AE03

C
Chapter 1. Introduction to Acoustic

Emission Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Part 1. Nondestructive Testing . . . . 2
Part 2. Management of Acoustic
Emission Testing . . . . . . . . 13
Part 3. History of Acoustic Emission
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Part 4. Measurement Units for
Acoustic Emission
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Acoustic
Emission Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part 1. Introduction to Acoustic
Emission Technology . . . .
Part 2. Acoustic Emission Noise . .
Part 3. Acoustic Emission Signal
Characterization . . . . . . . .
Part 4. Acoustic Emission
Transducers and Their
Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part 5. Macroscopic Origins of
Acoustic Emission . . . . . .
Part 6. Microscopic Origins of
Acoustic Emission . . . . . .
Part 7. Wave Propagation . . . . . . .
31
32
41
45
51
61
69
79
Chapter 3. Modeling of Acoustic

Emission in Plates . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Part 1. Wave Propagation in
Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Part 2. Formal Analytic
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Chapter 4. Acoustic Emission Source
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part 1. Fundamentals of Acoustic
Emission Source
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part 2. Overdetermined Source
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part 3. Waveform Based Source
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121
O N TE N T S
Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission Signal

Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Part 1. Digital Signal
Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Part 2. Pattern Recognition and
Signal Classification . . . . 157
Part 3. Classification of Failure
Mechanism Data from
Fiberglass Epoxy Tensile
Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Part 4. Neural Network Prediction
of Burst Pressure in
Graphite Epoxy Pressure
Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Chapter 6. Acoustic Leak Testing . . . 181
Part 1. Principles of Sonic and
Ultrasonic Leak
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Part 2. Instrumentation for
Ultrasound Leak
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Part 3. Ultrasound Leak Testing
of Pressurized Industrial
and Transportation
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
of Evacuated Systems . . . 211
of Engines, Hydraulic
Systems, Machinery and
Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Part 6. Electrical Inspection . . . . 215
of Pressurized Telephone
Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Monitoring of Leakage
from Vessels, Tanks and
Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
122
131
135
Acoustic Emission Testing
Chapter 7. Acoustic Emission Testing

for Process and Condition
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Part 1. Acoustic Emission Testing
in Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
of Resistance Spot
Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Part 3. Acoustic Emission Weld
Monitoring of Aluminum
Lithium Alloy . . . . . . . . . 235
for Machinery Condition
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . 243
during Grinding . . . . . . . 251
Part 6. Crack Detection during
Straightening of Axles
and Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
of Pressure Vessels, Pipes and
Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Spheres and Other
Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . .
Testing of Composite
Overwrapped Pressure
Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . .
of Delayed Coke
Drums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Tank Floors . . . . . . . . .
of Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . .
Monitoring of Crack
Growth in Steel Bridge
Components . . . . . . . . . .
Part 3. Evaluation of Slope
Stability by Acoustic
Emission Testing . . . . . . .
271
272
281
284
290
296
305
306
Chapter 10. Electric Power

Applications of Acoustic
Emission Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Part 1. Acoustic Emission Location
of Incipient Faults in
Power Transformers . . . . 332
of High Energy Seam
Welded Piping . . . . . . . . 342
Monitoring of Loose
Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
of Steam Turbines . . . . . . 354
Chapter 11. Aerospace Applications
of Acoustic Emission Testing . . 359
of Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Part 2. Fatigue Crack Monitoring
of Aircraft Engine
Cowling in Flight . . . . . . 367
Monitoring of Rocket
Motor Case during
Hydrostatic Testing . . . . 377
Prediction of Burst Pressure
in Fiberglass Epoxy
Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . 383
Chapter 12. Special Applications of
Acoustic Emission Testing . . . . 391
Using Moment Tensor
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
for Structural Design of
Grand Prix Cars . . . . . . . 401
Monitoring of Sand in
Petroleum Wells . . . . . . . 408
Part 4. Active Corrosion
Detection Using Acoustic
Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
310
Chapter 13. Acoustic Emission
Testing Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
315
Index
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Figure Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Movie Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
U LT I M E D I A
O N T E N T S
Chapter 1. Introduction to Acoustic

Emission Testing
Movie. Discontinuities in steel . . . . 6
Movie. Plastic deformation causes
cry of tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Acoustic
Emission Testing
Movie. Acoustic emission differs
from other methods . . . . . 32
Movie. Pencil break source . . . . . . 36
Movie. Guard transducers control
noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission Signal

Processing
Movie. System with one
channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Chapter 6. Acoustic Leak Testing
Movie. Vibration at ultrasonic
frequencies of gas molecules
escaping from orifice . . . 183
Sound. Audible analog of
ultrasonic signal . . . . . . . 194
Movie. Steam system leak test . . 202
Movie. Amplitude rise heard
through ultrasound
detector as rough and
raspy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
for Process and Condition
Monitoring
Movie. Discontinuities from
welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Testing Glossary
Movie. Pencil break source . . . . . 431
Figure Sources

Signal Processing
Figure 1 Vallen-Systeme GmbH, Munich, Germany.

Testing for Process and Condition
Monitoring
Figures 19-26 Holroyd Instruments, Bonsall Near
Matlock, Derbyshire, United Kingdom
Chapter 11. Aerospace

Applications for Acoustic Emission
Testing
Figures 1-11 ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA.
446
Movie Sources
Chapter 1. Introduction to
Movie. Discontinuities in steel Physical Acoustics
Corporation, Princeton, NJ; for the Federal Highway
Administration, United States Department of
Transportation, Washington, DC.
Movie. Plastic deformation causes cry of tin Physical
Acoustics Corporation, Princeton, NJ; for the
Federal Highway Administration, United States
Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
Chapter 2. Fundamentals of
Movie. Acoustic emission differs from other methods
Physical Acoustics Corporation, Princeton, NJ; for
the Federal Highway Administration, United States
Movie. Pencil break source Physical Acoustics
Corporation, Princeton, NJ.
Movie. Guard transducers control noise Physical
Acoustics Corporation, Princeton, NJ; for the
Federal Highway Administration, United States

Signal Processing
Movie. System with one channel Physical Acoustics
Chapter 6. Acoustic Leak Testing

Movie. Ultrasonic vibration of gas molecules escaping
orifice UE Systems, Elmsford, NY.
Sound. Audible analog of ultrasonic signal UE Systems,
Elmsford, NY.
Movie. Steam system leak test UE Systems, Elmsford,
NY.
Movie. Amplitude rise heard through ultrasound detector
as rough and raspy UE Systems, Elmsford, NY.

Testing for Process and
Condition Monitoring
Movie. Discontinuities from welds Physical Acoustics

Testing Glossary
Movie. Pencil break source Physical Acoustics
Index
447
H A P T E R
Modeling of Acoustic
Emission in Plates
Richard L. Weaver, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
PART 1. Wave Propagation in Plates
Background
Crack Growth
Brittle crack growth emits acoustic energy
and acoustic emission testing of structures
is attractive for damage and remaining life
assessment. Because it is often difficult to
distinguish valid from false indications,
conventional monitoring techniques are
usually confined to representing each
event by a small number of parameters
such as energy, duration, frequency and
time of occurrence. For this reason, it is
difficult to distinguish events. The
techniques used, in which a small number
of parameters are extracted from each
waveform, neglect much of the detailed
information presumably present in an
often very complicated waveform.
Technological developments in
waveform processing hardware and
software and in acoustic emission
transducers have made it feasible to carry
out fully quantitative acoustic emission
analyses in real time. If the entire
waveform is analyzed in an elastodynamic
propagation model, the character and
position of the source may be extractable
from that analysis. This approach was
proposed in the early 1980s but
implementation was expensive.1,2 After
hardware and software improved, the
problem of theoretical elastodynamic
analysis of complex acoustic emission
waveforms has been revisited.
Forward and Inverse Problems

In an arbitrary and complicated structure
(consider for example a multiply riveted
and ribbed, curved shell), elastic wave
propagation is very complex. The forward
problem of calculating a response from a
specified source in such a structure may
be treated in principle by finite elements.
Such computations can be burdensome.
Furthermore, such analysis provides no
insight into the important inverse
problem of identifying the source from
the waveform. But if the structure is more
homogeneous (for example, a half space
or a flat plate), other techniques can be
used to solve the forward problem.
Even in a simple homogeneous
structure like a plate, elastic wave
propagation is complicated. There are two
110
distinct approaches commonly employed

in plates, that of generalized rays and that
of guided modes. In a ray approach, each
reflection from a top or bottom surface
and the associated generation of mode
converted rays must be considered. There
are a large number of rays to track, even
after a moderate propagation time. The
ray picture is most useful only at short
times and distances. By implication, it is
also most relevant for frequencies that
exceed thickness resonances.
Calculation of elastic wave responses in
isotropic uniform plates by means of
generalized rays has been treated3 and is
now widely carried out using a published
algorithm and software code.4 The
computations can become burdensome
because of the need to track so many
generalized rays at source-to-receiver
distances of several plate thicknesses.
Computation time increases exponentially
with the time to be studied. Nevertheless,
the technique has been used because it
can calculate responses at arbitrarily high
frequencies with little additional effort.
The chief application has been to
laboratory characterization of materials, of
receivers and of simulated acoustic
emission sources.5,6 The techniques are
not useful for the calculation of waves
from realistic acoustic emission events in
the field over the distances and times
typical for such applications.
Wave Modes
Expansion of responses in terms of the
guided modes of wave propagation
provides an alternative technique of
calculation,1,2,7-9 with a computational
burden that grows approximately
quadratically with source-to-receiver
distance. Unlike the ray approach, higher
frequencies demand extra computational
resources. Thus, the technique is well
suited for calculation of wave propagation
over the distances and times typical for
practical acoustic emission. Most
importantly, the technique yields analytic
expressions that can inform the important
inverse problem.2
One study1 considered the
axisymmetric problem of a concentrated
normal step force applied to the surface of
a 10 mm (0.4 in.) thick glass plate and its
normal surface displacement response at a
distance of four to forty plate thicknesses.
The work considered only the first eight
branches of wave propagation, thus

limiting the accuracy to a frequency range
below 800 kHz.
That analysis is extended here to
arbitrarily buried and arbitrarily oriented
strain nuclei sources, corresponding to
brittle growth of small cracks. Orientable
sources like cracks will give rise to
nonaxisymmetric waves. In principle, the
problem posed here is much harder than
the original problem that considered the
axisymmetric problem of a normally
oriented point surface force.1,2 However,
because interest is restricted to responses
written in terms of normal surface
displacements, the nonaxisymmetric part
remains irrelevant. This is formally shown
below, where the stated problem of the
surface normal displacement response to a
buried strain nucleus source is
transformed using reciprocity into the
entirely equivalent problem of the
calculation of the strain response at a
buried location to a step force on the
plate surface.
Below, the mathematical problem is
formally posed as a partial differential
equation with initial conditions and
boundary conditions for a vector field u
that represents the elastodynamic
displacement response to a buried strain
nucleus source. The Greens dyadic for the
plate is defined as the displacement
response (at an arbitrary position) to an
arbitrary, buried, concentrated step force.
The posed problem is then solved
formally and exactly in terms of that
Greens dyadic. It transpires that it suffices
to consider the Greens dyadic for the
normal surface step force.
The Greens dyadic is then expressed in
terms of the normal modes of the plate,
resulting in an expression for the desired
response as a sum over branches b, each
of which involves an integral with respect
to wavenumber k. The integrand is given
as a closed form transcendental function
of the symmetry or antisymmetry of the
branch b; the wavenumber k; the distance
r from source to receiver; the depth of the
buried strain nucleus source; the time, the
strength and the orientation of that
source and the implicit (and tabulated)
solution of the dispersion relation b(k).
on one surface of the plate. The position

of the receiver is taken to be at the
coordinate origin (r = 0 in polar
coordinates) on the upper (z = +h) side of
the plate of thickness 2h. The coordinate
system is shown in Fig. 1. The source S is
located at position xS, with polar
coordinates rS = |xS|, = 0, z = zS. The
dynamic force distribution f (x,t) is given
as a strain nucleus12 (or moment tensor13)
by the following function of x:
(1)
fi ( x,t )
Mil
3
( x xS ) (t )
xl
where the summation convention over

repeated indices is in force, where the
symmetric matrix M contains information
about the orientation and strength of the
source and where the time dependence
has been taken to be (t), the unit step
function. Other time dependencies may
be obtained by suitable convolution with
the calculated responses. The force
distribution may also be written as:
(2)
fi ( x,t )
Mil
3
( x xS ) (t )
xSl
The sign convention used for our

definition of M is such that positive
principal values, or eigenvalues, of the
matrix correspond to compressive loads.12
By way of illustration, it may be noted
that a suddenly broken bond that was
initially under tension releases what had
been a compressive load on the
FIGURE 1. Geometry of a plate with thickness 2h. A receiver,

sensitive to vertical displacement, is placed on the top
surface above the coordinate origin. A transient step
function source acts at position rS, S, zS and is characterized
by its moment tensor M. Without loss of generality, the
X axis is taken coincident with the line rs. Thus, S = 0.
Z
Receiver
Problem Formulation
It is desired to calculate the linear
elastodynamic response to a step strain
nucleus in an infinite plate with stress free
surfaces.10,11 The notion of a strain
nucleus is equivalent to a set of double
forces, that is, double couples without
moment. Such nuclei are expected to
describe any pointlike source smaller than
a wavelength. Of interest is the vertical
(outward) normal displacement response
rS
Mij
zS
Y
h
h
X
Legend
h = half plate thickness
Mij = moment tensor
rS = radial position
zS = depth position
S = axial position
Modeling of Acoustic Emission in Plates
111
surrounding material. The force is

equivalent to a constant compressive load
plus a suddenly applied tensile load.
Because only the dynamic part is of
concern, this is equivalent to only the
suddenly applied tensile part. Thus, such
a process is represented by a negative
principal value in M.
The following initial value boundary
value problem consists of the partial
differential equation:
(3)
ij u j ( x, t )
u j ( x,t )
u j ( x,t )
t
3m
v (t )
u3 (r = 0, z = + h, t )
The tensor differential operator ij is

defined by:
(7)
ij
( x) ij
2
k cikjl ( x) l
t 2
where m indicates (xm)1. In the

present case, the material density and
the material stiffnesses cijkl are presumed
isotropic and homogeneous:
(8)
ij
2
t 2
ik + ij kl
il jk
k l
where and are the lam moduli.
The desired response is the solution to
Eq. 3. It may be written in terms of the
Greens dyadic Gjk for the plate, which is
the displacement response to a step
concentrated force load. It is the solution
Gjk to:
112
(x, xS, t )
ij Mkl Gjk
xSl
x xS
Mil 3
(t )
xSl
Equation 10 repeats the force distribution

of a strain nucleus as described in Eq. 2.
Thus, Eq. 10 indicates that the desired
waveform, the response to a strain
nucleus, is given in terms of G:
(11)
M kl
G3k ( x, xS, t )
xSl
where z = h for all r and . Of particular

interest is the displacement response v(t)
at the position of the receiver, located on
the Z axis above the coordinate origin at
the top surface, where r = 0 and z = +h:
(6)
fi ( x, t )
at r = 0 and z = +h. By reciprocity, spatial

arguments and indices in G may be
exchanged so the above is also equal to:
at
z
(10)
for all x and for t = 0. The partial

differential equation is also supplemented
by traction free boundary conditions:
(5)
ij Gjk ( x, xS ,t ) = ik 3 ( x xS ) (t )
Gjk (x, xS, t) is the displacement response

in the j direction at position x to a unit
step force in the k direction at position xS.
By taking a spatial derivative ( xSl)1 of
Eq. 9 and multiplying by the matrix Mkl,
the above becomes:
f i ( x, t )
supplemented by quiescent initial

conditions:
(4)
(9)
(12)
Mkl G3k
(xS, x, t )
xSl
at r = 0, z = +h. Equation 12 indicates that

the desired waveform is equal to M times
the strain response at xS to a vertical step
load applied at r = 0 and z = +h.
This reciprocal form (Eq. 12) for the
response (Eq. 11) will be especially useful,
because it permits the calculation of the
strain response to a vertical step load at
the origin and equates that to the vertical
displacement response to a strain nucleus
source. Because vertical step loads are
axisymmetric, there is no component to
the displacement response and no
dependence to that field. Thus, the strains
resulting from a vertical step force are
confined to the quantities rr, zz, rz and
zr. (The strain plays a minor role.) The
originally stated problem may therefore
be recast more simply to calculate only
the axisymmetric displacement response
u(x,t) to a step load on the upper surface
at the origin1 and then to construct the
linear combination of its spatial
derivatives:
(13)
=
=
+
M :
ur
uz
M rr
+ M zz
r
z
u
uz
M rz r +
r
z
u
M r
r
where the dummy variable xS is replaced

with x. The colon (:) represents a
complete inner product between the
tensors.
The result is, by reciprocity, equal to
the originally stated problem concerning
the vertical displacement response at the
origin to a strain nucleus source M at x. In
this restatement, it may be seen that the
nonaxisymmetric modes do not enter nor
do the shear horizontal waves. If the
in-plane displacements caused by a strain
nucleus source were required, it would be
necessary to consider these waves too.
113
PART 2. Formal Analytic Solution
The formal development of the response

of an infinite plate to a step vertical load
(that is, the quantities u in Eq. 13) has
been described in the literature.1,2 The
description involved an expansion in
terms of the discrete normal modes of a
finite plate of large radius R. If the
(irrelevant) boundary conditions at R are
chosen conveniently, then each of these
modes belongs to a definite branch of the
rayleigh lamb dispersion relation (Fig. 2).
The properties of such modes are
discussed in standard references.14-16 The
relevant formulas are summarized below.
The plates eigen modes antisymmetric
and symmetric with respect to z are
described separately.
and axisymmetric with respect to are

given by Eqs. 14 to 23:
Antisymmetric Modes
(16)
At wavenumber k and frequency , modes

that are antisymmetric with respect to z
FIGURE 2. Dispersion curve for rayleigh lamb waves in a steel

plate. The three straight dashed lines correspond to bulk
longitudinal waves (the steepest line), bulk shear waves (the
line of intermediate slope) and compressional waves in water
(the line of least slope). The bold and unbold curves are
respectively the symmetric and antisymmetric branches.
(14) ur = U a (z ) J 0 (kr )
=
(15) uz = W a (z ) J 0 (kr )
=
Frequency
(ratio of dilational wave speed to thickness)
[B cos z + Ck
cos z
J 0 (kr )
=
where J is a bessel function and prime ()

indicates a derivative with respect to
argument. Equations 14 and 15 define the
function U(z) and W(z) for antisymmetric
modes. The coefficients B and C are given
by:
B
2 k 2 sin h
(18) C
(k
(17)
10
2 sin h
The antisymmetric rayleigh lamb

dispersion relation is:
9
8
Ra ( , k )
1 2
k 2
4 k 2 cos h sin h
(19)
) sin h cos h
2
The vertical wavenumbers and are

given by:
3
2
2
(20)
(21) 2
1
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
Wave number k = t 1, where t is thickness

(arbitrary unit)
114
[B sin z C sin z]
k J 0 (kr )
[ B sin z C sin z ]
k J1(kr )
20
2
cd2
2
ce2
k2
k2
where cd and ce are respectively the

dilatational and shear (or equivoluminal)
wave speeds of the plate material. There is

a potential ambiguity in that the vertical
wavenumbers and are defined only up
to an unspecified sign. This ambiguity is
of no consequence: the sign is arbitrary
and final results are independent of the
choice of sign as long as it is made
consistently. It may also be noted that
and may be imaginary. This happens,
respectively, whenever k > cd1 or
k > ce1. In these cases, the usual
identities apply: sin i = i sinh ;
cos i = cosh . In these cases, it may
also happen that the modes themselves
become complex.
Equations 19 and 20 implicitly
determine as a function of k. There is a
discrete infinity of solutions for each
real k. If desired, they may be enumerated
by a branch index b = 1, 2 . . . .
As explained in previous work,1 if k is
restricted to a discrete set of values with
small uniform spacing R1 chosen by the
relation J0(kR) = 0 and if is one of the
solutions of the dispersion relation
(Eq. 19), then these are vibration modes
of the large radius (R ) disk with
rigid-smooth boundary conditions at the
outer rim. The mode has a squared norm:
(22)
Na
2 Ma
(23) Ma =
(z )2
2 h
sin 2 h
= B2
+ 2 k2
2
2
Cd
2 2
W s (z ) J 0 (kr )
(25) uz
+ 4 B C k 2 sin h cos h
Symmetric (with respect to z) but

axisymmetric (with respect to ) modes
with wavenumber k and frequency are
given by:
sin z
The coefficients A and D are given by:

(26)
2k 2 cos h
(27)
(k
2 cos h
The symmetric rayleigh lamb dispersion

relation is:
(28)
Rs ( , k )
1 2
k 2 cos h sin h
4 k 2 cos h sin h
As discussed elsewhere,1 these are the

(symmetric and axisymmetric) modes of
the large radius (R ) disk with
rigid-to-smooth boundary conditions at
the outer rim, if k is restricted to a discrete
set of values with uniform spacing R1
and if is the one of the solutions of the
dispersion relation (Eq. 28). This mode
has a squared norm:
(29) N
u ud A dz
2 Ms
R
k
where the integral is over the entire

volume of the disk shaped plate and
where Ms is:
(30)
Symmetric Modes
J 0 (kr )
+ C k
2h
sin 2 h

2 k 2
2
2
ce
[ A sin z + D k
R
k
2
+ W a (z ) dz
[ A cos z + D cos z]
k J 0 (kr )
[ A cos z + D cos z ]
k J1 (kr )
u u d A dz
where the integral is over the entire

volume of the disk shaped plate and Ma is
given by an integral over the thickness of
the plate, z going from h to +h:
U s (z ) J 0 (kr )
(24) ur
U (z) + W (z) dz
h
sin 2 h
= {A
( k )
2
c
Ms =
2
d
2h
sin 2h
+ D 2 k 2 2 + 2 k 2
2
ce
+ 4 ADk 2
)
cos h sin h}
115
The solutions of the dispersion

relations in Eq. 19 and Eq. 28 are
discussed in many places in the
literature.1,2,7,14-17 See also the equivalent
formulas for anisotropic plates.18,19 For
each k, there is a discrete infinity of real
solutions b(k) for each of the two cases of
symmetric and antisymmetric modes.
From each such solution b(k), it is simple
to obtain the values for the coefficients B
and C or A and D and , and M.
So the response becomes:

(34)
+
+
The Greens dyadic (needed in Eq. 12 for

the desired waveform) can be expressed as
a sum over the above normalized
vibration modes:
(m )
(m )
(x) u j (x)
1 cos ( m t )
i
2
m
N
where the sum is over all of the eigen

modes m. The index m is equivalent, in a
manner that need not be detailed, to
specification of the wavenumber k and
the branch b. The quantity N is the
normalization of the mode m;
N = 2M Rk1.
Because the case j = 3 and source
position x are required at the point
r = 0, z = h, it may be noted that
nonaxisymmetric modes (none of which
were specified above) do not contribute. It
is further noted that u3(m)(x) = W(h) and
(after Eq. 13):
(32)
v =
{M
rr U
(z ) r J0 (kr )
+ M zz z W (z ) J 0 (kr )
+ M
U (z )
r
J 0 (kr ) + M rz
[
1 cos [ t ]
[W (h)]
R
]}
W (z )r J 0 (kr ) + zU (z ) J 0 (kr )
m
2 m M
where the sum is over all axisymmetric

modes: every branch b of the dispersion
relations above and every discrete value of
k along each branch. The sum may be
replaced with an integral along the
branch and a sum over branches:
(33)
116
dk
b
k dk [W (h)]
1
{M U (z) J (kr )
rr
r 0
M zz z W (z ) J 0 (kr )
M rz W (z ) r J0 (kr )
z U (z ) J o (kr )
U (z )
r
J 0 (kr )
1 cos b (k )t
2 b (k ) M
2
where the integral over k runs from zero

to infinity and the sum is now a sum over
the infinite number of branches b of the
dispersion relation, both symmetric and
antisymmetric. The function (k) has
been given a subscript b to emphasize that
it is the solution of the dispersion relation
corresponding to the bth branch. The b
and k dependencies of W and U and M
have been suppressed; similarly, the
superscripts (a) and (s) on U and W are
suppressed.
The case of a step upward normal
surface force (equivalent for dynamic
purposes to a step release of a downward
normal force) of magnitude F0 is similar
to the above expression for the response
to a strain nucleus:
(35)
k dk F W (h)
1 cos [ (k ) t ]
1
Greens Function
(31) Gij ( x, x, t ) =
2 b (k ) M
2
An extra factor of 1 must be inserted to

each antisymmetric branch in Eq. 35
when the source and receiver are on
opposite sides.
Equation 34 is the main result of this
calculation. It permits numerical
calculations of the response of a normal
surface displacement detector to a distant
buried oriented strain nucleus of step
function time dependence. In practice,
the detector will not be ideal, so the
above time dependent v(t) must be
convolved with the transducer function.
Similarly, it may be convolved with the
time derivative of the source function if
the source function is thought to differ
from (t).
In practice, transducers may also be
not pointlike. Under the assumption that
the transducer does not affect the
structure and that the transducer is
axisymmetric around its own nominal
position, its spatial footprint may be

accounted for by inserting, into the above
integral, a factor of the hankel transform
of the transducer footprint. In the case of
a piston receiver of radius R, this factor is
essentially:
(36)
2
R2
(kr ) r dr
2 J1 (k R )
Equation 34 may be rewritten in terms of

the coefficients Q of distinct bessel
functions:
[M
zz
Q 3 (k )
k Mr r U ( z )
(40) Q4 (k )
k M U (z )
()
] 2 M
z (z )
W h
Displacement (arbitrary unit)
FIGURE 3. Out-of-plane displacement prediction for a

cracklike source located 0.9 m (3 ft) from the transducer and
connected to the same surface, in Unified Numbering
System G43400 alloy steel.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
200 240 280
320 360 400 440 480
Time (s)
520
2 M
W (h)
2 M
W (h)
2 M
The response v(t) is then given by:

(41)
k dk [Q (k) J
1
(kr )
Q2 (k ) J 0 (kr ) + Q3 (k ) J 0 (kr )
Q4 (k )
J 0 (kr ) 1 cos b (k )t
2
kr
b (k )
Thus, there are four distinct amplitudes

needed for each k and b. All four are
needed for an exact calculation of
waveforms. They are functions of the
parameters M that represent source
orientation and strength; they are
functions also of the depth of the source
represented by the coordinate z and of the
wavenumber and branch number of the
mode of interest. However, for an estimate
of the relative importance of each mode
at asymptotic distances rk >> 1, it suffices
to consider only a single effective
amplitude Qeff for each type of strain
nucleus source and each source depth and
each mode. At asymptotic distances,
J0 (kr) is about J0(kr); J0 is /2 radians
(90 deg) out of phase with J0 and
J0(kr)(kr)1 is negligible hence the
definition of a single effective amplitude:
(42) Q eff (k ) =
160
Mrz kW (z ) + z U (z )
kR
Inverse Problem
Q 2 (k )
W (h)
(39)
which has been normalized to unity for a

point sensor R 0.
The evaluation of Eqs. 34 and 35 has
been coded. The algorithm requires first
the multibranched solution of the
rayleigh lamb dispersion relation on a
sufficiently fine grid in wavenumber k
and out to a sufficiently large frequency
. A separate code uses the instances of
and k for each branch as obtained in the
first code and then evaluates the
quantities M, U(z), W(z) and their
derivatives, at the source coordinate z,
and also W(h), for each branch b and each
wavenumber k along that branch by using
Eqs. 14 to 30. The numerical integral is
then straightforward.
An example is shown (Fig. 3) for the
predicted out-of-plane displacement for a
cracklike acoustic emission source (set of
double sources) connected to the same
surface as the sensor. For this example,
the source is 0.9 m (3 ft) from the
transducer.
(37) Q1 (k )
(38)
k
b (k )
[Q2 (k)] + [Q1 (k) Q3 (k)]

2
This single quantity represents the

contribution of a given mode {k,b}. It is
useful to plot it versus for each
branch b, for each of several parameters
M relating source orientation to strength
and for source coordinate z thereby
illustrating the relative contributions of
different sources to different modes. If
source character is to be ascertained
through examination of the waveform, it
must necessarily be by means of this
quantity Qeff; all information about the
source is transmitted through Qeff. This
observation forms the basis of the inverse
procedure below.
117
(43)
k dk
F0
(k ) J0 (kr )]
1 cos [ b (k ) t ]
2
b (k )
Q 1stepload
where Q 1stepload(k) is:
(44)
Q1stepload (k )
(sign)
W 2 (h)
2 M
where sign = 1 if the branch is an

antisymmetric branch and if the source
and receiver are on opposite sides of the
plate; sign = +1 otherwise. Thus,
Q 2 = Q3 = Q4 = 0 is identified for the step
force source. The effective Q is given again
by Eq. 42:
(45) Q
eff
(k )
k Q1stepload (k )
b (k )
The inverse problem thus reduces to

estimating, from measured waveforms,
the effective modal amplitudes Qeff at
each {k,b}. A waveform in the time
domain at given time t may be
understood as a superposition of the
many modes {k,b} that propagate at the
same group velocity.2 At asymptotically
large source-to-receiver distances, the time
of signal arrival equals the time of source
event plus the ratio of distance to Vgb():
(46)
Time of signal
arrival
Time of source
event
Distance
Vgb ( )
where Vgb is the group velocity:

(47) Vgb
d b
dk
Group velocity depends on plate material

and thickness and on the branch in
question and the frequency of interest but
not on source type or distance. Time of
arrival is different for different branches
and frequencies.
Thus, at any time t, there are several
modes contributing to the waveform, all
with different effective amplitudes Q and
all with different frequencies. The result is
a complex beat pattern. Extracting the
118
modal amplitudes Q from that pattern is

difficult because each such mode, having
a different frequency, has been affected
differently by the transducer sensitivity,
the amplifier gain and the source
function. Conversely, the waveform in the
frequency domain can be understood as
an interference pattern between the many
branches that have the same frequency
but different amplitudes Q and different
arrival times. In either domain, the
waveform is complex, because there are so
many interfering branches at the same
point.
The best way to analyze these
waveforms is in neither the frequency
domain nor the time domain but rather
by means of a simultaneous time and
frequency decomposition. If signal
processing can effect this decomposition,
the only remaining interferences would be
at the occasional places where two
branches have the same group velocity
and frequency.
Much signal processing literature tries
to optimize such decompositions. Work
has focused on the spectrogram, that is,
on the square of the short time fourier
transform, and on the wigner transform.
The simplest analysis of time versus
frequency, the spectrogram, has been
found to be adequate. A spectrogram
calculated from a theoretical waveform
(an evaluation of Eq. 34) is shown in
Fig. 4, where amplitudes concentrated
along the loci of frequency versus arrival
time are evident. Similar spectrograms are
FIGURE 4. Spectrogram obtained from a theoretical acoustic

emission waveform. Amplitudes are confined to specific loci
in the space of time versus frequency.
1.0
0.9
0.8
Frequency (MHz)
The case of a step vertical surface load

(Eq. 35) is also of interest:
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
S0
0.1
A0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
Legend
S0 = asymmetric S wave
A0 = symmetric P wave
600
700
800
shown in this NDT Handbook volumes

chapter on source location. From such
spectrograms, the distance to the source
can be extracted by comparing the times
of arrival of different modes of known
group velocity. For example, it is clear
that the rayleigh wave arrives around time
tR = 325 s. The S0 mode arrives around
tS0 = 60 s. Thus, distance of the source
can be calculated:
(48)
t R t S0
1
1
cS 0
cR
By analyzing multiple points in such

plots, it is possible in principle to obtain
highly accurate source distances.
It is far more challenging to attempt to
characterize the source. It has been found
that source character can be determined
from the amplitudes in plots of time
versus frequency such as that of Fig. 4.
The ability of such a plot to isolate a
single mode, and thereby estimate its
effective Q is critical. Comparison with
theoretical values of Qeff then permits a
determination of the source character. The
procedure is described in detail in this
NDT Handbook volumes chapter on
source location.
Key to the technique is the recognition
that time functions for source and
receiver are irrelevant if the effective
amplitudes of different modes at the same
frequency are compared. If those modes
arrive at different times, then they do not
interfere and a plot like that of Fig. 4
permits the evaluation of the ratio of
effective Qs. A set of 13 mode pairs has
been identified for which one frequency
arrives at two distinct times and no other
modes arrive at that time, with that
frequency.
For example, the color version of the
screen shown in Fig. 4 displays the
amplitude of the S0 and A0 modes at a
frequency of 0.1 MHz. Under these
conditions, there is no interference and
the effective mode amplitudes can be
estimated without ambiguity from the
strength of the corresponding points of
the spectrogram. Although the amplitude
itself is a function of the source strength
and time function and receiver
characteristics, the ratio of effective Qs of
different modes of the same frequency is a
function of only source character and
source depth. Those many ratios are then
compared to the values of those ratios for
each source in a catalog of candidate
sources and the best fit candidates are
presented together with their fit quality.
Success with real waveforms, possibly
with limited bandwidth and perhaps
shorter distances from source to receiver is
not documented in the present
discussion. Source orientation and depth

were recovered from waveforms as
generated by Eq. 34 or 35 and from their
spectrograms like that of Fig. 4. Success
was best when distance from source to
receiver was greater than 100 times the
plate thickness. This is perhaps
unsurprising because large distances lead
to better separation of modes with
different group velocity.
It is clear that the best resolution of
source type will be obtained if waveforms
are wideband enough to encompass
several of the 13 mode pairs identified as
most useful. These mode pair frequencies
range up to about the cutoff of the tenth
branch, that is, to a frequency of about
400 kHz in 25 mm (1 in.) thick steel.
119
References
1. Weaver, R.L. and Y.-H. Pao.

Axisymmetric Waves Excited by a
Point Source in a Plate. Journal of
Applied Mechanics. Vol. 49.
New York, NY: ASME International
(1982): p 821-836.
2. Weaver, R.L. and Y.-H. Pao. Spectra of
Transient Waves in Elastic Plates.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America. Vol. 72. Melville, NY:
American Institute of Physics, for the
Acoustical Society of America (1982):
p 1933-1941.
3. Ceranoglu, A.N. and Y.-H. Pao.
Propagation of Elastic Pulses and
Acoustic Emission in a Plate. Journal
of Applied Mechanics. Vol. 48.
(1981): p 125-147.
4. Hsu, N.N. Dynamic Greens Functions of
an Infinite Plate A Computer Program.
NBSIR 85-3234. Gaithersburg, MD:
National Institute of Standards and
Technology (1985).
5. Breckenridge, F., T. Proctor, N.N. Hsu,
D. Fick and D. Eitzen. Transient
Sources for AE Work. Progress in
Acoustic Emission V. Tokyo, Japan:
Japanese Society for Nondestructive
Inspection (1990): p 10-37.
6. Sachse, W. Recent Developments in
Quantitative AE. Proceedings of the
IUTAM Symposium on Elastic Waves and
Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation
[1989]. Amsterdam, Netherlands:
Elsevier, for the International Union of
Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
(1990).
7. Santosa, F. and Y.-H. Pao. Transient
Axially Asymmetric Response of an
Elastic Plate of Finite Thickness. Wave
Motion. Vol. 11. Amsterdam,
Netherlands: Elsevier (1999):
p 271-295.
8. Mal, A.K. and T.C.T. Ting, eds. Wave
Propagation in Structural Composites.
AMD-90. Materials Park, OH: ASME
International (1988).
9. Mal, A.K. Wave Propagation in
Layered Composite Laminates under
Periodic Surface Loads. Wave Motion.
Vol. 10. Amsterdam, Netherlands:
Elsevier (1988): p 257-266.
10. Pao, Y.-H. Theory of Acoustic
Emission. Elastic Waves and
Nondestructive Testing of Materials.
AMD-29. New York, NY: ASME
International (1978): p 107-128.
120
11. Pao, Y.-H. Elastic Waves in Solids.

Journal of Applied Mechanics. Vol. 50.
(1983): p 1152-1164.
12. Love, A.E.H. A Treatise on the
Mathematical Theory of Elasticity.
New York, NY: Dover (1927).
13. Aki, K. and P. Richards. Quantitative
Seismology Theory and Methods. San
Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman (1980).
14. Achenbach, J.D. Wave Propagation in
Elastic Solids. Amsterdam, Netherlands:
North Holland (1973).
15. Miklowitz, J. Theory of Elastic Waves
and Waveguides. Amsterdam,
Netherlands: Elsevier/North Holland
(1978).
16. Graff, K.F. Wave Motion in Elastic Solids.
New York, NY: Dover (1975).
17. Weaver, R.L. Diffuse Waves in Finite
Plates. Journal of Sound and Vibration.
Vol. 94. San Diego, CA: Academic
Press (1984): p 319-335.
18. Nayfeh, A. and D. Chimenti.
Ultrasonic Wave Reflection from
Liquid Coupled Orthotropic Plates
with Applications to Fibrous
Composites. Journal of Applied
Mechanics. Vol. 55. New York, NY:
ASME International (1988): p 863-870.
19. Banerjee, S., A.K. Mal and
W.H. Prosser. Analysis of Transient
Lamb Waves Generated by Dynamic
Surface Sources in Thin Composite
Plates. Journal of the Acoustical Society
of America. Vol. 115, No. 5. Melville,
NY: American Institute of Physics, for
the Acoustical Society of America
(2004): p 1905-1911.

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C

Chapter 1. Introduction to Acoustic

Chapter 3. Modeling of Acoustic

Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission Signal

Acoustic Emission Testing

Chapter 7. Acoustic Emission Testing

Chapter 10. Electric Power

Figure Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Acoustic Emission Testing

Chapter 1. Introduction to Acoustic

Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission Signal

Acoustic Emission Testing

Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission

Chapter 7. Acoustic Emission

Chapter 11. Aerospace

Acoustic Emission Testing

Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission

Chapter 6. Acoustic Leak Testing

Chapter 7. Acoustic Emission

Chapter 13. Acoustic Emission

Richard L. Weaver, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

PART 1. Wave Propagation in Plates

Forward and Inverse Problems

Acoustic Emission Testing

distinct approaches commonly employed

branches of wave propagation, thus

on one surface of the plate. The position

where the summation convention over

The sign convention used for our

FIGURE 1. Geometry of a plate with thickness 2h. A receiver,

Modeling of Acoustic Emission in Plates

surrounding material. The force is

The tensor differential operator ij is

where m indicates (xm)1. In the

Equation 10 repeats the force distribution

where z = h for all r and . Of particular

at r = 0 and z = +h. By reciprocity, spatial

for all x and for t = 0. The partial

Gjk (x, xS, t) is the displacement response

supplemented by quiescent initial

Acoustic Emission Testing

at r = 0, z = +h. Equation 12 indicates that

where the dummy variable xS is replaced

Modeling of Acoustic Emission in Plates

PART 2. Formal Analytic Solution

The formal development of the response

and axisymmetric with respect to are

At wavenumber k and frequency , modes

FIGURE 2. Dispersion curve for rayleigh lamb waves in a steel

where J is a bessel function and prime ()

The antisymmetric rayleigh lamb

The vertical wavenumbers and are

Wave number k = t 1, where t is thickness

Acoustic Emission Testing

where cd and ce are respectively the

wave speeds of the plate material. There is

Symmetric (with respect to z) but

The coefficients A and D are given by:

The symmetric rayleigh lamb dispersion

As discussed elsewhere,1 these are the

where the integral is over the entire

where the integral is over the entire

Modeling of Acoustic Emission in Plates

The solutions of the dispersion