresses, infected leaves
may
drop
off.
spots appear at the leaf-stem joints. These spots eventually

circle the stem, giving rise to a
mottled appearance of
Use clean
Do not plant
flax.
seed. Clean out any crop residue
result
Premature ripening and poorly-filled seed
from early
infections.
Heavy
losses occur
when
from the
Plant as early as possible to escape disease build-up
before crop maturity.
Early infections can greatly reduce yield and quality of

fibre.
several
alter-
blighted or discolored.
seed and
grown
flax near fields previously
seed that might be infected.
nating bands of brown and green. Flax flowers and bolls
may be
a crop rotation. Flax crops should be
years apart.
Description
first
Use
the
149
Use
recommended seed
treatment.
ROOT
BROWN GIRDLING ROOT
ROT,
ROOT ROT COMPLEX
ROT,
Rhizoctonia solani
Root
rot or
brown
it
remains confined to the roots and does not appear above
Diagnosis
the soil line.
At mid-flowering
a soil-borne organism.
Rhizoctonia
is
are infected
by
this fungus,
grows
it
Following infection, the fungus
When
When
for
symptoms
growth
stage.
When
Wash
up 10 plants from each of 10

examine
the collected roots and
lesions. If only root stubs are present or the tap
by brown
lesions, the disease will result in
brown
considerable yield loss. If
spots are present, but do
not girdle the root, actual disease losses
typical of root rot appear. This fungus can infect canola
roots at any
brown
roots are girdled
slowly in the
conditions are favorable disease
stage, dig
spots (100 plants).
canola roots
into the root.
may grow
losses
range from 8-18 per cent depending on the season.
from
girdling root rot is quite different
blackleg and other stem and root rots of canola because
roots.
ahhough average
individual fields have occurred,
Biology
may be
minimal.
seedlings are attacked and
die, the disease is called seedling blight. In the fall, dor-
mant
resting bodies are
formed by the fungus
Management Strategy
that will ger-
Maintain conditions unfavorable to the disease-causing
minate in subsequent years and continue the cycle. There

are
many
strains of the R. solani
anastomosing groups (AG),
that
fungus, use resistant cultivars and avoid disease build-up.
fungus that vary in the
severity of infection towards canola.

is,
They
are referred to as
compatibility groups.
Thus AG-2 and AG-4 were the only groups isolated by

S.F. Hwang and co-researchers from canola fields in
Alberta. In virulence tests AG-2 were much more pathogenic to canola than AG-4. Other
Use Argentine canola (Brassica napus)

susceptible to this disease.
Do
Maintain recommended N, P and S
not plant canola into heavy clay soils
pathogenic or weakly pathogenic to canola.
soil.
The
high copper levels (4-20 ppm) and soils with poor or
favor this disease.
fertility
crops.
is
Description
Above ground plant parts wilt and lodge. Light brown

areas may appear on any part of the root. These areas may
expand and girdle the root, become dark brown and sunken
and
rot the tap root
standing, wilt, dry
away. Plants
up and
may
which may be
a factor in this disease.
Follow a crop rotation of three
Do
fescue.
Damage
fall
tem
ity,
lost
by
is
Decomposing fescue
conducive
to the
sod, for reasons not clear,
development of this disease.
Control volunteer canola and cruciferous weeds especially stinkweed, shepherd's purse
is
amount of root
Seed shallow and plant
into
warm moist
soil.
This
may
rot.
sys-
Losses result from increased pod
also an indirect loss
all
over or remain
steril-
reduced seed weight, seed shrivelling and plant death.
There
and ball mustard,
of which can serve as hosts for the fungus.
die.
proportional to the
girdling.
to four years using cereal
not plant canola after canola or canola after
reduce seedling blight and root

Direct yield loss
fertility levels in the
with a high clay con-
soil moisture, fine-textured soils
unbalanced
possible.
addition of lime will reduce soil copper avail-
ability levels,
tent,
if
AG groups of
Rhizoctonia that attack potatoes and flax are normally non-
High
when
much less
varieties
the growing season allows because they are
Use
recommended seed treatment
to control the
seedling blight stage of this disease.
from shattering when plants
prematurely ripen, and an increase in senescence-type dis-
See appendix
at
end of book for recommended
varieties.
eases such as grey stem. Yield losses of up to 55 per cent in
RUST
Melampsora
Spores overwinter on the crop residue. These germinate
Biology
This rust affects both oilseed and fibre
different
from cereal
required.
The
rust in that
flax.
This disease
an alternate host
is
and produce small spores
From
the sexual cycle,
leaves.
not
of the disease are constantly evolving.

resistant a
new
newly-developed race of the
Orange-yellow pustules form and produce large
quantities of
plants.
races
to
A flax variety that
few years ago may now be susceptible
that infect the seedling flax
is
entire life cycle, including the sexual cycle,
occurs on the flax plant.
was
lini
to a
As
150
spores that can infect surrounding
brown
form the overwintering spores.
This disease
rust fungus.
summer
the crop matures, the pustules turn a dark
is
favored by warm, humid or wet conditions.
Damage
Description
In June, pustules containing yellow spores appear
on the
Use
undersides of the leaves. Later, larger powdery orange-yel-
and heads. As the
low pustules appear on
leaves, stems
plant matures, pustules
form dark brown spores. These
Resistant Cultivars: Andro, Dufferin, Linott,
MacGregor, NorLin, Somme, Vimy.

Susceptible: Noralta,
Redwood 65
dark brown pustules develop on the stems and bolls, but

rarely
on the leaves. Pustules
Use clean seed and remove any
in the black spore stage are
that
often large and extend vertically for several centimetres
infested crop residue
might carry spores.
and girdle the stem.

Follow a crop
Flax rust
may
completely defoliate plants and cause
reduced vigor, yield, and quality of seed and
fibre.
rotation.
Do
not plant flax on flax stubble.
Plant flax as far from last year's flax crop as possible.
Stem
breakage can also occur.
Control volunteer
Plant as early as possible to help the crop mature before

rust build-up
Diagnosis
flax.
becomes
serious.
Orange pustules on the seedling crop can mean, under
Bury
favorable weather conditions, a severe disease outbreak
may
occur and cause significant yield
Examine
the undersides of seedling leaves, particularly if
the rust disease has
been on your land
flax straw to
enhance decomposition and reduce
rotation time.
loss.
Use
recommended fungicide
to control
any
rust spores
on flax residue or seed. This will help prevent introduc-
in previous years.
tion of
new
races of the fungus to areas free of them.
SCLEROTINIA, STEM ROT, SCLEROTINIA WILT, HEAD ROT

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Biology
harvested seed or
These very different diseases are caused by the same
vive for
fungus. Sclerotinia wilt in sunflowers
is
them
caused by a
life
below-ground root infection of the fungus, while stem

rot of canola and head rot of sunflowers result from airborne spores. This fungus can attack a wide range of
broad-leaved plants including
many
crops and
many
soil.
The
soil-borne sclerotes
may
sur-
years before suitable conditions allow
to germinate,
form mushrooms and continue the
cycle of this fungal disease.
Sunflower
common
mycelium that grows

from buried sclerotes into the roots. Infected
plants wilt and die. Sclerotes are produced in or on the
diseased stems and roots. Head rot results from infection
by air-borne spores similar to stem rot of canola. Root
infection does not take place in canola or mustard even
though sclerotes can germinate freely in the soil to form
mycelium rather than spore-producing mushrooms.
Plants are mainly infected by
weeds.
directly
Although the fungus is the same, the disease cycles for

canola and sunflowers are quite different.
Canola
The fungus overwinters
as sclerotes,
which
are hard
summer and prospore-producing mushrooms (apothecia).
black structures that germinate in early
duce small
Warm moist
for these spores to
grow
after germination.
Mid-
(apothecia).
when
sent, is the
most critical stage for infection of canola

growing on the petal, the fungus acquires
stems.
cm
sclerotes at
in the soil.
Humid weather or heavy dews are required for spore

infection when crops are in flower. Heavy yielding
large quantities of fallen petals are pre-
canola crops with dense canopies that maintain humid

conditions are most likely to
plants. After
enough energy
Mushrooms can be produced by
the soil surface or buried as deep as 7
to late-
flowering,
soil conditions are required for sclerotes to
germinate and form the spore-producing mushrooms
Minute infectious spores are produced in huge numbers

and some land on stems and leaves of the flowering
canola crop. Flower petals are necessary as a food source
disease.
to attack living canola plant leaves or
A typical white stem rot infection is the conse-
Under
become
drier conditions,
surface moisture
makes
it
production, root infection will
These are released during harvest operations
tion of canola.
Root infections
occur
to infest
151
much
where the absence of
unsuitable for sclerotial spore
quences. In severe disease outbreaks, the seed pods may

be infected. Later, hard black sclerotes are produced
inside (sometimes outside) the diseased stems and pods.
ers.
show up only
in
sunflow-
that cause sunflower to wilt
earlier in the
air
infected with this
can
season than aerial spore infec-
Alberta. In a 1983 survey of Alberta growers, 35 per cent
other oilseed crops
of the growers reported sclerotinia problems, with one half
This fungus will occasionally infect flax and frequently
damage safflower
in
much
the
same way
of them (18 per cent) reporting moderate to heavy damage.
that sunflowers
are attacked.
Diagnosis
Damage
Description
Sunflower
Canola
A disease forecast system helps canola growers predict outbreaks of sclerotinia white stem
The forecast system is

make a decision on the
rot.
a checklist that assists growers to
wilt
This disease can spread along the row by plant to plant
need
few
days. Root systems rot and the lower stem develops a wet
canker covered with white fungus. Stems become shredded and straw-like. Sclerotes are produced on the inside
Because the fungicide must be applied before symptoms of

stem rot are visible, at the 25-30 per cent bloom stage of the
root contact. Leaves of infected plants wilt within a
and outside of the infected
area.
Head
crop, a
may
rot starts as a light
partially or destroy the head.
du-ection in
growing
state
in controlling Sclerotinia in
and have thus failed
this disease. Further research
all
to
howev-
an active
reduce the spread of
needs to be done in
to
limited dis-
the decision to apply fungicide.
identification
you plan to apply fungicide for sclerotinia control, you

must decide when to spray. Sample several plants over
the field and assess the number of open flowers. One
way to check for bloom stage is to find the main stem,
pull off the secondary branches, and count only the open
flowers on the main stem. Generally, it takes a crop from
two to four days to move from first flower to 10 per cent
bloom.
fungi that can attack sclerotinia) have met
were ineffective
making
Bloom stage
able to infect and kill sclerotes of this fungus in the soil and
er,
may show
If
with some success. The fungi, Coniothyrium minitans,
thus reduce the sclerote population. All three fungi,
economics of a
not always reliable
ease development. However, this checklist gives practical
of sunflowers and white mold of beans using mycopara-
Gliocladium catenulatum and Trichoderma viridae were
is
occur unexpectedly or high risk fields
In Canada, attempts to control Sclerotinia sclerotiorum wilt
is,
to determine the
because sudden weather changes can cause infestations
White fungus and sclerotes are usually abundant. In

severe cases, the head rots and falls off and the straw-colored stem remains standing.
sites (that
grower must attempt
fungicide application. This checklist
brown, water-soaked area on the outside of a developing

flower head. The rot
to apply a foliar fungicide.
this area
of biological disease control
Identification of tlie flower stage:s of canola
Flower
stage
Argentine
(flowers-main stem)
Polish
(flowers-main stem)
10%
20%
30%
10
14-16
10-12
20
14-16
Canola
Infections begin as soft watery rots on leaves and stems,
especially at the leaf axils.
plant dies.
ings.
The
When
the rot girdles the stem, the
dried infected areas often have zonate mark-
Diseased plants become straw colored and
later
stems
At 30 per cent bloom,
bleach white and shred. Generally the fungus produces the

typical hard black sclerotia in the
at
Severe losses result
when weather
infection occur at mid-flowering.
to
ence of fungal sclerotes in the combined seed
These levels were obtained from the Canada Seeds Act
is
The
July
1,
1987.
pres-
also unde-
Canola
% of sclerotes/ kg
Sunflower
imported grain.
Canada Foundation
Yield losses equal about 50 per cent of the main stem
infections. A field with a 50 per cent main stem infection
would have an approximate yield loss of 25 per cent: 50 x
0.50 = 25. The actual yield losses depend on the variety,
weather and time of infection. Thus a 40 bu/acre crop with
a 50 per cent infection level would give a yield loss of 10
Registered
Certified
Common
three million acres of canola are
grown annually
#1
#2
#1
#2
#1
#2
2
2
8
4
8
#1
#2
bu/acre.
Some
Maximum
Grade
countries have a zero tolerance for the presin
open
Sclerote contamination of seed
to smaller
and fewer seeds, premature ripening, shattered pods and the

loss of smaller, shrunken seeds during combining.
ence of sclerotes
are
conditions suitable for
These losses range up
50 per cent or more. Yield losses can be attributed
Some
a field of canola is said to be fully
when the maximum number of flowers

one time when the crop is at its yellowest.
flowered,
hollow centres of diseased
stems.
sirable.
6-7
in
152
Section one
Sclerotinia petal test kit

The petal test kit consists of two
ly.
Part 1
is
one
ceps. Part 2, for testing

plates, dishes
parts each sold separate-
25 page manual with a videotape and
1.
for-
field only, consists of culture
and disinfectant. These
may be
kits
Have you previously had

poor yields
at harvest,
good crop
were favorable?
Yes
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,
Purchases of these
No
this kit
does
is
of the same factors apply.
2.
What
Have you seen
sclerotinia rot in your crop in previous
years?
give canola producers a hands-on under-
standing of the sclerotinia fungus,
and causes crop
Sclerotinia
The
must be confirmed
The petal test method may
15 of the crop year.
many
20
kits
be no more accurate than the "Sclerotinia Stem Rot

Checklist" because
flowering and
pur-
chased from the Department of Biology, (Petal Test Kits),
S7N OWO.
before May
at
even though growing conditions
how
it
spreads,
grows
losses.
stem
rot checklist
3.
growers
sclerotinia checklist is intended to provide
Have you heard of stem
Yes
20
No
10
problems
rot
in
your area
in the
past 2 to 3 years?
with background information to help them decide whether

spraying their canola crop with a fungicide to control sclerotinia
The
stem
economically
rot is
justified.
Yes
10
No
best control from a fungicidal application occurs
before the majority of petals begin to drop-off and the pods

set.
The fungicide provides protection
least nine
stage.
first
days
when
applied
at
20
Because of the short time of four
flower to 20
4.
to the plant for at
30 per cent bloom,
to eight
Have you seen black
sclerotes in your harvested seed in
the past 2 to 3 years?
30 per cent bloom
to
days from
should be booked as early as possible unless you apply the

fungicide yourself.
5.
The
objective of the fungicide application
many
petals as possible. Put another
be sprayed
at its
is to
fall
it
of fungicide-covered petals to
(lower leaf
axils, leaves
when
the maxi-
10
Heavily
20
Moderately
10
Lightly
allows the
fall into
maximum number
the canola
canopy
and shoots), taking the fungicide
along. Infection of the canola plant will only take place
from
No
way, the crop should
"yellowest", on the day(s)
takes place
20
In previous years have your canola crops lodged?
cover as
mum number of flowers are open.

When petal
Yes
custom applicator
sclerotinia infected petals.
When
6.
Do you
see large swaths at harvest but get
low yields?
the petals fall into
lower leaf axils the presence of one or more petals carrying

fungicide will likely prevent sclerotinia infection.
Yes
10
No
Fungicide application rates for both ground and aerial

application are in the text
When
to
Crop Protection With Chemicals,
Agdex
606-1.
complete the checklist-
assess the crop shortly after
when 75
first
Fill
out the checklist and
7.
flower. First flower occurs
If you sprayed a stem rot fungicide

what were the results?
per cent of the canola plants have three open
week of June
How to complete
or the
first
No
week of July.
the checklist-
Read one question and

answer you would
previous years,
20
Better crop
flowers on the main stem. This usually occurs during the

last
in
difference
cir-
cle the point value assigned to the
Total points for section one
choose for each section. Count the points and enter the
total for each section. Answer all the questions.
If
you scored 60 or more
sclerotinia
stem
rot in
two with a 60 or more
153
in this section,
you probably had
your canola crops. Proceed to section

score.
Section two
When you walk through the
crop during the morning
the beginning of flowering, are your boots
at
14. What is the yield potential of the stand?
and pant legs
wet when you come out?
Yes
20
No
10
20-30 bu/ac
10
Greater than 30 bu/ac

15. In previous years,
Have you had wet weather in the immediate area within

2 to 3 weeks prior to flowering that allowed the soil to
9.
10-20 bu/ac
when your
20
yield potential
was 30+
what were the actual yields?
bu/ac,
Greater than 30 bu/ac
remain moist for extended periods?

Yes.
20
No
10
20-30 bu/ac
20
Total points for section three

10. Were apothecia
found
in the field,
around the
field,
or
If
in
any neighboring cereal or canola
was growing
fields
where canola
you have scored 50 or higher
high scores from the
in the previous 1 to 3 years?
plus respectively),
Yes
20
against sclerotinia stem rot. If

last section
No
it
it is
in section three, along with
and second sections (60 and 50

may be worthwhile to protect your crop
first
you scored
less than
50
in the
not likely worth applying a foliar fungicide.
10
Growers can apply fungicide
for sclerotinia control
and
achieve good to excellent results in the standing crop.

11.
Do you believe
the weather will remain dry throughout
Unfortunately, this disease
Highly likely
Moderately
Not
may
swath in wet years particularly
the flowering stage of the crop?
not swath canola
likely
likely
if
rain
immature (green) when
10
ly in
20
The
is
progress rapidly in the
in
cut. Sclerotinia rot
disease can be detected
by
a "rotten
is
you had a high score
section two,
in section
egg" smell coming
The heavier and more
compact the swath, the greater the likelihood
for sclerotinia
swath before combining.
to rot the
one and more than 50 for
you should consider applying a fungicide
on. the turns.
obviously more prevalent
in the wetter regions of the province.
If
progresses rapid-
wet dense, compacted swaths, particularly
from the swaths. This problem

Total points for section two
Do
Argentine cultivars.
forecast, particularly if the crop is
to
protect your crop against sclerotinia stem rot.
Management Strategy - Canola

Follow a crop rotation
12. What is the condition of
that allows at least three to four
years between susceptible crops. Sclerotes can remain
Section three
more years. Cereals, corn and grasses

immune. Mustard, field peas, beans, carrots, potatoes,
lentils, soybeans, safflower, flax, clover and many weeds
are susceptible to some degree to infection by this fungus.
viable for three or
your stand in terms of height,
are
vigor and uniformity?

Excellent
20
Good
10
Fair
Poor
Use clean
Control susceptible weeds and volunteers in cereal crops.
Swath
seed, free of sclerotes.
early.
This
may
reduce losses caused by shatter-
ing in canola.
13. When
you walk through your crop, how dense
is
the
Do
not exceed normal seeding rates and seed uniformly.
Dense stem growth promotes disease development.
canopy !
Light
High
fertilizer inputs
promote leafy crop canopies
that
favor disease development.
Moderate
10
Very dense
20
Up
to one-third of the canola crop
from
may be
and increases the number of sclerotes.
154
lost in the
swath
sclerotinia rot. This reduces the quality of the grain
Direct combine.
Do
not swath immature stands (at least 30 per cent of
must be
the seed
Do
Avoid compacting swaths,
Use
not swath
the immediate forecast.
if rain is in
ripe).
a high cut to allow for better drying.
SEEDLING BLIGHT, DAMPING-OFF, ROOT ROT

Rhizoctonia solani, Pythiums\i[i., Fusariumspju.
If
Biology
seed decay
when
the seedling never
loss
after
emergence. Because seed coats
during harvest, seedling blight
may be
also take over
seedling blights
if
may be
result.
on these bare patches of
Weed
infestations
soil.
cracked
often a problem in flax,
is
Diagnosis
canola, rape and mustard. Canola seedlings, as well as rape
and mustard seedlings,
patchy and large areas die out, then compensation
is
cannot take place and yield losses
emerges or post-emer-
gence seedling blight or damping-off when seedlings die

soon
seedling losses are uniform throughout the stand, surviv-
ing canola plants will compensate by growing larger. If the
Damping-off is a collective term used to describe seed

decays and seedling blights. There can be pre-emergence
Unless
severely affected by
soil conditions are
unusually dry, uniform seedling
emergence should have taken place around seven days
planted into cold dry soils unusually
planting.
early in the season.
blight
Check
the stand every
and possible
flea beetle
few days
after
for seedling
damage.
Fungi can attack damaged or healthy seeds as soon as they

absorb water before germination. Infected seeds
may
die
before they emerge (pre-emergence). Plants that are affect-
ed by disease after germination
may
die or
grow with
less
Seed shallowly (2 cm)
Sow
into
warm
moist
soil
when
possible.
vigor and yield less than healthy plants.
Conditions required for seedling blight depend on the
pathogen present. Cold damp
soils favor
solani,
and wet heavy
Pythium
soils favor
the causal fungus in
problems of seedling canola and
bring the moisture around
species.
is
soil to
the seed.
while loose, cold, dry well-worked soils favor Rhizoctonia
Rhizoctonia solani
seed with a high germination rate into a firm
seedbed and pack the
Fusarium species
most disease
Maintain
soil fertility.
Inadequate or unbalanced nutri-
tion favors seedling blight. Fertilizer placed with seed

flax.
may
reduce or delay emergence, no more than 9 lb
N or
18 lb P205/ha should be placed with the seed.
Damage
Description
Patchy emergence
blight.
they
is
Affected seeds
may
usually the
may
germinate but
first
may
temperatures
at the
cm
level for seed-
types.
appear to stagnate and "disappear" under
a girdling of the seedling stem at or just
Use
a crop rotation.
Avoid canola
after canola.
should follow another crop rather than
dry windy conditions. Examination of these seedlings will
show
soil
reach the surface because
of fungal disease. After germination and emergence,

seedlings
Minimum
ing should be 3-5"C for Argentine or 5-8"C for Polish
germinate and rot or
fail to
fail to
symptom of seedling
Flax
summer
Avoid legumes and sugar beets in flax rotations

are susceptible to the same Rhizoctonia strains.
below the
fallow.
as they
soil surface.
Control volunteer flax, canola and cruciferous weeds.
Adjust your combine. Proper combine adjustment helps
Mature plants may also be attacked by these fungal

pathogens. The resulting disease
may be
root rot caused
by
Rhizoctonia solani or foot rot by Fusarium species or occasionally a damping-off caused
prevent cracking of seed coats, which favors increased
by Pythium species. Infected
seedling disease problems.
areas on the lower stems, typical of Fusarium infection
may be sunken and black bordered,
containing pink-col-
ored spores during wet conditions.
seedling stage. Surviving diseased plants
and consequent yield
land, seedling blight
may
is
extensive and patchy, con-
may produce
warmed and remains
less
Use one of several recommended fungicides and
fungi-
Flea beetle infestations

cide-insecticide combinations for effective control of
coupled with seedling blight disease can result in a major

loss of stand
damage
moist or rotate to a cereal crop.
is ripe.
seedling blight
sider reseeding if the soil has
Direct yield losses occur as a result of loss of plants at the
seed or die before the seed
If
loss.
On
seedling diseases and insect pests.
severely infested
resuh in a 100 per cent loss of
stand.
155
STAGHEAD, WHITE RUST

Albugo Candida
As
sharply in the crop.
Biology
from green
Staghead or white rust only affects Polish canola (Brassica
immune. With the

Tobin, which has good
the stagheads mature, they turn
white to brown and become hard and
to
brittle.
rapa); Argentine types (B. napus) are
Before the introduction of Tobin, losses of up to 20 per cent
introduction of the Polish variety
were recorded from
resistance to this disease, levels of staghead fell in the early

eighties.
and white
Tobin then occupied almost 100 per cent of the
Staghead infection
infect canola seedlings. Infection results in white pustules
Infected heads,
much more
readily
is a
bursa pastoris),
disease in Alberta does not infect canola
species.
on
These pustules
IVlanagement Strategy
the flower spikes are infected.
Use
Follow a crop
resistant varieties to reduce spore levels.
See appendix.
rotation.
Control volunteer canola and closely related cruciferous
weeds.
present from the seedling stage to
maturity. Raised green pustules that turn white during wet

also
shatter
common
Description
may
pod
rust of shepherd's purse, (Capsella
Pustules on the underside of the leaves are white to cream
periods
to
The white
release spores that can infect other leaves, stems and flowers.
may be
the normal spikes, although stag-
which
contaminating seedlots. In spring, these spores germinate and
colored. These
among
than non-infected plants.
stagheads in the crop residue or as pieces of stagheads
Damage
staghead
an estimated 20
destroy from 5 to 90 per cent of the
head infested plants are said
This fungus overwinters as thick-walled spores in the charac-
when
may
head-infected spikes
with Tobin are the recommended resistant types.
Stagheads result
less than
Yield losses can be related directly to the percentage of stag-
Goldrush and Reward along
the underside of leaves, the white rust stage.
Now losses from
much
seed-producing potential of individual plants.
susceptible to staghead, have allowed levels of this disease
teristic
this disease.
while typically
per cent are none-the-less obvious in susceptible cultivars.
The gene controlling staghead resistance occurs in 40 per cent of Tobin plants. In most years,
this level of resistance seems to hold-up. In recent years
cultivars such as Colt, Eldorado and Horizon, which are
Polish canola acreage.
to build-up again. Parkland,
rust
form on leaves, stems and flower heads.
which give
this disease its
Use clean
seed.
Seed can become contaminated when
stagheads break up during harvesting and form seed-
name, stand out
sized pieces.
STEM BREAK AND BROWNING

Polyspora
parkland regions of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
Biology
Browning and stem break of flax
are
two phases of this
Yield loss
disease.
As
above the
directly proportional to the percentage of
the seed or infected crop
the seed germinates
and the seed coat
is lifted
Diagnosis
by the cotyledon leaves, spores on the seed
soil
coat infect the
new
leaves.
Wind and
Check random
splashing rain spread
may
the spores within the crop.
The
is
broken stems.

residue.
lini
disease
is
favored by
warm humid
areas of the field for this disease because
it
affect the flax crop in widely scattered patches.
conditions.
Management Strategy
Damage
Description
The browning phase generally appears

and
bolls.
a three-year crop rotation. This reduces infection
derived from disease-infected residue.

late in the season.
Plants develop grey-brown areas with purplish margins on

leaves, stems
Use
Affected plants usually appear
Use disease-free seed from

growing regions of the
in
flax crops
produced
in drier
prairies.
patches giving the crop a mottled look. Stem breaking,
which occurs throughout the season, results from enlarging

stem cankers caused by early infection.
Seedlings
this
may be
fungus
is
some years
damage in the
killed if infected early. In
responsible for appreciable
Seed as early as possible. This may
result in a vigorous crop
better able to withstand disease infection later in the season.
156
Treat seed with a
recommended
fungicide.
VERTICILLIUM WILT, LEAF MOTTLE

Verticillium dahliae
Management Strategy
Biology
Verticillium wilt
also affects
show any
many
is
a destructive disease of sunflowers.
broad-leaved weeds, which
may
It
Use
not
Resistant cultivars: Cadet, Capri, Cargill 205, Cargill
disease symptoms.
207,
This fungus overwinters in the
soil
and crop residue as tiny
black resting bodies or sclerotes. These germinate and
invade the root

tissue.
Spores then
sels to the
move through
Gold
II,
MRS 40, ST 330,
DO
164, IS
Sigco 422,
Sunwheat 101,
XF 6240, XF 6440.
the water conducting ves-
above-ground parts of the
the head and seed and
103, Challenger, Dakota
Sigco 452, Sigco 465 A, Sigco 954, Sigco 974,
produce more spores inside the plant
tips to
SF
7000, IS 7101, IS 7111,
plant.
D 131, DO 707, DO 855,

K 837, Royal Hybrid 2141, S 1296,
Intermediate cultivars:
Spores infect
Hybrid 894,
become seed-borne.
Sigco 964, Trison 849.
This disease
is
favored by high moisture and cool temSusceptible cultivars:
peratures.
Damage
Description
Symptoms first develop on lower leaves and

move to higher leaves. Leaves becomes pale
Follow a crop
rotation. Sunflowers should not be grown

more than once every five years even if the disease is
assumed to be absent. The wilt fungus will persist for at
gradually
least
green, yellow,
Commander
12 years in infested
soil,
but rotations prevent a
rapid build-up of the fungus in the
soil.
then brown, giving the mottled appearance. Black streaks
may
occur
at
the stem base.
A cross section of the lower
Control volunteers and broad-leaved weeds.
Use
stem reveals a brown coloration of the water conducting

tissue.
Premature death
small.
Masses of tiny
plants.
may
result.
sclerotia are
The fungus can survive
Diseased heads are
produced
in infected
for at least 12 years in
infested soil.
Both seed yield and quality are reduced by
disease-free seed to avoid introducing the fungus to
disease free areas.
this disease,
but fortunately most sunflower cultivars are resistant to

this fungus.
157
DISEASES OF FORAGE LEGUMES

BACTERIAL WILT
Corynebacterium michiganense pv. insidiosum
A 10 per cent infection can cause yield losses of 5-6 per
Biology
Bacterial wilt causes losses in
most damaging
it is
growing
all alfalfa
in the irrigated areas
cent
areas, but
owing
to
some compensation from
adjacent healthy
plants.
of Western
Canada.
Bacteria overwinter in the roots and residue of diseased
They
plants.
are transported
by
Wounds can
the cut ends of
result
and
wounds
infect healthy plants through
crown or through
soil
from winter
irrigation
Diagnosis
water to
Regrowth
and
in the roots
after the
second cut will show the severity of the
infection.
newly swathed stems.
injury,
nematode feeding or
mechanical injury. The bacteria multiply and block the
water conducting tissues and eventually cause severe dam-
Use
Stem nematodes may transmit bacteria. Use Trek,

which is nematode and bacterial wilt resistant, in the
irrigated areas where both problems occur. Trek,
Barrier, Trumpetor and Ambassador are resistant to
both bacterial and Verticillium wilt.
Follow a crop rotation with no more than four consecu-
age or death.
This disease
on low
favored by high humidity and
is
is
most severe
lying, poorly drained land.
Damage
Description
Diseased plants are usually scattered throughout a stand.
more apparStems are shorter
Plants are stunted and light green. Stunting

ent during re-growth after alfalfa
is cut.
and leaves are smaller and curled
at the
warm
dry spells, plants
whole
plant; death
may
may
shows
tive years of alfalfa.
edges. During
wilt first at the tips, then the
follow. Winterkill
with disease-weakened plants.

root
is
is
Harvest young stands before old ones
when
using the
same equipment.
problem
A cross section of the tap
a brownish discoloration around the
woody
Thoroughly clean and disinfect mowers
after infested
field are cut.
centre.
Do
not cut alfalfa that
Do
not over irrigate. Overflow water transports bacteria.
is
wet.
This disease lowers quality and quantity of hay and seed
and reduces the
life
span of the stand.
BLACK STEM
Alfalfa
Phoma
medicaginis van medicaganis (syn. Ascochyta imperfecta), Clover
P. trifolii,
Sweet-clover
P. meliloti
including the crown and upper roots. In spring, small irregular
Biology
This disease occurs in
Canada. However,
all alfalfa
it is
dark brown to black spots develop on the lower stems and
and clover growing areas of
most destructive
in
warmer
leaves.
regions.
As
these spots enlarge and join together, stems turn
black and upper leaves, flowers and pods
Black stem overwinters on the seed, crop residue and
infected as they
grow through
insects.
New
the crop residue.
drop.
Death of leaves and stems decrease quality and quantity of
cankers on alfalfa and clover. Spores are produced in spring
and are spread by water, wind and
may
in
hay. Flower and
shoots are
pod drop causes seed
yield losses.
During the
summer, black stem infections decrease or slow, but may

build up again in autumn.
The fungus can survive on
Diagnosis
plant
Look
stems and seeds for approximately two years.

This disease
is
for this disease during late spring or early
summer.
favored by cool moist weather.
Damage
Black stem
Use
Follow a rotation with crops
Description
may
infect all
above-ground parts of the
plant.
158
See appendix.
that are not
legumes.
spring burning
harm
Use
plants
if
is
sometimes recommended but may
new growth
certified seed
Cut early when the disease
has already started.
from a dry
which
area,
loss in the
is
prevalent to reduce leaf
hay crop.
likely
is less
to contain infested seed.
COMMON
LEAF SPOT, PSEUDOPEZIZA LEAF SPOT

Pseudopeziza
Biology
Common leaf spot
trifolii
Premature defoliation reduces plant vigor (winter hardiis
hay quality and
ness),
a destructive disease of alfalfa and to
yield.
a lesser extent of sweet-clover.

residue. Spores
produced
charged into the
air
infected plants and crop
Diagnosis
in the spring are forcibly dis-
and carried by the wind
to
Look
for this disease in late June.
growing
plants.
The disease
is
Management Strategy
favored by dense crop stands and cool, wet
weather, particularly in early July.
Harvest early. This reduces leaf loss and build-up of

disease levels on the crop foliage.
Damage
Description
Sharp brown circular spots develop on the
leaflets.
Harvest the crop completely to reduce the level of diseased plant residue.
Older
spots have a paler raised disc in the centre. Infected leaves
turn yellow and drop before swathing.
Control volunteer legumes in headlands. These legumes

serve as reservoirs for this disease.
CROWN
ROT,
ROOT ROT
magasperma
F//S3r/w/nspp., P/f/7/Y//nspp., P//o/naspp., Rliizoctonias\ijn., Phytophythora
Damage
Bioiogy
Crown and
fa
root rot are the
most
common
and clover. Occasionally, the disease
one fungus such as Phytophthora root

is
is
Description
diseases of alfal-
Fusarium crown and root
caused by just
brown
rot but
more often
caused by a complex of organisms. This complex
produces rusty-brown to dark
rot
streaks in the water conducting tissue of the root and
crown. Large sections of the crown can be destroyed, leav-
it
may
ing only a few side shoots alive.
include several genera, species or strains of fungi that interact
Crown bud
with non-pathenogenic organisms and various environ-
mental factors to cause
rot
produces dark brown to black patches that
occur on the bud tissue and
rot.
move
to the
crown and upper
root area.
Each species may have some variation
to this life cycle, but
Phytophthora root
generally they overwinter in the soil or on plant residue.
the tap root that
They enter the roots or crown directly or through wounds.

The rot develops slowly in the taproot and crown but rapidly
on smaller
eases.
fertility,
Crown bud
species, and
rot
Phoma
drained
soil.
set
is
of conditions that favor
enhanced by
frost,
its
poor
is
common
most severe
in cold, wet,
poor
examples of stresses
that
poorly
Black dots (pycnidia or spore-pro-
root rot affects alfalfa, red clover, alsike clover,

trefoil. It also
has been associ-
ated with a root rot of winter wheat and fall rye.
fertility,
encourage root
sclerotioides) produces circular
sweet-clover and bird's-foot
Crown and
severe winter conditions, low light intensity, and low soil

are
{Phoma
to the soil surface.
Brown
Foliar diseases, foliar and root insects, frefrosts,
dark brown areas spread throughout the roots and
spring, stunted yellow plants often die after initial growth.
after the sec-
irrigated or moist soils.
rot is
root rot
light to
ducing structures) are present on the diseased areas. In the
caused by R. solani, Fusarium
quent or untimely cuttings, early
pH
ages
Brown
up
frequent harvests and foliar dis-
medicaginis,
ond year of growth on

Phytophthora root
all
turn yellow, wilt and die.
growth. Fusarium growth
low
produces yellow brown patches on
extend to the crown. Plants of
are susceptible but seedlings are particularly prone. Plants
roots.
Every fungus species has a

drainage,
rot
may
stand.
rot.
root rots affect the yield and life span of the
Loss of crown buds and stems lowers
stands allow
ty is the
159
weeds
to invade
consequence.
yield; thin
and poorer hay or seed quali-
Look
for this disease during late spring to early
late
the disease organisms and avoid
soil fertility, especially
cereals in a crop rotation for
two
phosphorus
promote plant vigor.
Grow
Maintain surface residue to trap and provide adequate
to three years to
Maintain a proper cutting schedule. Late summer and
to
Avoid mechanical injury such as recurrent

fields, which damages crown tissue.
reduce the fungus population.
Maintain adequate
Cut the
frost.
plant injury.
Use
crop immediately after a killing
and potash, which are necessary
Management Strategy
Reduce the population of
sufficient time to
store nutrients necessary for winter survival.
summer
before flowers are produced.
do not give plants
early fall harvests
Diagnosis
snow
the crop
cover.
on well-drained
Deep snow
traffic
over
soils.
helps to prevent winter cold
DOWNY MILDEW
Peronospora trifoliorum
This disease lowers the quality of the hay and reduces
Biology
This disease affects
clover
is
alfalfa, clovers
and
trefoil.
yield, particularly in the first cut.
Sweet-
seldom attacked.
Management Strategy
This fungus overwinters in the crown buds and in crop

residue. Following infection,
nally throughout the plant.
downy mildew grows
Downy mildew
is
inter-
Use
Use crop
Harvest cleanly to prevent re-infection from crop
favored by
wet or humid weather. Spores produced by the fungus are
rotation. This reduces disease build-up.
spread by wind and rain. The youngest leaves are most susceptible to infection.
residue.
Damage
Description
Cut
early.
This
may
reduce leaf loss but will sacrifice
yield.
Chlorotic areas appear on the upper leaf surfaces with a
grey layer of fungus on the undersides. Infected plants are
stunted and leaves twist and pucker.
Burn stubble before spring growth begins. This can help

in
some
instances.
GREY LEAF SPOT, STAGNOSPORA LEAF SPOT AND ROOT ROT COMPLEX
Leptosphaeria pratensis fasexual Stagnospora recederis)
oles.
Biology
areas,
it is
the
most serious disease of sweet-clover.
Small black dots (pycnidia) form
diseased spots.
This disease affects alfalfa and sweet-clover. In some
The fungus may
crown area and produce
L.
in the centre of the
attack the upper root and
a dark red-brown dry rot.
pratensis can also cause stem spots and crown and root
rots.
Diagnosis
The fungus overwinters
in the diseased crop residue
crowns of overwintering
plants,
and
is
and
Losses are caused by leaf
Hay
spread by spores
produced on infected leaves.
and loss of root functions.
(winter hardiness). In most areas, Stagnospora leaf spot

root rot
Prolonged periods of wet weather
rot
yield and quality are reduced as well as plant vigor
in
June and July favor
complex
is
minor disease, but
injuries that enable other disease
it
can cause
organisms
to
become
disease build-up.
established.
Damage
Description
Leaf spots are
large, oval areas with light centres
Management Strategy
and dark
margins.
Dead
leaves tend to remain attached to stems.
Harvest early. This reduces leaf damage and inoculum

build-up.
Light-colored infected areas appear on the stems and peti-
160
Bum the stubble before spring re -growth.
This
may
help
Follow a rotation with crops
that are not
legumes. This
lowers disease potential.
reduce inoculum levels.
LEAF PROLIFERATION
reduced and green, and the ovaries are replaced by leaves.
Biology
Plants are stunted and a light-yellow color.
These diseases, clover phyllody mycoplasma-like organism

(MLO) and clover proliferaton (MLO), occur on alsike,
red,
white and sweet-clovers and bird's-foot
are transmitted
trefoil.
They
Proliferation
by leafhoppers (Aphrodes bicinctus and
Profuse foliar growth appears from the crown and gives a
Macrosteles fascifrons).
witches'
These diseases are spread only by leafhoppers. Once these

hoppers become infective they remain so until their death.
MLOs overwinter in
Spread
is
like
The percentage of witches' broom present during the growing season indicates the amount of die-off to be expected
dependent on the number of infective leafhoppers
overwinter.
Damage
seed
appendages.
infected biennial and perennial plants.
present.
No
broom appearance. Flowers are green and modiEach flower becomes a cluster of green leaf-
fied in shape.
is
Description
Management Strategy
produced by infected heads. Infected plants do
No
not usually survive the winter, so the stand dies out.
practical control is
known.
When
ductive, cultivate and replace with a
stands
become unpro-
non-legume crop
in
the rotation.
Phyllody
Flower parts revert
to leaf-like structures. Petals are
POWDERY MILDEW
Erysiphe polygoni,
surfaces of leaves, petioles and stems. Leaves turn prema-
Biology
Powdery mildew
is
common on
but distinct strains of this

sainfoin, alfalfa, trefoil
turely yellow, then
red clover in North America,
ally stunted
fungus also affect alsike clover,
on diseased plant
parts.
Diagnosis
During the spring, these
resting structures produce spores that infect the leaves.

is
brown. Heavily diseased plants are usu-
and unproductive.
and vetches.
These fungi overwinter as small pinpoint black dots (resting

structures)
E. trifolii
Severe disease outbreaks lower the hay quality and
Wind
reduce yields.
responsible for secondary spread of spores produced on
diseased plant parts during the growing season.
Management Strategy
Unlike most fungi, moderately dry weather favors develop-
ment of this disease because wind-blown spores do not need
Harvest early. This

the hay yield.
free water to infect the host.
Damage Description
A light dry powdery layer of the fungus is visible on upper
161
may slow
the spread but sacrifices
SOOTY BLOTCH, BLACK BLOTCH

Cymadothea
trifolii
foliage and failure to flower. Severely infected foliage
Biology
Sooty blotch
is
common on
alsike
and white clovers and
may be
is
toxic to livestock and cause ulcers of the mouth.
Sooty blotch also affects the estrogen content of the
sometimes found on red clover.
leaves,
which may lead
to reproductive disorders in ani-
mals fed infected material.
This fungus overwinters on diseased plants. Spores are

spread by wind, water and insects.
This disease
and
is
is
favored by prolonged cool, moist conditions
most prevalent
in
low wet
areas.
Use a crop
non-legumes for three years
rotation with
before re-seeding to clover.
Damage
Description
Dark-green blotches appear on the leaves, which
when
black and sooty. Leaves wither
down
Harvest the crop cleanly. Cut the crop
crown area and completely remove
later turn
to the
the crop.
become numerous.
spots
Burn stubble
in
some
instances.
Diagnosis
Yield losses of hay and seed are caused by destruction of
TARGET SPOT, STEMPHYLIUM LEAF SPOT

Stemphylium botryosum,
sarcinaeforme
Diagnosis
Biology
Target spot
S.
is
common
all
Target spot can cause losses of up to 50 per cent of the pro-
over the Prairie Provinces and
survives for years in plant residue or
cause significant losses in late
soil.
summer
in
This disease
may
tein value of the crop
by inducing heavy
leaf drop.
dense stands dur-
ing wet weather.
Management Strategy
Damage
Description
Leaf spots are oval,
Harvest early. This reduces losses in both quantity and

quality of hay.
slightly sunken, dark
centres and are usually surrounded
brown with
by a pale-yellow
light
halo.
Use
a crop rotation with non-legumes.
Older spots often show distinct concentric rings hence the
name
target spot.
VERTICILUUM WILT
Verticillium albo-atrum
Biology
Damage
Verticillium wilt has long been a serious disease of alfalfa
Symptoms
in
Europe but
its
establishment in the United States and
Canada only occurred
vest.
alfalfa.
in the
leaflets,
water-conducting tissue of
more stems on
on the second growth
after har-
on young leaves near the
a plant. Closer inspection
brown
areas at the tip of the
centering the mid-veins. These areas
days. Although the leaves
become
pale
may be
warm
near death, the stem
remains green and upright. Infected plants are stunted in

plants, running water (irrigation), footwear, harolder,
vesting equipment, alfalfa hay, alfalfa seed, residue and

insects.
striking
and dry. Temporary wilting of upper leaves occurs on
Spores are transported by wind, direct contact
between
most
a yellow blotchiness
reveals V-shaped yellow or
seeds and possibly on host weeds. The fungus enters the
grows
is
top of one or
in the late 1970s.
This fungus overwinters on infected plants, crop residue,

root system and
There
Description
are
This disease
peratures
is
gus
favored by high moisture and tem-
stems.
below 18"C.
162
more severe
infections.
may grow and produce
Under high humidity,
the fun-
spores on the outside of dead
Verticillium wilt can reduce yields by 50 per cent or
more
Use
Use
clean, disease free, pedigreed seed to start
third crop year. Productive lives of infect-
by the end of the
ed stands are reduced to three or four years from five or
alfalfa fields. Plant
more. The nutrient quality of hay produced does not seem

to
grown
be affected.
on weed-free land
alfalfa for the past three years.
new
that has not
Shepherd 's-purse,
redroot pigweed, lamb's-quarters and dandelions are

wilt in a region endangers
The presence of Verticillium
susceptible to this disease.
important export opportunities for dehydrated alfalfa, pedigree seed and leafcutter bees. Leafcutter bees
may
infected alfalfa leaves to build their cocoons.
Cocoons with
immature bees are sold
to other countries.
ence of verticillium wilt in a country
may
use
Thus, the pres-
Badly infested
Keep
weed
lead to restric-
fields
should be plowed under.
stands vigorous by following proper irrigation,

control and fertilization practices.
on the export of leafcutter bees.
tions
Treat alfalfa seed with Rhizobium inoculant.

lant
through
Diagnosis
There are no tolerance levels for
this disease.
One
Field inspections should be handled
cm
mately 25-30
production.
by
when
the producer as folthere
is
plants that
show symptoms of the
present, eradicate
is
it
or
grow
Do
not spread con-
fields.
disease
Management Strategy
disease
not graze livestock on infected fields. Verticillium
taminated manure onto forage
tested at a diagnostic centre.
Prevent introduction of the disease onto clean land.
Do
dis-
steam or a 2 per cent formaldehyde solution.
fungus can be spread in the manure.
approxi-
of plant growth, and just before flower
Have
to fix nitrogen.
Clean plant debris from harvesting equipment and

infect with
treatment apply.
lows: walk each field randomly,
its ability
plant or
seed sample with this disease means the restrictions on
movement and
The inocu-
encourages proper nodulation and vigorous growth
The
Irrigate disease-free fields first.
Control insect vectors.
verticillium fungus remains viable after dehydration.
If the
VIRAL DISEASES
Biology
Damage
There are many types of virus and virus-like diseases that
Viral diseases produce
affect forage legumes.

differ,
The symptoms of each
disease
common symptom
may
symptoms such
but they will be dealt with as a group because dis-
ease cycles and control measures are similar.
Viruses can be transmitted by insect vectors, mechanical
damage, plant
mosaic virus
seed;
from 2
to plant contact, pollen
(AMV)
to
infected plant
is
as mosaics.
mottling
(AMV or BYMV),
clearing
(CYMV). Some
reduced
streaking (LTSV), or vein
virus diseases are symptomless in
life
span of the stand.
AMV can cause up to 30 per
cent loss in forage yield and up to 54 per cent reduction in
by aphids are bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), pea streak virus (PSV) and red
clover vein mosaic virus (RCVMV). Lucerne transient
No vectors
These discolorations may be
Diagnosis
persicae). Other viruses transmitted
sion.
dry matter content.
LTSV has
caused up to 18 per cent
reduction of dry matter in alfalfa. Viral infections can also
reduce root nodulation and winter survival of plants.
spread only by mechanical transmis-
or seed transmission have been observed.
Viruses that are transmitted mechanically and by insect
Management Strategy
vectors overwinter in infected wild and cultivated legumes.
Little
Perennial legumes such as vetch and medic serve as reser-
Generally, they take from two to
voirs for
AMV.
can be done economically
Along with fungal and
to control these diseases.
many
years to build-up.
bacterial diseases they are responsi-
ble for the gradual loss of productivity of
The
vast majority of the insect vector species do not survive
the winter
States.
and must be blown
Some
The most
All viral diseases cause a reduction of total yield as well as
{Acyrthosiphon pisum and the green peach aphid {Myzus
is
types of symptoms.
transmitted primarily through the
also infected. In addition, this virus can be
(LTSV)
many
stunted or dwarfed plants or foliar
their hosts.
transmitted by aphids, especially the pea aphid
streak virus
is
and seed. Alfalfa
31 per cent of the seed produced by an
is
Description
in annually
from the United
of these migratory insect species
be carrying viruses or
may
legume crops.
Stands that are not productive after a number of years
should be plowed under and replaced with non-legumes in
already
the rotation.
MLOs that will infect forage legumes.

163
WINTER CROWN ROOT ROT, SNOW MOLD

Coprinus psychromorbidus (IIB phase), Fusarium nivale, Typhula ishikariensis
Damage
Biology
Description
Dead
plants in the field are the
extremely widespread and can be especially damaging in
ease.
A dark brown rot appears on the crown tissue and
the central and northern areas of Alberta and Saskatchewan

where prolonged snow cover occurs. Prolonged snow cover
patchy stands.
These fungi
legumes and forage grasses. They are
infect all
affected plants
may be
killed.
first
indication of this dis-
Reduced
yield results
from
favors disease development.
The fungi survive in the soil until conditions are favorable

for them to grow and infect the plant crowns. Coprinus
psychromorbidus
is
Diagnosis
Look
for this disease during late spring.
active at temperatures near freezing,
while Fusarium nivale can become active as soon as plants

are dormant.
IManagement Strategy
Maintain a vigorous stand with a variety or mixture recom-
mended
for the region.
YELLOW LEAF BLOTCH

Leptotrochila medicaginis
Diagnosis
Biology
Yellow
leaf blotch
common
in central
is
major leaf disease of
and northern
alfalfa
prairie regions.
and
Premature defoliation reduces vigor, hay quality and
is
The fun-
gus overwinters on crop residue. Spores are released during

the spring and infect
new
Management Strategy
growth. The resulting blotches do
not produce spores until the following spring.
Disease incidence
is
highest
when periods
of wet and hot
dry weather alternate.
Symptoms
Description
are
most prevalent
in late spring
and early sum-
mer. Elongated, yellowish blotches appear parallel to leaf

veins on the leaves, stems and petioles. Black dots (pycnidia) appear
curl
on the diseased leaf surface and infested leaves
downward before
Cut early
to
reduce losses and reduce build-up of
infected leaves.
Damage
Use
they dry up and
fall.
164
Use
a crop rotation with cereals.
yield.
DISEASES OF PULSE CROPS

There has been a steady increase
in the acreage of pulse
crops (edible grain legumes) in recent years. This

result of
new markets
newly adapted
acceptance as
for
and
leaf diseases
mine
amount of
the
irrigation will increase
dery mildew
resistance in
for the use of cultural
many
fertilizer
pulse crops calls
methods as the primary way
encourages
that
and sclerotinia white mold. Test
soil to deter-
needed. Plant seed on well-
drained land to minimize soil-borne diseases. Excessive
their
crops to add to a rotation.
The lack of disease
humid environment
that provide the moist
the
human and animal consumption,
varieties for prairie conditions,
new
is
Do
to con-
foliar diseases,
while pow-
the application of water.
not cultivate or enter fields during wet weather or
while
trol diseases.
most
may be reduced by
dew
on the
is still
foliage. This will help reduce the
spread of anthracnose and bacterial diseases that require
water on the leaf for infection. To reduce infestation by

Plant clean certified disease-free seed on un-infested land
wind-blown spores, do not plant new
no new diseases are introduced. Seed-borne

diseases such as ascochyta blight of fababeans and peas
and anthracnose of beans are controlled this way.
to ensure that
Use
ble.
blight
down and reduce
properly to avoid damaging seed coats and to remove crop

residue in the seed that
the levels of short-
term, soil-borne diseases such as root rots, seedling

blights, sclerotinia
Pulse crops are
and chocolate spot of fababeans.
combination with rotations
upon which
the diseases
may
Legumes
to destroy all hosts
common
blight
on
survive.
are able to
family,
form a mutually beneficial
which
relation-
swelling or nodulations. They are able to take gaseous
field beans. Till to
nitrogen from the soil and convert

able to the plants.
reduce dis-
it
to a
form
that is avail-
in return supply sugars
ing 60-200 Ib/ac of nitrogen; therefore

fertilizer
and
may be
little
to
no nitrogen
needed.
Strains of Rhizobium bacteria occur naturally in soils but
spores by wind and allows greater root penetration,
form a deep root system
Legumes
carbohydrates to the bacteria. Rhizobia are capable of fix-
decomposition and destruction of the material by soil

micro-organisms. Tillage reduces movement of fungal
to
members of the legume
Rhizobia invade the roots of legumes, where they cause
ease by burying crop infested residue to allow faster
which helps beans
carry disease.
ship with certain strains of soil bacteria called Rhizobium.
Use proper sanitation including the removal of diseased

plants. Plow under infected crop residue to control diseases such as powdery mildew on fababeans, anthracnose or
may
includes forage crops such as alfalfa, clovers and sainfoin.
Broad-leaved crop volunteers and weeds must be controlled in
is
harvesting the dry seed of pulse crops. Adjust combines
rotations with cereal crops. This will allow the pulse
crop residue to break
fields near old stub-
recommended for mycosphaerella

and powdery mildew of peas. Use proper care in
This practice
in many instances the most effective

legume species may be absent.
to escape
strain for
given
fusarium root rot infection.
Use good growing
Legume
practices to
promote vigorous healthy
seedlings. Tillage will control diseases and
weeds
as well
face,
and
Avoid
better with diseases.
energy for growth to the sur-
to give less time for the seed
eases to infect.
and proper nodulation.
Plants that are inoculated are healthier and able to cope
as prepare a proper seedbed. Plant seeds as shallow as possible to conserve seedling
seeds should be inoculated with the appropriate
strain of Rhizobium to ensure early
and seedling
dis-
Use
close plant spacing and over-fertil-
ization with nitrogen; both
resistant varieties
most economical and
promote dense heavy canopies
165
when
possible. Resistance
efficient
means of disease
is
the
control.
APPENDIXES
Barley cultivar resistance to specific diseases
Covered/
Barley
Common
yellow
dwarf
root
False
loose
rot
smut
*Abee"F
AC StaceyT
Argyle"M
B1215
Bonanza"M
"
-
S
R
B1602"M
*Bridge"F
CDC Creme"M
CDC Buck"H
Richard"H
S
-
Duel"M
Diamond
*Condor"H
Conquest
*Deuce"F
s
s
R
R
Duke"SD
*Ellice
*Elrose
Empress
GaItT
Gateway 63
*Harrington"M
Heartland'T
*Herta
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
S
S
s
s
s
S
R
S
-
s
s
lona
JacksonT
JohnstonT
*Klages"M
Klondike
Leduc"F
Melvin
NobleT
*Norbert
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
Olli
OtalT
Samson"SD
s
s
s
S
S
s
s
*Manley"M
s
s
1
s
s
s
s
s
*Stein"M
s
1
Tankard
Tupper
Vlrden"F
Winchester"SD
*Winthrop"M
s
s
s
S
s
barley, M=Eligible for malting,
leaf
Stem
blotch
Scald
blotch
rust
s
R
S
S
8
s
s
8
8
R
R
R
R
Net
S
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
R
-
s
s
s
s
s
s
S
8
8
R
R
R
R
R
S
8
8
8
8
R
8
S
8
8
R
R
8
R
R
8
s
s
s
s
s
1
S
S
s
s
s
8
R
S
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
S
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
R
8
s
s
1
s
s
s
R
R
s
s
166
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
for Alberta,
"=Recommended
8D=8emi-dwarf, F=Feed type, H=Hulless.
R=Resistant, l=lntermediate, 8=8usceptible, -=Reaction unknown,
*=Two-row
stripe
Loose
smut
BrierT
*CDC
Ergot
s
s
Bedford
R
S
Speckled
Leaf
s
s
R
S
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
R
S
R
8
R
R
R
R
R
Wheat
Common
Barley
yellow
Common
root
dwarf
bunt
rot
Ergot
Leaf
rust
Loose
smut
Powdery
mildew
Septoria
Stem
Stripe
complex
rust
rust
R
R
R
R
S
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
S
R
8
Common
Benito
Bluesky
S
S
CDC Makwa
Canuck
*Columbus
*Conway
Glenlea
*Katepwa
*Kenyon
*Lancer
*Laura
*Leader
*Neepawa
*Park
Pasqua
*Roblin
Selkirk
Sinton
S
S
S
S
S
S
s
s
s
s
s
-
8
s
R
R
1
R
1
R
s
R
1
*Cutler
*Genesis
*Oslo
s
s
S
s
s
8
R
Wildcat
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
8
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
8
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Prairie spring
*Biggar
S
8
R
R
R
R
R
8
R
R
R
8
8
8
8
8
8
R
R
8
8
Durum
Areola
Hercules
*Kyle
Macoun
*Medora
Pellisier
s
s
s
s
s
s
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
8
Plenty
*Sceptre
*Wakoona
Wascana
s
s
s
R
R
R
s
s
S
S
S
s
s
S
S
8
8
R
R
R
8
1
8
8
1
8
8
8
8
Soft white
*Fielder
Owens
*SWS
52
S
S
S
8
S
S
8
8
8
R
8
Winter
Harmil
*Norstar
*Norwin
Rebecca
Sundance
R=Resistant, l=lntermediate, S=Susceptible -=Reaction unknown,
167
*=Recommended
for Alberta
Oats cultivar resistance to specific diseases
Covered/Loose
smui
dtu
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
*Athabasca
*Calibre
*Cascade
*Derby
*Foothill
R
R
s
Fraser
Dumont
Fidler
Garry
*Harmon
*Jasper
Kelsey
Random
Riel
R
R
*Robert
Rodney
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
Terra
Victory
*Waldern
R=Reslstant, l=lntermediate, S=Susceptible, -=Reaction unlcnown,
Rye
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
8
8
8
S
R
R
8
S
8
8
8
8
8
8
R
R
R
R
S
S
s
s
s
8
8
s
8
8
R
R
Stem
rust
S
S
s
s
S
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
S
*Grizzly
Crown
*=Recommended
for Alberta
*=Recommended
for Alberta
rust
stem smut
Antelope
Cougar
*Danko
Frontier
Gazelle (spring)*
R
R
*Kodiak
*Musketeer
*Prima
Puma
R
R
Rymin
Sangaste
R=Resistant, Întermediate, S=Susceptible, -=Reaction unknown,
Triticale cultivar resistance to specific
diseases
Common
Common
Carman
*Wapiti
R
R
Welsh
*Frank
bunt
R=:Resistant, l=lntermediate, S=Susceptible,
root
Leaf rust
rot
R
R
*=Recommended
168
for Alberta
Stem
R
R
R
R
rust
Canola cultivar resistance to specific diseases

Altenaria
Sclerotinia
Common
black
spot
stem
root
rust/
rot
rot
Staghead
Blackleg'
Argentine
Brassica napus
*AC
*AC
*AC
Elect
Excel
Tristar
*Alto
*Bounty
*Celebra
*Crushen
*Cyclone
*Delta
*Garrison
*Global
*Hyola 401
*HC 120
*Legend
*Profit
*Stallion
*Vanguard
*Westar
Polish
Brassica campestris
(B.
rapa)
AC
Parkland
Colt
Eldorado
Goldrush
Horizon
Reward
VS
Tobin
VS=Very
In
susceptible, S=Susceptible, -=Reaction
regions with high incidences of blackleg,
Rating
Highly susceptible
Susceptible
Moderately susceptible
IVIoderately tolerant
unknown, *=Recommended
when canola follows canola
for Alberta
the disease ratings are as follows:
Rating
Percentage of stems infected
5
4
3
2
90-100
70- 89
50-69
30-49
White
Alfalfa cultivar resistance to specific diseases
Common
leaf
Downy
Verticillium
crown
leaf
stem
spot
mildew
wilt
rot
blotch
Angus
Anik
Apica
AlouGtte
Ambassador
Anchor
Arrow
Award
Barri6r
BGavGr
HGinrichs
Impact
Onoida
Pacer
Peace
Primal
Profit
Rambler
Rangelander
Roamer
Stampeder
Spredor 2
Sure
Thor
Trek
Trumpeter
Vernal
120
532
Yellow
Black
wilt
R
R
R
R
R
AlgoriQuin
Winter
Bacterial
R
R
R
.
1
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
S
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R=Resistant, UÎntermediate, S=Susceptibie, -=Reaction
unknown
170

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PRACTICAL CROR PROTECTION

Protection in Alberta, 1988, Part

1994. All rights reserved

in tne right of Alberta.

on pp. 56, 63, 69 and 71 excerpted

part of this publication

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any

form or by any means, electronic, mechanical

Strategies for implementing or enhancing

Biological control of insects

Prevent spread through feed and manure

Prevention of Insect Pests

The tools needed

Practise fence line and iieadland control

Prevent spread with

Prevent weed seed formation

Basic information to aid

Basic insect scouting

Quarantines and inspections

Basic disease scouting

Quarantinable diseases of concern to Alberta

Disease-free certified seed

Choosing weed control measures

Crops commonly used

Seed Selection and Treatment

Flixweed (wild millet)

for control of disease

Seeding and Fertilization

Physical Control Of Pests

Principles of Biological Control

Digitized by the Internet Archive

Grey speck, manganese deficiency

potential for insect

Canola root maggots

European corn borer

Red tumip beetle

Wheat stem sawfly

Blackleg, canker, dry rot

Blackspot, alternaria black spot, grey leaf spot

Grey stem, white

brown girdling root

Stem break and browning

Verticillium wilt, leaf mottle

Diseases of forage legumes

IMon-chemical seed treatment

Chemical seed treatment

spot and root

Sooty blotch, black blotch

Target spot, stemphylium

General control measures for viruses

Staghead, white rust

Non-living (abiotic) causes of disease

sclerotinia wilt, head rot

Living (biotic) causes of disease

Frost and heat canker of flax

Grey mold head