SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

TUNNEL DIODE
It is two terminal semiconductor diode using tunneling electrons to perform high-speed
switching operations.

Symbol:

Working:
Forward biased working:
Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first tunnel
through the very narrow pn junction barrier because filled electron states in the conduction band
on the n-side become aligned with empty valence band hole states on the p-side of the p-n
junction. As voltage increases further these states become more misaligned and the current drops.
This is called negative resistance because current decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage
increases yet further, the diode begins to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by
conduction across the pn junction, and no longer by tunneling through the pn junction barrier.
The most important operating region for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region. Its
graph is different from normal p-n junction diode
.Reverse

biased working:

Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first tunnel
through the very narrow pn junction barrier because filled electron states in the conduction band
on the n-side become aligned with empty valence band hole states on the p-side of the p-n
junction. As voltage increases further these states become more misaligned and the current drops.
This is called negative resistance because current decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage
increases yet further, the diode begins to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by
conduction across the pn junction, and no longer by tunneling through the pn junction barrier.
The most important operating region for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region. Its
graph is different from normal p-n junction diode.

[14-EE-54]

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

Construction:
Tunnel diodes are usually fabricated from germanium, gallium or gallium arsenide. These all
have small forbidden energy gaps and high ion motilities. Silicon is not used in the fabrication of
tunnel diodes due to low (Ip,I v)value.

A small tin dot is soldered or alloyed to a heavily doped pellet of n-type Ge, GaSb or GaAs. The
pellet is then soldered to anode which is also used for heat dissipation. The cathode contact is
connected to the tin dot via a mesh screen used to reduce inductance. The diode has a ceramic
body and a hermetically sealing lid on top.

Applications:
Tunnel diode is a type of sc diode which is capable of very fast and in microwave frequency
range. It was the quantum mechanical effect which is known as tunneling. It is ideal for fast
oscillators and receivers for its negative slope characteristics. But it cannot be used in large
integrated circuits thats why its an applications are limited.
When the voltage is first applied current starts flowing through it. The current increases with the
increase of voltage. Once the voltage rises high enough suddenly the current again starts
increasing and tunnel diode stars behaving like a normal diode. Because of this unusual behavior,
it can be used in number of special applications started below.
Oscillator circuits :Tunnel diodes can be used as high frequency oscillators as the transition
between the high electrical conductivity is very rapid. They can be used to create oscillation as
high as 5Gz. Even they are capable of creativity oscillation up to 100 GHz in a appropriate
digital circuits.
[14-EE-54]

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

Used in microwave circuits: Normal diode transistors do not perform well in microwave
operation. So, for microwave generators and amplifiers tunnel diode are. In microwave waves
and satellite communication equipment they were used widely, but now a days their uses are
decreasing rapidly as transistor for working in wave frequency area available in market. Here is
the tnnel diode pluse generator:

[14-EE-54]

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

ZENER DIODE
A form of semiconductor diode in which at a critical reverse voltage a large reverse current can
flow.

Symbol:

Working:
A conventional solid-state diode allows significant current if it is reverse-biased above its
reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a
conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is
limited by circuitry, the diode may be permanently damaged due to overheating. A Zener diode
exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a
reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional
device, a reverse-biased Zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown and allows the current to
keep the voltage across the Zener diode close to the Zener breakdown voltage. For example, a
diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V exhibits a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V
across a wide range of reverse currents. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such
as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifierstage), or as a voltage stabilizer for
low-current applications.
Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in theavalanche
diode. The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are present in
diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the Zener effect is the predominant
effect and shows a marked negativetemperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche
effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient.
In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together, and their temperature coefficients nearly cancel
each other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is useful in temperature-critical applications. An alternative,
which is used for voltage references that need to be highly stable over long periods of time, is to
use a Zener diode with a temperature coefficient of +2 mV/C (breakdown voltage 6.26.3 V)
connected in series with a forward-biased silicon diode (or a transistor B-E junction)
[14-EE-54]

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

manufactured on the same chip. The forward-biased diode has a temperature coefficient of 2
mV/C, causing the TCs to cancel out.
Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with
negligible temperature coefficients, but as higher-voltage devices are encountered, the
temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V
diode.

Construction:
The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of
its p-n junction. The depletion region formed in the diode is
very thin (<1 m) and the electric field is consequently very
high (about 500 kV/m) even for a small reverse bias voltage
of about 5 V, allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence
band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the ntype material.
In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the
transport of valence band electrons into the empty
conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these bands and high electric
fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both sides .The breakdown
voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process. While tolerances within 0.07%
are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%. Breakdown voltage for
commonly available Zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts to 200 volts.

Applications:
Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage
across small circuits. When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is
reverse biased, a Zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown
voltage. From that point on, the relatively low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage across
the diode at that value.
Zener diodes are also used in surge protectors to limit transient voltage spikes.
Another application of the Zener diode is the use of noise caused by its avalanche breakdown in
a random number generator.

[14-EE-54]

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

PIN DIODE
A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, undoped intrinsic semiconductor region between a p-type
semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region. The p-type and n-type regions are typically
heavily doped because they are used for ohmic contacts.

Symbol:

Working:
A PIN diode
operates under what is known
as high-level injection. In other words, the intrinsic "i" region is flooded with charge carriers
from the "p" and "n" regions. Its function can be likened to filling up a water bucket with a hole
on the side. Once the water reaches the hole's level it will begin to pour out. Similarly, the diode
will conduct current once the flooded electrons and holes reach an equilibrium point, where the
number of electrons is equal to the number of holes in the intrinsic region. When the diode is
forward biased, the injected carrier concentration is typically several orders of magnitude higher
than the intrinsic level carrier concentration. Due to this high level injection, which in turn is due
to the depletion process, the electric field extends deeply (almost the entire length) into the
region. This electric field helps in speeding up of the transport of charge carriers from P to N
region, which results in faster operation of the diode, making it a suitable device for high
frequency operations.

Construction:
The pin diode consists off two narrow,but highly
doped,semiconductor regions seprated by a
thicker,lightly-doped material called the intrinsic
region. As As suggested in the name, pin, one of
the heavily doped regions isp-type material and
the other is n-type. The same semiconductor
material, usually silicon, is used for all three
areas. Silicon is used most often for its powerhandling capability and because it provides a
highly resistive intrinsic (i) region.
The pin diode acts as an ordinary diode at
frequencies up to about 100 megahertz, but above
this frequency the operational characteristics
[14-EE-54]

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

change. the large intrinsic region increases the transit time of electrons crossing the region.
Above 100 megahertz, electrons begin to accumulate in the intrinsic region. The carrier storage
in the intrinsic region causes the diode to stop acting as a rectifier and begin acting as a variable
resistance.
when the bias on a pin diode is varied, the microwave resistance changes from a typical value of
6 kilo-ohms under negative bias to about 5 ohms when the bias is positive. Thus when the diode
is mounted across a transmission line or waveguide, the loading effect is insignificant while the
diode is reverse biased, and the diode presents no interference to power flow. When the diode is
forward biased, the resistance drops to approximately 5 ohms and most power is reflected. In
other words, the diode acts as a switch when mounted in parallel with a transmission line or
waveguide. Several diodes in parallel can switch power in excess of 150 kilowatts peak. The
upper power limit is determined by the ability of the diode to dissipate power. The upper
frequency limit is determined by the shunt capacitance of the pn junction. Pin diodes with upper
limit frequencies in excess of 30 gigahertz are available.

Applications:
PIN diodes are useful as RF switches, attenuators, photo detectors, and phase shifters.

A PIN Diode RF Microwave Switch.

An RF Microwave PIN diode Attenuator.

PIN diode switches are used not only for signal selection, but they are also used for component
selection. For example, some low phase noise oscillators use PIN diodes to range-switch
inductors.

[14-EE-54]

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

Varactor diode
A varactor diode is a P-N junction diode that changes its capaci- tance and the series
resistance as the bias applied to the diode is varied. The property of capacitance change is
utilized to achieve a change in the frequency and/or the phase of an electrical circuit.

Symbol:

Working:
The capacitance of a varactor decreases when the reverse-voltage gets larger. They are usually
placed in parallel with an inductor in order to form a resonant frequency circuit. When the
reverse voltage changes, so does the resonant frequency, which is why varactors may be
substituted for mechanically tuned capacitors.

Applications:
It is used in variable resonant tank LC circuit. Here C part is varied using varactor diode. AFC
(Automatic Frequency Control) where in varactor diode is used to set LO signal. Varactor is used
as frequency modulator. It is used as frequency multiplier in microwave receiver LO. It is used as
RF phase shifter.

[14-EE-54]

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

PHOTO DIODE
A semiconductor diode which, when exposed to light, generates a potential difference or changes
its electrical resistance.

Symbol:

Construction:
Silicon photodiodes are constructed from single crystal silicon wafers similar to those used in the
manufacture of integrated circuits. The major difference is that photodiodes require higher purity
silicon. The purity of silicon is directly related to its resistivity, with higher resistivity indicating
higher purity silicon. Centro Vision products utilize silicon whose resistivities range from 10
Ohm-cm to 10,000 Ohm-cm.
A cross section of a typical silicon photodiode is shown in the figure. N type silicon is the
starting material. A thin "p" layer is formed on the front surface of the device by thermal
diffusion or ion implantation of the appropriate doping material (usually boron). The interface
between the "p" layer and the "n" silicon is known as a pn junction. Small metal contacts are
applied to the front surface of the device and the entire back is coated with a contact metal. The
back contact is the cathode, the front contact is the anode. The active area is coated with either
silicon nitride, silicon monoxide or silicon dioxide for protection and to serve as an antireflection coating. The thickness of this coating is optimized for particular irradiation
wavelengths. As an example, a Centro Vision Series 5-T photodiode has a coating which
enhances its response to the blue part of the spectrum.

[14-EE-54]

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

The characteristics of pn junctions are well known. However, photodiode junctions are unusual
because the top "p" layer is very thin. The thickness of this layer is determined by the
wavelength of radiation to be detected. Near the pn junction the silicon becomes depleted of
electrical charges. This is known as the "depletion region". The depth of the depletion region can
be varied by applying a reverse bias voltage across the junction. When the depletion region
reaches the back of the diode the photodiode is said to be "fully depleted". The depletion region
is important to photodiode performance since most of the sensitivity to radiation originates there.
The capacitance of the pn junction depends on the thickness of this variable depletion region.
Increasing the bias voltage increases the depth of this region and lowers capacitance until the
fully depleted condition is achieved. Junction capacitance is also a function of the resistivity of
silicon used and active area size. The relationship between junction capacitance, bias voltage and
area is shown in the graph below.

When light is absorbed in the active area an electron-hole pair is formed. The electrons and holes
are separated electrons passing to the "n" region and holes to the "p" region. This results in a
[14-EE-54]

10

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

current generated by light (usually abbreviated Isc). The migration of electrons and holes to their
respective region is called "The Photovoltaic Effect".
Silicon photodiodes are most useful as current generators although a voltage is also generated by
illumination. Most of the data supplied in this manual refers to the short circuit current
characteristics of the photodiodes. The short circuit current is a linear function of the irradiance
over a very wide range of at least seven orders of magnitude. The Isc is only slightly affected by
temperature, varying less than 0.2% per degree C for visible wavelengths. A recently published
independent laboratory study has shown Centro Vision photodiodes to have Isc stability better
than +/-0.25% per year.

Working:
A photodiode is a pn junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the
diode, it creates an electron-hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric
effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away
from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in electric field of the depletion
region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and
a photocurrent is produced. The total current through the photodiode is the sum of the dark
current (current that is generated in the absence of light) and the photocurrent, so the dark current
must be minimized to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

Applications:
Pn photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors, such
as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. They may be used to
generate an output which is dependent upon the illumination (analog; for measurement and the
like), or to change the state of circuitry (digital; either for control and switching, or digital signal
processing).
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, and the receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control equipment
from televisions to air conditioners. For many applications either photodiodes or
photoconductors may be used. Either type of photo sensor may be used for light measurement, as
in camera light meters, or to respond to light levels, as in switching on street lighting after dark.
Photo sensors of all types may be used to respond to incident light, or to a source of light which
is part of the same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined into a single component
with an emitter of light, usually a light-emitting diode (LED), either to detect the presence of a
mechanical obstruction to the beam (slotted optical switch), or to couple two digital or analog
circuits while maintaining extremely high electrical isolation between them, often for safety .

[14-EE-54]

11

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

Laser Diode:
This type of diode is different from the LED type, as it produces coherent light. These diodes
find their application in DVD and CD drives, laser pointers, etc. Laser diodes are more expensive
than LEDs. However, they are cheaper than other forms of laser generators. Moreover, these
laser diodes have limited life.

Symbol:

Working:
The laser diode is a further development upon the regular light-emitting diode, or LED. The term
laser it is actually an acronym, despite the fact its often written in lower-case letters. Laser
stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, and refers to another
strange quantum process whereby characteristic light emitted by electrons falling from high-level
to low-level energy states in a material stimulate other electrons in a substance to make similar
jumps, the result being a synchronized output of light from the material. This synchronization
extends to the actual phase of the emitted light, so that all light waves emitted from a lasing
material are not just the same frequency (color), but also the same phase as each other, so that
they reinforce one another and are able to travel in a very tightly-confined, no dispersing beam.
This is why laser light stays so remarkably focused over long distances: each and every light
wave coming from the laser is in step with each other.

[14-EE-54]

12

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

Applications:
Laser diodes find wide use in telecommunication as easily modulated and easily coupled light
sources for fiber opticscommunication. They are used in various measuring instruments, such
as rangefinders. Another common use is inbarcode readers. Visible lasers, typically red but later
also green, are common as laser pointers. Both low and high-power diodes are used extensively
in the printing industry both as light sources for scanning (input) of images and for very highspeed and high-resolution printing plate (output) manufacturing. Infrared and red laser diodes are
common inCD players, CD-ROMs and DVD technology. Violet lasers are used in HD
DVD and Blu-ray technology. Diode lasers have also found many applications in laser
absorption spectrometry (LAS) for high-speed, low-cost assessment or monitoring of the
concentration of various species in gas phase. High-power laser diodes are used in industrial
applications such as heat treating, cladding, seam welding and for pumping other lasers, such
as diode-pumped solid-state lasers.
Uses of laser diodes can be categorized in various ways. Most applications could be served by
larger solid-state lasers or optical parametric oscillators, but the low cost of mass-produced diode
lasers makes them essential for mass-market applications. Diode lasers can be used in a great
many fields; since light has many different properties (power, wavelength, spectral and beam
quality, polarization, etc.) it is useful to classify applications by these basic properties.

[14-EE-54]

13

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (a semiconductor diode which glows when a voltage is applied).

"light sources can be fluorescent tubes, optical fibres, or LEDs.
Symbol:

Construction:
One of the method used for the LED construction is to deposit three semiconductor layers on the
substrate an given in figure.

[14-EE-54]

14

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

In between p-type and n- type, there exists an active region. This active region emits light, when
an electron and hole recombine. When the diode is forward biased, holes from p type and
electrons from n type, both get driven into the active region. And when recombine, the light is
emitted.

Working:
The holes are present in the valance band and the free electrons are in the conduction
band. When a p-n junction is forward biased, the electron from n-type semiconductor material
cross the p-n junction and combine with the holes in the p-type semiconductor material. Thus
with respect to the holes, the free electrons are at higher energy level.

[14-EE-54]

15

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

The figure shows the basic principle of the process.

When a free electron recombines with hole, the energy level related with it changes from higher
value to the lower value and it falls from the conduction band to the valance band. There is an
energy release due to the electron travel. In normal diodes, this energy released is in the form of
heat. But in LED the energy release in the form of photons which emit the light energy. The
entire process is called electroluminescence and the diodes are called the light emitting diode.
In LED, energy released in the form of light depends on the forbidden energy gap. One can
determine the wavelength of the light emitted. Hence the color of the light and also whether the
light is visible or not can be determined from wavelength. The colour and wavelength of the
emitted light can be controlled by doping with various impurities.
Applications:
LED uses fall into four major categories:

Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye, to
convey a message or meaning.
Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.
Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects.
Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond to
incident light, instead of emitting light.
[14-EE-54]

16

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

[14-EE-54]

17

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

CURRENT REGLATING DIODE
Constant-current diode is an electronic device that limits current to a maximum
specified value for the device. It known ascurrent-limiting diode (CLD), current-regulating
diode (CRD), or diode-connected transistor.

Symbol:

Construction:
These diodes consists of a n-channel JFET-transistor with the gate
shorted to the source, which functions like a two-terminal current limiter
or current source (analogous to a voltage-limiting Zener diode). They allow a
current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a
specific value. Unlike Zener diodes, these diodes keep the current constant
instead of the voltage constant. These devices keep the current flowing
through them unchanged when the voltage changes. An example is the
1N5312. Note the negative VGS is required, as an example on the n-type
junction-gate field-effect transistor 2N5457.

Working:
A current limiting diode, also known as a CLD, current regulating diode,
diode connected transistor or constant current diode, regulates or limits
current over a wide voltage range. Current limiting diodes consist of a JFET
with the gate shorted to the source and function like a two-terminal current
limiter or current source, much like voltage limiting Zener diodes. They allow
a current passing through them to rise to a certain value and then level off at
a specific value. Contrary to Zener diodes, these diodes keep the current
[14-EE-54]

18

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

constant instead of keeping the voltage constant. Current limiting diodes
keep the current which is flowing through them unchanged when the voltage
changes.

Applications:
Current limiting diodes offer high performance and simplicity
characteristics compared with bipolar transistors. They offer versatility in
several circuit applications and superior performance regarding dynamic and
impedance temperature drift. Some examples of devices using current
limiting diodes are waveform generator circuits, timing circuits and battery
chargers. Current limiting diodes can also be found as a constant current
source for driving LEDs and can be used in order to replace holding coils in
telephone connection devices.

[14-EE-54]

19

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

Comparison Of Diodes
Types:

Tunnel
Diode
Construct Two
ion:
terminal
semiconduc
tor diode.

Operation High-speed
:
switching
operations.

Pin Diode

Zener Diode Photo Diode

LED

A diode with
a wide,
undoped
intrinsic
semiconducto
r region
between a ptype
semiconducto
r and an ntype
semiconducto
r region.
High-level
injection.

A form of
semiconduct
or diode in
which at a
critical
reverse
voltage a
large reverse
current can
flow.

Constructed
from single
crystal silicon
wafers.

LED
construction
is to deposit
three
semiconduct
or layers on
the substrate.

Diode allows
significant
current if it
is reversebiased above
its
reverse brea
kdown
voltage.

When exposed
to light,
generates a
potential
difference or
changes its
electrical
resistance.

A
semiconduct
or diode
which glows
when a
voltage is
applied.

Symbol:

Made of:

Applicati
ons

Fabricated
from
germanium,
or gallium.
Used in
microwave

All three
layers are
fabricated
from silicon.
Used as RF
switches

Photodiodes
require higher
purity silicon.
Used as
Used
Used in
generation of as photocondu Narrow band
[14-EE-54]

20

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

waves and
satellite
communicat
ion
equipments
.

attenuators, p
hoto
detectors, and
phase
shifters.

a reference
voltage (for
an amplifier
stage), or as
a voltage
stabilizer.

ctors, charge- light sensors

coupled
and in
devices,
Illumination.
and photomult
iplier tubes.

[14-EE-54]

21