Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

Narrative
Theory – G325

A Journey Through
Time And Space
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

In the beginning...
It’s important to realise that there is a distinction between a ‘story’ and a ‘narrative’. A "Story
is the irreducible substance of a story (A meets B, something happens, order returns), while
narrative is the way the story is related (Once upon a time there was a princess...)" (Key
Concepts in Communication - Fiske et al (1983))

We tend to associate narrative with ‘books’, yet all texts have a narrative. What must be
noted however is that these narratives are constructed differently; the most obvious
difference is simply in the way we are told the story. Thus a book has a ‘storyteller’, be it a
character in the novel or a narrator (the author?) who not only tells us of what is going on but
who can also tell us why certain things happen. The reader very quickly adapts to and
understands the way the story is told, and soon gets involved with the story and the
characters within it. This process is an acceptable part of the nature of reading — we settle
into a book. The first few chapters are frequently just setting the scene. We re-read sections
we do not quite understand at first. We might even discuss the opening with someone who
has already read the book.

Naturally we cannot do these things in the cinema —if we attempted to the audience would
soon call for the manager. Thus the opening section of a film takes on considerable
significance:

it must stimulate our curiosity, it must present us with characters we are interested, in
it must start off a recognisable narrative.

It may seem obvious but the ‘reality’ of your media text is not ‘reality’, a meaning or
moral/message is far easier to determine from a media text than ‘real life’. What the exam
may ask you to do is evaluate ‘the way your narrative is related’ to an audience. This will
require you to identify and evaluate the various narrative codes which are employed in your
‘text’.

When ‘reading’ a media text we have expectations of form, a foreknowledge of how that text
will be constructed. Media texts can also be fictional constructs, with elements of prediction
and fulfilment which are not present in reality. The basic elements of a narrative, according
to Aristotle:

"...the most important is the plot, the ordering of the incidents; for tragedy is a
representation, not of men, but of action and life" (Poetics – Aristotle (Penguin Edition) p39-
40 4th century BC )

Successful stories require actions which change the lives of the characters in the story.
Traditionally they also contain some sort of resolution, where that change is registered, and
which creates a new equilibrium for the characters involved. Remember that narratives are
not just those we encounter in fiction. Even news stories, advertisements and documentaries
also have a constructed narrative which must be interpreted.

Task 1

On the pages overleaf, create a timeline of your ‘narrative’; you will need to refer back to this
constantly so make it large and neat. Try and structure it traditionally (beginning, middle,
end) making sure to include all major ‘actions’. You may find it useful to use ‘screen grabs’
of your text
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

Task 2

Below is a series of film pitches which I took to ‘Universal Studios’, for some reason they
weren’t interested but told me to come back at the end of the week with alterations and
they’d pay me $50m! In your pairs select one ‘narrative’ and make improvements to my
narrative.

1. ‘Love Story’. A man meets a woman and they fall in love. They get married and have
two children. Everybody lives happily ever after.
2. ‘Crime Story’. A gang of criminals rob a bank. They shoot a young woman and kill her
during the robbery. Her husband is a policeman and starts to track them down.
However, he fails and they escape, going on to live happily ever after.
3. ‘Murder Story’. A man says he is going to kill his enemy. He does, and he lives happily
ever after.
4. ‘Action Story’. A young, beautiful woman is kidnapped by a criminal who holds her for
ransom. Her handsome, brave husband tries to rescue her. However, it takes a long
time and he gets bored. He gives up. Meanwhile, the criminal gang feels guilty and let
her go. She decides to become a criminal and kills some people.

You need to create a PowerPoint or something similar which includes:

The film’s title

A Trailer (you can make this by splicing film stills or photo’s together on movie maker)

Actors (who will be staring in your/my film)

Settings/locations (where will the film be set, think countries, cities, buildings etc)

Examples from pre-existing texts (show examples of similar texts so I know the audience will
have expectations of the narrative)

Named director (who will be directing this masterpiece)

Music (which artists and composers will be used in this project)

Release dates etc.

You have two lessons to complete this.

Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

Narrative Conventions

When unpacking a narrative in order to find its meaning, there are a series of codes and
conventions that need to be considered. When we look at a narrative we examine the
conventions of

 Genre
 Character
 Form
 Time

and use knowledge of these conventions to help us interpret the text. In particular, Time
is something that we understand as a convention - narratives do not take place in real
time but may telescope out (the slow motion shot which replays a winning goal) or in
(an 80 year life can be condensed into a two hour biopic). Therefore we consider "the
time of the thing told and the time of the telling." (Christian Metz Notes Towards A
Phenomenology of Narrative).

It is only because we are used to reading narratives from a very early age, and are able
to compare texts with others that we understand these conventions. A narrative in its
most basic sense is a series of events, but in order to construct meaning from the
narrative those events must be linked somehow.

Roland Barthes

Roland Barthes describes a text as

"a galaxy of signifiers, not a structure of signifieds; it has no beginning; it is reversible;

we gain access to it by several entrances, none of which can be authoritatively declared
to be the main one; the codes it mobilizes extend as far as the eye can read, they are
indeterminable...the systems of meaning can take over this absolutely plural text, but
their number is never closed, based as it is on the infinity of language..." (S/Z - 1974
translation)

We have already covered Barthes in the course. Use your notes from earlier lessons to
complete the following definitions

An open text is one which...

A closed text is one which...

The text I have created is because

Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

Roland Barthes narrative codes.

The Enigma code is

The Action code is

These first codes are reliant on ‘time’, they only work if you read a book or view a film
temporally from beginning to end. Barthes at one point aligns these two codes with "the
same tonal determination that melody and harmony have in classical music". A traditional,
"readerly" text tends to be especially "dependent on [these] two sequential codes: the
revelation of truth and the coordination of the actions represented: there is the same
constraint in the gradual order of melody and in the equally gradual order of the narrative
sequence". The next three codes tend to work "outside the constraints of time" and are,
therefore, more properly reversible, which is to say that there is no necessary reason to read
the instances of these codes in chronological order to make sense of them in the narrative.

The cultural code is

The symbolic code is

The semantic code

Task 3

Using the timeline created for task 1, annotate your time line with examples of these codes.
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

Tzvetan Todorov
The classical narrative

Read the definitions below and then label your timeline with the appropriate definitions

Equilibrium – The normal (norm) state at the beginning of the text. Any opposing forces are
in balance.

Dis-equalibrium – An action or conflict introduced into the narrative.

New Equalibrium – The conflict is resolved and the narrative strands are tied together.

If you are struggling to do this then you need to consider what elements might be lacking
from your text and what impact this might have on your audience.

Vladmir Propp – The Morphology of the Folk Tale

Propp believed that there were just 8 character roles in a narrative, in addition to this he
believed there were 31 predictable functions within the narrative. Before you read and apply
the following to your own text it is important to know some criticism of Propp. One of the
major criticismsput forward by Barthes was that by simply focusing on the building blocks
(denotation) of narrative he completely overlooks the meaning (connotation). David Bordwell
focussed on the fact that a historical study of the Russian ‘oral’ folktale is unsuitable for the
modern medium which is based on 19th century literature and theatre which is more
interested in capitalism than passing on ‘wonder tales’.

Character Roles

1. The villain — struggles against the hero.

2. The donor — prepares the hero or gives the hero some magical object.
3. The (magical) helper — helps the hero in the quest.
4. The princess and her father — gives the task to the hero, identifies the false hero,
marries the hero, often sought for during the narrative. Propp noted that functionally,
the princess and the father cannot be clearly distinguished.
5. The dispatcher — character who makes the lack known and sends the hero off.
6. The hero or victim/seeker hero — reacts to the donor, weds the princess.
7. [False hero] — takes credit for the hero’s actions or tries to marry the princess.

Task

Try where possible to apply these roles to elements of your narrative. By doing this you might notice
some of the flaws in this theoretical approach.
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

31 Narrative Functions
[3]
After the initial situation is depicted, the tale takes the following sequence of 31 functions:

1. ABSENTATION: A member of a family leaves the security of the home environment for some
reason. This may be the hero or perhaps it’s some other member of the family that the hero
will later need to rescue. This division of the cohesive family injects initial tension into the
storyline. The hero may also be introduced here, often being shown as an ordinary person.
This allows the reader of the story to associate with the hero as being 'like me'.
2. INTERDICTION: An interdiction is addressed to the hero ('don't go there', 'don't do this')The
hero is warned against some action (given an 'interdiction'). A warning to the hero is also a
warning to the reader about the dangers of life. Will the hero heed the warning? Would the
reader? Perhaps the reader hopes the hero will ignore the warning, giving a vicarious
adventure without the danger.
3. VIOLATION of INTERDICTION: The interdiction is violated (villain enters the tale). The hero
ignores the interdiction (warning not to do something) and goes ahead. This generally proves
to be a bad move and the villain enters the story, although not necessarily confronting the
hero. Perhaps they are just a lurking presence or perhaps they attack the family whilst the
hero is away. This acts to further increase tension. We may want to shout at the hero 'don't
do it!' But the hero cannot hear us and does it anyway.
4. RECONNAISSANCE: The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance (either villain tries to
find the children/jewels etc; or intended victim questions the villain). The villain (often in
disguise) makes an active attempt at seeking information, for example searching for
something valuable or trying to actively capture someone. They may speak with a member of
the family who innocently divulges information. They may also seek to meet the hero,
perhaps knowing already the hero is special in some way. The introduction of the villain adds
early tension to the story, particularly when they are found close to the previously-supposedly
safe family or community environment. The eloquence or power of the villain may also add
tension and we may want to shout at their targets to take care.
5. DELIVERY: The villain gains information about the victim. The villain's seeking now pays off
and he or she now acquires some form of information, often about the hero or victim. Other
information can be gained, for example about a map or treasure location or the intent of the
'good guys'. This is a down point in the story as the pendulum of luck swings towards the
villain, creating fear and anticipation that the villain will overcome the hero and the story will
end in tragedy.
6. TRICKERY: The villain attempts to deceive the victim to take possession of victim or victim's
belongings (trickery; villain disguised, tries to win confidence of victim). The villain now
presses further, often using the information gained in seeking to deceive the hero or victim in
some way, perhaps appearing in disguise. This may include capture of the victim, getting the
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

hero to give the villain something or persuading them that the villain is actually a friend and
thereby gaining collaboration. Deception and the betrayal of trust is one of the worst social
crimes, short of physical abuse. This action cements the position of the villain as clearly bad.
It also raises the tension further as we fear for the hero or victim who is being deceived.
7. COMPLICITY: Victim taken in by deception, unwittingly helping the enemy. The trickery of the
villain now works and the hero or victim naively acts in a way that helps the villain in some
way. This may range from providing the villain with something (perhaps a map or magical
weapon) to actively working against good people (perhaps the villain has persuaded the hero
that these other people are actually bad). We now despair as the hero or victim acts in a way
that may be seen as villainous. Perhaps we worry that the hero will fall permanently into the
thrall of the villain. Perhaps they will become corrupted and evil also. We also fear for the
reputation of the hero who may be perceived as evil and thus never find the true treasure or
win the hand of the princess.
8. VILLAINY and LACK: Villain causes harm/injury to family member (by abduction, theft of
magical agent, spoiling crops, plunders in other forms, causes a disappearance, expels
someone, casts spell on someone, substitutes child etc, comits murder, imprisons/detains
someone, threatens forced marriage, provides nightly torments); Alternatively, a member of
family lacks something or desires something (magical potion etc). There are two parts to this
stage, either or both of which may appear in the story. In the first stage, the villain causes
some kind of harm, for example carrying away a victim or the desired magical object (which
must be then be retrieved). In the second stage, a sense of lack is identified, for example in
the hero's family or within a community, whereby something is identified as lost or something
becomes desirable for some reason, for example a magical object that will save people in
some way. 'Lack' is a deep psychoanalytic principle which we first experience when we
realize our individual separation from the world. Lack leads to desire and deep longing and
we look to heroes to satisfy this aching emptiness.
9. MEDIATION: Misfortune or lack is made known, (hero is dispatched, hears call for help etc/
alternative is that victimized hero is sent away, freed from imprisonment). The hero now
discovers the act of villainy or lack, perhaps finding their family or community devastated or
caught up in a state of anguish and woe. This creates a defining moment in the story as we
wonder what will happen now. Perhaps we do not realize that the hero is the hero, as they
may not yet have demonstrated heroic qualities. We feel the lack in sympathy for the act of
villainy, but the hero may just have arrived on the scene or may be undistinguished from
other grieving family members.
10. BEGINNING COUNTER-ACTION: Seeker agrees to, or decides upon counter-action. The
hero now decides to act in a way that will resolve the lack, for example finding a needed
magical item, rescuing those who are captured or otherwise defeating the villain. This is a
defining moment for the hero as this is the decision that sets the course of future actions and
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

by which a previously ordinary person takes on the mantle of heroism. Having made this
decision, acting with integrity means that there is no turning back, for to do so would be to
remove the mantle of heroism and be left only with shame.
11. DEPARTURE: Hero leaves home;
12. FIRST FUNCTION OF THE DONOR: Hero is tested, interrogated, attacked etc, preparing the
way for his/her receiving magical agent or helper (donor);
13. HERO'S REACTION: Hero reacts to actions of future donor (withstands/fails the test, frees
captive, reconciles disputants, performs service, uses adversary's powers against him);
14. RECEIPT OF A MAGICAL AGENT: Hero acquires use of a magical agent (directly
transferred, located, purchased, prepared, spontaneously appears, eaten/drunk, help offered
by other characters);
15. GUIDANCE: Hero is transferred, delivered or led to whereabouts of an object of the search;
16. STRUGGLE: Hero and villain join in direct combat;
17. BRANDING: Hero is branded (wounded/marked, receives ring or scarf);
18. VICTORY: Villain is defeated (killed in combat, defeated in contest, killed while asleep,
banished);
19. LIQUIDATION: Initial misfortune or lack is resolved (object of search distributed, spell broken,
slain person revived, captive freed);
20. RETURN: Hero returns;
21. PURSUIT: Hero is pursued (pursuer tries to kill, eat, undermine the hero);
22. RESCUE: Hero is rescued from pursuit (obstacles delay pursuer, hero hides or is hidden,
hero transforms unrecognisably, hero saved from attempt on his/her life);
23. UNRECOGNIZED ARRIVAL: Hero unrecognized, arrives home or in another country;
24. UNFOUNDED CLAIMS: False hero presents unfounded claims;
25. DIFFICULT TASK: Difficult task proposed to the hero (trial by ordeal, riddles, test of
strength/endurance, other tasks);
26. SOLUTION: Task is resolved;
27. RECOGNITION: Hero is recognized (by mark, brand, or thing given to him/her);
28. EXPOSURE: False hero or villain is exposed;
29. TRANSFIGURATION: Hero is given a new appearance (is made whole, handsome, new
garments etc);
30. PUNISHMENT: Villain is punished;
31. WEDDING: Hero marries and ascends the throne (is rewarded/promoted).
Task

Whilst I do not expect you to memorise all 31functions you MUST identify key functions within
your text. Add these to your timeline and explain how these help your narrative to function.
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

David Bordwell – Neo-Formalism.

Neo-Formalism is a scientific approach to analysing film. Like Propp he believes there are
building blocks to narrative, and that there is a profound difference between the story and
the narrative. For example, in a detective story, the murder comes at the beginning of the
chain of events, but we find out the details about the murder at the end of the film, not the
beginning. Much of neoformalism deals with the idea of 'defamiliarization' which is the
general neoformalist term for the basic purpose of art in our lives: to show us familiar objects
or concepts in a manner that encourages us to look at them in a new way.

‘We can, in short, study narrative as a process, the activity of selecting, arranging and
rendering story material in order to achieve specific time-bound effects on a
perceiver. I argue that filmic narration involves two principal formal systems, syuzhet
(plot) and style, which cue the spectator to frame hypotheses and draw inferences.”

This scientific approach is based on ‘schemata’ – sorting sensory information into patterns.
David Bordwell discusses narrative film with terms borrowed from the Russian Formalists
(like Propp). He uses the terms "fabula" and "syuzhet" heavily. The fabula, according to
Bordwell, is a pattern which perceivers of narratives create through assumptions and
inferences. It is the developing result of picking up narrative cues, applying schemata,
framing and testing hypotheses. Ideally, the fabula can be embodied in a verbal synopsis,
as general or as detailed as circumstances require. [Bordwell1985].

In other words, fabula comprises the cues and perceptions the viewer receives from the film
or story. Fabula can change from viewer to viewer if the work is complex. For instance, your
text probably provokes a different fabula for each viewer to a lesser or greater degree
depending on the genre.

Syuzhet refers to:

The actual arrangement and presentation of the fabula in the film. It is not the text in total. It
is a more abstract construct, the patterning of the story as a blow-by-blow recounting of the
film could render it. The syuzhet is a system because it arranges components--the story
events and states of affairs--according to specific principles.

Syuzhet, then, is plot--the arrangement of story for the viewer.

Bordwell discusses the relationship of fabula, syuzhet, and style in narrative film. He
defines style as the "systematic use of cinematic devices." Bordwell also discusses three
principles relating the syuzhet to the fabula: narrative "logic," time and space. Each of
these principles, in narrative film, serve to connect the plot (syuzhet) with the viewer's
internal perceptions of the diegetic world he or she is forming (fabula). These viewing
perceptions function through the film's form (or style).

Task

Using this more complex and scientific vocabulary analyse and explain the syuzhet and
fabula of your text. Also make sure to explain the logic, time and space of your narrative.

If you require more space than the page overleaf then use the spare pages at the back of
this booklet.
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

Criticisms of Bordwell
Aside from the fact that neoformalism is a somewhat ‘cold’ approach to film, your knowledge
of ‘postmodernism’ should also have equipped you with the critical capabilities to identify the
flaws and gaps in Bordwell’s approach.

Art Cinema requires the viewer to interpret the text, and to interpret it so as to increase
ambiguity (enigma codes).

Bill Nichols, a leading academic, raised the following questions.

Do all viewers form the same ‘fabula’?

What about historical, cultural, ideological and class interpretations? Can interpretation
remain scientific under these clearly subjective hallmarks?

Narrative style – Composition key terms

Subjective treatment. The camera treatment is called 'subjective' when the viewer is
treated as a participant (e.g. when the camera is addressed directly or when it imitates the
viewpoint or movement of a character). We may be shown not only what a character sees,
but how he or she sees it. A temporary 'first-person' use of camera as the character can be
effective in conveying unusual states of mind or powerful experiences, such as dreaming,
remembering, or moving very fast. If overused, it can draw too much attention to the camera.
Moving the camera (or zooming) is a subjective camera effect, especially if the movement is
not gradual or smooth.

Objective treatment. The 'objective point of view' involves treating the viewer as an
observer. A major example is the 'privileged point of view' which involves watching from
omniscient vantage points. Keeping the camera still whilst the subject moves towards or
away from it is an objective camera effect.

Parallel development/parallel editing/cross-cutting. An intercut sequence of shots in

which the camera; shifts back and forth between one scene and another. Two distinct but
related events seem to be happening at approximately the same time. A chase is a good
example. Each scene serves as a cutaway for the other. Adds tension and excitement to
dramatic action.

'Invisible editing'. This is the omniscient style of the realist feature films developed in
Hollywood. The vast majority of narrative films are now edited in this way. The cuts are
intended to be unobtrusive except for special dramatic shots. It supports rather than
dominates the narrative: the story and the behaviour of its characters are the centre of
attention. The technique gives the impression that the edits are always required are
motivated by the events in the 'reality' that the camera is recording rather than the result of a
desire to tell a story in a particular way. The 'seamlessness' convinces us of its 'realism', but
its devices include:

o the use of matched cuts (rather than jump cuts);

o motivated cuts;
o changes of shot through camera movement;
o long takes;
o the use of the sound bridge;
o parallel development.
Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

The editing isn't really 'invisible', but the conventions have become so familiar to visual
literates that they no longer consciously notice them.

Mise-en-scene. (Contrast montage). This is seen as a 'realistic' technique whereby meaning

is conveyed through the relationship of things visible within a single shot (rather than, as with
montage, the relationship between shots). An attempt is preserve space and time as much
as possible; editing or fragmenting of scenes is minimised. Composition is therefore
extremely important. The way people stand and move in relation to each other is important.
Long shots and long takes are characteristic.

Montage/montage editing. In its broadest meaning, it’s the process of cutting up film and
editing it into the screened sequence. However, it may also be used to mean intellectual
montage - the juxtaposition of short shots to represent action or ideas - or (especially in
Hollywood), simply cutting between shots to condense a series of events. Intellectual
montage is used to consciously convey subjective messages through the juxtaposition of
shots which are related in composition or movement, through repetition of images, through
cutting rhythm, detail or metaphor. Montage editing, unlike invisible editing, uses
conspicuous techniques which may include: use of close- ups, relatively frequent cuts,
dissolves, superimposition, fades and jump cuts. Such editing should suggest a particular
meaning.

Talk to camera. The sight of a person looking ('full face') and talking directly at the camera
establishes their authority or 'expert' status with the audience. Only certain people are
normally allowed to do this, such as announcers, presenters, newsreaders, weather
forecasters, interviewers, anchor-persons, and, on special occasions (e.g. ministerial
broadcasts), key public figures. The words of 'ordinary' people are normally mediated by an
interviewer. In a play or film talking to camera clearly breaks out of naturalistic conventions
(the speaker may seem like an obtrusive narrator). A short sequence of this kind in a 'factual'
programme is called a 'piece to camera'.

Tone. The mood or atmosphere of a programme (e.g. ironic, comic, nostalgic, romantic).

Final Task
Use your timeline once again, this time adding in details on when and why you make use of
any of the above techniques. Remember to consider the way these elements will impact the
‘fabula’ the audience experiences.