ACD504 Session 01 BasAnalTech

Session I
Basic Analytical Techniques

Session Speaker
Dr. Vinod K. Banthia
1
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Session Objectives
At the end of this session students will be able to
Explain basic principles and concepts of Mechanics of
Materials
Classify, and analyse accordingly, structural components
based on their structural behaviour
Analyse structural components to assess their adequacy for
specific application without failure
Apply Theory of Elasticity approach for analysing structural
behaviour
Solve structural problems using Energy Methods
2
Structural Design
Design
To create, fashion, execute, or construct according to plan - devise,
contrive
To conceive and plan out in the mind
To have as a purpose
To devise for a specific function or end
To indicate with a distinctive mark, sign, or name
To make a drawing, pattern, or sketch of
To draw the plans for
Intransitive verb
1: to conceive or execute a plan
2: to draw, lay out, or prepare a design
Structure: arrangement of elements for carrying loads

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/design
Structural Design
Structures
Loads/Forces
Interaction
Response of the Structure?
Deformation
(Stiffness)
Reaction to
the forces
(Strength)
What controls the response of the structure?

What makes a structure adequate?
4
Forces
5
Forces/Loads
The source?
Effect of interaction between physical objects on the
objects involved
Mechanics
Study of interaction between physical objects and the effect of
this interaction on the objects involved.
(Strength of Materials, Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, Solid Mechanics, .)
Design
What happens to solid bodies when subjected to various types of loading?
Relate
Relate
Load
Stress
Load
Displacement
6
Forces/Loads
N
S
r
i
r
v
7
Types of Forces/Loads
Body forces:
Act on each element volume of the body
Surface forces:
(Traction)
Act on surface or area elements of the body
Idealisations
8
Forces/Loads
Make bodies move
Prevent bodies from moving
Motion
Linear
Rotational
Force
Mass
Acceleration
Motion along the force
P*d = Work/Energy
Forces
Linear
Rotational
Moment, Torque, Couple
Moment of Inertia
Angular acceleration
Rotation in the direction of
moment
M*q = Work/Energy
9
Forces/Loads
Newtons Laws
Concept of force what causes things to move?

Measure of force/mass how to quantify?
F=
1 kg @ 1 m/s2
(derived unit)
d
(mv )
dt
Action/Reaction equilibrium
interaction
Magnitude?
Force Laws
Magnitude of forces of interaction
Function of the properties of the body and its environment
mg
mg
(3 0 / 2 ) 2 / r 4
kx
GmM / r 2
10
Equilibrium & Free Body Diagram

r
Fi = 0
r
M i = 0 (moment/couple)
(vector sum)
Free (isolate) the body of its interaction (Constraints)

Apply the forces at the interaction points (Applied/Constraint)
dAlemberts principle
r
Fi m&x&i = 0
(accelerating to equivalent static)
r
M i I&&i = 0
( (
) )
r
M i I i = 0
Equivalent Force system

Inertia force through the c.g.,
Inertia torque through any point
St. Venants Principle

http://appliedmechanicsreviews.asmedigitalcolle
ction.asme.org/article.aspx?articleid=1399873
11
=0
PR=0
P=R
P
E, L, I
= 0 = R2
F = 0 = R1 + R 3 P
M = 0 = R1 * L Pb
y
R2
R1
R3
12

p
T1
T1
gm1
T2
T2
R1
R1
gm2
w
a
M
R
M
P=wa
Equivalent Force System

R
13

4
n =1
n =1
FnA = FnB
A
Fn
Mn
A
n
n =1
F + M
A
n
n =1
A
n
= r F + M nB
B
n
n =1
B
n
Fn
n =1
Mn
rn
Moment about the same point
rn
http://www.engin.brown.edu/courses/en3/Notes/Statics/Staticequiv/Staticequiv.htm
14
http://www.engin.brown.edu/courses/en3/Notes/Statics/Staticequiv/Staticequiv.htm
http://em-ntserver.unl.edu/negahban/em223/note10/note10.htm
15
Equivalent Force system Center of Mass

y
g*dm
mg = gdm
Total Force =
r
r
rcg mg = rdm gdm
r
rdm r
rcg
x
mg
x dm
x=
dm
i
y dm
y=
dm
M x = xdm
Extension to Systems of Particles

n
m x
i
x=
i =1
n
m
i =1
y=
i
m y
i =1
n
i =1
16
x
Stresses
17
Stresses
Load Stress
Deformation Stress
(Residual, Initial,Trapped, Locked in)
Micro
(micro-structure level
Independent of loads)
Influences material strength

Difficult to calculate
Macro
In the bulk of material
(Load or Deformation)
18
Stress
As internal reaction/resistance to applied load
P
= P/A
P
M
P
19
Stress
Stress:
A measure of internal force distribution (reaction of one part

of the body on the other) in a loaded body
T2
P1
P3
Z
r
n
P2
T3
T1
Internal
Resistance
Variable
Stress?
Intesity on the internal force on a specified plane
P
A 0 A
Stress = lim
lim A ?
A 0
Stress at a point or Stress on an area?

20
Stress
Z
Pr
Pn
n Y
r Y
n
X
Pt
Normal
Y
X
Shear
Pn
Pn
r Z P
n
r
n
=
X
Z
Y
Pt
r
n Y
r Z
n
=
X
Pty
Ptx
Force Components Stress Components

21
Stress at a Point
State of stress at a point
Pr
n Y
22
Stress at a Point
B
B = ?, B = ?
Magnitude, Direction and Orientation

Stress Tensor
23
Stress at a Point
n = Pn/A = P/A
= Pt/A = 0
Pn
P
Pt
n = Pn/Asin = Pcos/Asin
=Psincos/A
= Pt/Asin = P sin/Asin
= Psin2/
24
Notation for Stress

Plane
Dirrection
ij
Z
zz
zy
zx
xx
Sign Convention
(Sign for Plane)
*
(Sign for Direction)
xz
xy
xx
yz
yy
X
25
State of Stress at a Point

Z
zz
zy
zx
xx
All the components of stresses at a point
xz
xy
xx
18
Equilibrium in Normal direction
18
yz
yy
Equilibrium in Tangential direction

6
yx
yy
Sign Convention
xy
yx
xx
xx
yx
Complimentary Shear
yy
26
Transformation of Stresses
C
xy yy
xy
xx
yy xy
xx
xx
xy
nn
nt
xy
xy
yy
nn = xx sin + yy cos + 2 xy sin cos

2
If
nt = ( yy xx ) sin cos + xy (sin 2 cos 2 )

xy
sin cos
=
= 0 .5 tan 2
nt = 0
2
2
( yy xx ) (sin cos )
n = n x2 xx + n y2 yy + n z2 zz + 2 n x n y xy + 2 n y n z yz + 2 n z n x zx
27
Normal Stress, Pure Shear and Principal Stress
Normal Stress
Pure shear
For any stress state at a point in a stressed body,

there exist three mutually perpendicular planes
which pass through the point and on which only
normal stresses, namely principal stresses, exist.
28
Transformation of Stresses
2
xy yy
xy
xx
yy
xy
xx
xy
Principal Stresses
2
= 1 sin 2 + 2 cos 2
1
2
= ( 2 1 ) sin cos
2
29
Transformation of Stresses Arbitrary condition
xy y
xy
x
y xy
x, y =
x
xy
1 + 2
2
xy =
1, 2 =
x + y
x y

2
+ xy 2
2 = tan
( x y ) 2
1
1 2
1 2
2
cos 2
yx
xy
x
x
xy
sin 2
yx
y
x
30
Strains
31
Strain
Load on Structure
Deformation
Stress
l
=
l
Uniform strain over the length
Real problems
32
Strain
Deformation behaviour in infinitesimal neighbourhood
dx
y
u
= (u +
dx ) u / dx
x
dy
u
u
u+
dx
=
x
x
y
u+
u
dy
y
v
dy
y
Shear Strain = =-
dx
u v
=
+
y x
Normal Strain: No distortion, Volume change
xy
u
x =
x
v
y =
y
u
dx
x
v+
v
dx
x
Shear Strain:
Distortion, no volume change
x
33
Strain Transformation
y
x ' = x sin 2 + y cos 2 + xy sin cos
y'
cos 2 +
xy
sin 2
x +y
x y
cos 2
xy
sin 2
2
2
2
2
= ( x y ) 2 cos sin + xy (cos sin 2 )
=
x y
2
sin 2 +
Direction for
Principal Strain
1, 2 =
x y
2
2
2
= x cos 2 + y sin 2 xy sin cos
=
x'y'
x +y
sin 2
xy
2 1 = tan

y
x
x +y
2
xy
x y
+
2
xy
+
34
Stress Strain Relationship
35
Stress-Strain Relations
Load
Deformation
Uniqueness for structure?
Load
Stress
Strain
Stress
Deformation
Strain
Unique for material
Simeon Poisson
Robert Hooke (1676)

ceiiinossssttuu
P
()
Ut tensio, sic vis (1678)

As the extension, so the force
= t l = x y
Auxetic Materials
,
x
http://home.um.edu.mt/auxetic/www/properties.htm
36
Stress-Strain Relationship
Poissons Effect:
z
= E
= t l
zz
y
1 =
xx
yy
yy
xx
xx
2 =
yy
E
x =
E
x
z
zz y
E
3 =
E
x
xx = 1 2 3
zz
1
=
xx yy zz
E
1
xy = xy
G
xx
(Hookes Law)
yy
1
=
yy zz xx
E
1
yz = yz
G
zz
1
=
zz xx
E
1
zx = zx
G
yy
E
G=
2 (1 + )
37
Define
e = x +y +z
and
= x + y + z
3(1 2 )
e=
p = Kp
E
Result
1 2
e=
(hydrostatic loading, Bulk Modulus)
E
x =
e+
x = e + 2G x
(1 + )(1 2 ) (1 + )
E
y =
e+
y = e + 2G y
(1 + )(1 2 ) (1 + )
E
Z =
e+
z = e + 2G z
(1 + )(1 2 ) (1 + )
38
Stress-Strain Relation
1

xx

yy
zz
E
0
=
xy (1 + )(1 2 )
0
yz
zx
0
1 2
2
1 2
2
0
0
0
Stiffness Representation
xx
1

yy

zz 1
=
xy E 0
yz
0

zx
0
0
0
0
0
2 (1 + )
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 (1 + )
0
0 xx

0
yy
0 zz
xy
0 yz

1 2 zx
2
0
xx

yy
0 zz
0 xy
0 yz
2 (1 + ) zx
0
0
Flexibility Representation
39
Plane Stress:
zz , zx and yz assumed to be zero
y
yx
xy
x
x
xy
yx y
xx
E
=
xx + yy
2
1
zz =
yy
xx
+ yy
1
xx = xx yy
E
1
yy = yy xx
E
2 (1 + )
xy =
xy
E
E
=
yy + xx
2
1
]
40
Plane Strain:
zz , zx and yz assumed to be zero
xx
E
=
1 + 2
xx 1 yy
zz
yy =
yy 1 xx
E
1 + 2
E
( xx + yy )
=
(1 + )(1 2 )
41
Combined Stresses
42
The real World
What happens in these complex loading condition?

How to know the magnitudes of normal and shear stresses?
43
Combined Stresses
1. Find stress state for each loading
2. Sum up like stresses
3. Use Mohrs circle
Like Stresses:
Normal (bending, axial)

Shear (torsion, shear)
Pn Mc
=
A
I
Ps Tr
=
A
J
xy y
xy
x
y xy
x
xy
44
Combined Bending and Torsion

M
M
T
Mc/I
xy
xy y
xy
x
Tr/J
x
xy
1, 2 =
x + y
2
x y
+ xy 2
2 = tan
(
)
y
1
45
Ex. 1 Combined Bending and Torsion

500 mm
axial
10000
=
= 5 .1MPa
2
* 50 4
2500 mm
10000N
50 mm
bending
(
10000 * 500 ) * 25
=
= 407 .4 MPa
( * 50
64
A = 407 .4 + ( 5 .1) = 402 .3 MPa

B = 407 .4 + ( 5 .1) = 412 .5 MPa
46
Example 2: Combined Normal and Shear Stress

500 mm
300 mm
30 mm
668416
=
= 126 .1MPa
3
* 30 16
F = 4340 $
BM max = (4340 * 500 4 ) = 542500 $mm
Power = 35 kW
RPM = 500 rpm
torsion
T = 668416 $mm
bending
542500
=
= 204 .6 MPa
3
* 30 32
comb = 204 .6 + 126 .12 + ( 204 .6 / 2 ) 2 = 367 MPa

comb = 126 .12 + ( 204 .6 / 2 ) 2 = 162 .4 MPa
47
Structural Behaviour
under Different
Loading Conditions
48
So many things So little time
(for design)
49
Where do I begin?
http://www.easypedia.gr/el/ima
ges/shared/1/10/IC_engine.JPG
http://image.absoluteastronomy.com/images/en
cyclopediaimages/w/wa/water_turbine.jpg
http://boeingcockpit.com/image/c1f04.jpg
What are we designing?

How?
Where do we start?
http://www.daviddarling.info/images/electric_motor.jpg
http://blog.mlive.com/chronicle/2008
/01/large_Wind_Turbine.jpg
50
Whats the difference?
http://www.tourismindia.in/delhitourism/img/l-full.jpg
http://www.aerospacetechnology.com/projects/airbus_a380/im
ages/A380freighter_4.jpg
www.nbtt.in/kolkata
http://edsphotoblog.com/wpcontent/photos/800px/ba_airbus_a319_takeoff.j
pg
51
Components Subjected to Uniaxial Loading

Loads/Weight act only along the axis of the element
Prismatic Member (Uniform Cross-section)
Cross-section remains plane
Loads applied at the centroid of the cross-section
Applied Loads are constant
Material is homogeneous and isotropic
Poissons effect is neglected
Buckling effect is not considered
Application: Truss, Cables under tension
52
53
= P
Assume
A, L
1
P
= =
E
AE
L
=
L
PL
L =
AE
Deformation is uniform
Stresses and Strains are constant
54

Truss:
12 R A = (15 + 10 )9 + (10 ) 6 + ( 20 + 10 )3
R A = 31 .25
R B = (15 + 10 ) + (10 ) + ( 20 + 10 ) R A
R A = 33 .75
FAC sin 59 .04 + 31 .25 = 0
Method of joints
FAC
At joint A
1
= tan (5 / 3) = 59 .04
FAC cos 59 .04 + FAD = 0

FAD
31.25kN
FAC = 36 .44 k$
FAD = 18 .75 k$
55

At joint D
FCD
FDE
FAD
FDE FAD = 0
FDE = 18 .75 k$
FCD 10 = 0
FCD = 10 k$
10 kN
Method of sections
FAC
FDC
FDE
31.25 kN
= 0 = 31 .25 * 3 5 FDE = 0
FDE = 18 .75 k$
= 0 = 3 FCD 10 * 3 = 0
FCD = 10 k$
56
Components Subjected to Bending Loading

P
E, L, I
Y,v(x)
q(x)
v ( x )
u ( x, y ) =
= yv = y
x
2v
= E = Ey 2 = Ey
x
X,u(x,y)
u
2v
=
= y 2 = yv = y
x
x
M = y dx = E y 2 dx = EI
=Mc/I
=P/2a
=Mc/2I
57

Shearing Action
P
E, L, I
P
R1
R2
Shearing action of the cross-section (Vertical direction)
Shearing action of the cross-section (Horizontal direction)
58

Bending Action
P
E, L, I
M
Compression
Stretch
Rotation
59

Determination of Forces:
q1(x)
q2(x)
Diagrams for illustration only
SFD
BMD
60

Drawing SFD and BMD
Free Body Diagram
dw
=
dx
d
M
=
dx EI
dM
=V
dx
dV
=q
dx
61

Drawing SFD and BMD
62

M
bdy
y
c
M =
(bdy ) y =
max y
c
I = Second Moment of Area
ydA =
max
c
y dA =
2
max I
c
max
Mc
=
I
measure of resist to bending of a cross-section
I(distribution of material about bending axis)
Material farther
Higher I
M
E
= =
I
y
dM
=V
dx
dV
=q
dx
(Equilibrium)
63

Longitudinal Shear Stress in Beam:
T1
T2
'
Ma
y
'
* tdx = T = a =
I
a ' y dM Va ' y
=
=
It dx
It
max =
3V
bd
max =
4V
3r 2
max =
V
B ( D 2 d 2 ) + bd 2
8b
]
64
Example (Longitudinal shear):

y
180 mm
A
B
12 mm
220 12 110 + 180 12 226

y cg =
= 162 .2 mm
220 12 + 180 12
x cg = 0
I = 2 .66 10 7 mm 4
xx
Shear on Surface A = 0 (free surface)

X
220 mm
Shear on Surface B (flange)

15000 (180 12 ) 63 .8
=
= 0 .432 MPa
7
2 .66 10 180
ycg
2
Shear on Surface B (web)

15000 (180 12 ) 63 .8
12 mm
=
= 6 .3 MPa
7
2 .66 10 12
Shear at neutral axis (maximum shear)
x
15000 (180 12 63 .8 + 57 .8 12 28 .9 )
=
= 7 .42 MPa
7
2 .66 10 12
65

Shear Center:
Point of intersection of bending axis and plane of transverse section
Bending axis longitudinal axis through which the transverse bending load
must pass to ensure there is no twist of the section
If load passes through shear center, the section will not twist.
Load not passing through the shear center will cause twisting of the section
resulting in much higher longitudinal stress than predicted by bending
equation.
66
Components Subjected to Torsional Loading

l
Angle of twist = (x)

Pure Torsion = / l
Stress-Strain = G / l
Equilibrium
T = * (G / l )dA
Prismatic member
Torque applied at the end
Small angle of twist
No change in r
Cross-section twists as rigid body
2 r
T = (G / l ) 2 dA = (GI p / l )
0 0
T G
= =
J r
l
67

y
Beams Torsion
z x
T G
= =
r J
L
T
y
z x
T
b
t
J = bt 3 / 3
/ L = 3T /( Gbt 3 )
= 6Ty /( bt 3 )
max = 3T /( bt 2 )
/ L = 3T / G ( bi )t 3
is shape coefficient
= 6Ty /( bi )t max = 3T /( bi )t
3
C(1.1), Z(1.17),
Angle(0.83), T(1.00)
68

Beams Torsion
t1
Shear flow pattern in
thin walled sections
y
Shear flow is constant

around the section
z x
T
T
ds
q
=0
s
2
4
J
=
A
ds t
T
q=
2A
= (1 2GA ) (q t )ds
J. Powlowski, Vehicle Body Engineering, Business Books Limited, London
69

Beams Torsion
q1
q2
In general,
A2
A1
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A2 q 2
T = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q 2 + ........ + 2 An q n
t3
t1
t2
T
q1 + q 2 = 2G A1
q 2 q 3 = 2G A2
T (t 3l 2 A1 + t 2 l3 ( A1 + A2 ))
1 =
2
2
2
2 t1t 3l 2 A1 + t 2 t 3l1 A2 + t1t 2 l3 ( A1 + A2 )
T (t 3l1 A2 + t1l3 ( A1 + A2 ))
2 =
2
2
2
2 t1t 3l 2 A1 + t 2 t 3l1 A2 + t1t 2 l3 ( A1 + A2 )
T (t1l 2 A1 t 2 l1 A2 )
1 =
2
2
2
2 t1t 3l 2 A1 + t 2 t 3l1 A2 + t1t 2 l3 ( A1 + A2 )
70
Components Subjected to Internal Pressure

Thin walled (r>5t)
l t 2r = p r 2
pr
l =
2t
pr
2 l t
max =
t l
2
pr
=
4t
2 t t dx =
pr
t =
t
p 2 r dx
pr
tt
t t 2r = p r 2
pr
t =
2t
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/mat_mechanics/pressure_vessel.cfm
71
Components Subjected to Internal Pressure

Thick walled
2
r =
ro ri
2
t =
p i ri p o ro ri ro p o p i ) / r
2
pr p r
l = i i 2 o2 o
ro ri
1
t = [ t + ( r l ) ]
E
1
t = [ tr + ( t + l ) ]
E
1
l = [ l + ( r t ) ]
E
p i ri p o ro + ri ro p o p i ) / r
ro ri
v = 2 t + l
72
Rotating Disks
http://www.utm.edu/departments/engin/lemaster/Machine%20Design/Lecture%2016.pdf
73
Bending of Curved Bars

1
Z =
a
M
y
da
y+R
Neutral Surface exists

Total deformation of the
fibers is proportional to
their distance from the
neutral surface (tension and
compression)
The strains of the fibers
are not proportional to its
distance from the neutral
surface
M
=
aR
1 y
1 +
Z R+ y
74
Bending of Curved Bars

Z =
1
a
y
1
da =
y+R
2bc
y
1
y
bdy =
dy
y+R
2c c y + R
c
y
dy
c
b
Method 1
1
2
3
4
y
1
y
y y y y
= 1 + = + + ........
y+R R
R
R R R R
2
1 y
1 y
1 y
Z = + + + ........
3 R
5 R
7R
Method 2
c
c
1
y
1
R
dy
Z =
dy =
1
2c c y + R
2c c
y+R
Z = 1 +
R
R+c
log e
2c
R
75
Compenents Subjected to Thermal Loading

T
A,E
,l
lT
P
Pl
l T =
AE
l
P
T = = ET
A
Temperature increase under constraints

Thermal gradient in a component
Phase change during solidification (locked in stresses)
Differential cooling rates (locked in stresses)
76
Buckling
Axially loaded members
=P/A
=PL/(AE)
Elastic Buckling
Neutral equilibrium
and are not proportional to the load
(even though and are)
s load increases increases abruptly
Load is limited to critical load (Pcr)
Stress levels are lower than compressive yield
77
Elastic buckling of ideal slender column

Euler buckling
Axially loaded member
Homogeneous material
Pcr: Maximum load under which if the component when given a small
lateral deflection will come back to its equilibrium position.
Column with lateral deflection:
EI d 2 y dx 2 = M = Py
y + 2 y = 0
2 = P EI
y = A sin x + B cos x
For simply supported column
x=0
=y
x =l
=0
P
78
Elastic buckling of ideal slender column

EI
2
Pcr =
Pcr =
2 EA
(le r )
cr =
EA
2
(l r )
2E
(le r )
I = Ar 2
(r: minimum radius
of gyration)
le: effective length
le = kl
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckling
http://physics.uwstout.edu/StatStr/Statics/Columns/cols61.htm
79
Types of Column
Short columns:
0 < le / r < 60
No failure due to buckling

Compressive failure (P/A>cr)
Intermediate columns:
Long columns:
60 < le / r < 120

120 < le / r < 300
For Eulers equation to be valid
(le / r ) = 2 E p
Length of self-buckling column
lcrit = (2 .5 E ( g ))
1/ 3
Factors affecting the validity of Eulers equation

Load misalignment
Straightness of the component
Initial stresses
Material defects
80
cr
Intermediate columns/Inelastic buckling

Euler line
> c before P reaches Pcr
E
2
?
~ 100
cr
yc
Abrupt increase in at a
well defined load
(le r )2
(l/r)
Tangent Modulus method
Johnsons Parabola
2
cr = yc
1 y (le r )
? cr = y E 2
cr =
2 Et
(le r )
Et
2E
yc/2
(le r )2
Johnson
Euler
(l/r)
81
Buckling of flat plates

Thin walled cylinder under axial or torsion or bending load
Wide flanged thin walled beams
Flat plates under in plane compression
Failure of functionality
Redistribution of loads
Number of bulges Geometry, BC
Pult = cr (b 2 m )t + 2 max mt
cr
E t
Pcr
=
=K
2
A
12 (1 ) b
2
F.B.Seely and J.O.Smith, Advanced Mechanics of Materials, 2nd

Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
82
Buckling of flat plates

R.J.Roark and W.C.Young, Formulas for Stress and Strain, 5th
Edition,McGraw-Hill Book Company,
T
T
E t
= K
2
1 b
SS
Clampe
d
y
a/b=1
a/b=2
a/b=inf.
7.75
5.43
4.40
12.7
9.5
Hinged =
Clamped
7.38
= C
SS
x
y
0 .823 E
C=
1 2
t

b
l
H = 1
tr
2
C = C
E
1 2
E
=
1 2
(
t
( 2 .39 +
l
t
1 .5
1 .27 + 9 .64 + 0 .466 H
l
2 1 y + 2 x
C
C
2 .31 4 y + 4 x
C
3 C
96 .9 + 0 .605 H 1.5
2 1 y + 6 x
C
C
2 .31 4 y + 8 x
C
C
83
Material Behaviour
84
Material Behaviour
Elastic limit
Proportional
limit
necking
strain hardening
elastic
yielding
= P/A
= l / l
85
Material Behaviour
p
Youngs Modulus/Secant Modulus/Tangent Modulus
Proof Stress: Yield strength at a specified permanent set

Work Hardening: The phenomena of increased elastic limit after loading-unloading
Ductility: Total elongation due to plastic deformation
Toughness: Energy absorbed in the process of breaking
Reduction of Area: Measure of necking (reduction in the diameter) before breaking
Tensile Strength: Highest stress the material can withstand before failure
Yield Strength: Stress at which plastic deformation starts
Bauschinger effect: Decrease in resistance of material to plastic deformation in
the direction opposite to the in which it was plastically deformed earlier

86
General Stress-Strain Relationship
87
Different Kinds of Material Behaviours
Isotropic
Same properties in all directions
2 material constants
Orthotropic
Properties have two orthagonal planes of symmetry
Composites, rolled sheets
Transversely Orthotropic
Same property in one plane and different normal to it
Anisotropic
Properties have no planes of symmetry
88
Failure of Material
89
Material Behaviour and Failure
x
xy
xy
xy
xy
x
Fn
Mn
Seely, F.B. and Smith, J.O, Advanced Mechanics of Materials, Second edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
90
http://web.utk.edu/~prack/mse201/Chapter%208%20Failure.pdf
http://web.utk.edu/~prack/mse201/Chapter%208%20Failure.pdf
91
http://wwwoutreach.phy.cam.ac.uk/physics_at_work/2005/exhibit/matsci.php
http://www.aloha.net/~icarus/
92
Material Behaviour Theories of Failure
(Rankine Theory)
(Coulombs Theory)
(St. Vnenamts Theory)
93
Material Behaviour Theories of Failure
94
Theories of Failure
1. Max. Principal Stress
2. Max. Shear Stress
3. Octahedral Stress
4. von Mises Stress
max
max = ( max min ) / 2
max = ( 1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2 3
max = ( 1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2
95
Bending and Torsion

Going Beyond SoM
96
Torsion of Circular Bars
Angle of twist = (x)

Pure Torsion = / l
Stress-Strain = G / l
Equilibrium
Prismatic member
Torque applied at the end
T = * (G / l )dA
2 r
T = (G / l ) 2 dA = (GI p / l )
0 0
Small angle of twist

No change in r
Cross-section twists as rigid body
No warping of cross-section
T G
= =
J r
l
http://www.transtutors.com/homework-help/mechanical-engineering/torsion/shafts-circular-section.aspx
97
Torsion of Non-Circular Sections
max = Tt / J
Warping
= T / GJ
J i = ibt 3
Max. stress not farthest from centroid

http://www.colorado.edu/engineering/CAS/courses.d/Structures.d/IAST.Lect08.d/IAST.Lect08.pdf
98
Torsion of Thin Rectangular Sections
b t 10
xy
= 1 3
/ L = 3T / G ( bi )t 3
= 6Ty /( bi )t 3 max = 3T /( bi )t 2
http://www.colorado.edu/engineering/CAS/courses.d/Structures.d/IAST.Lect08.d/IAST.Lect08.pdf
99
Torsion of Solid Section

(assumption)
Torque is resisted by
the shear only on the
cross-section (xy=0)
Equilibrium Equation
Prandtls Stress Function
Compatibility Condition
On the outside surface

T.H.G. Megson, Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students, Elsevier, 4th Edition, 2000
100
Torsion of a Circular Bar
Using compatibility condition
101
Torsion of Narrow Rectangular Strip
Shape Factor
w
d
=x
y
dz
d
w = xy
dz
102
St. Venants Warping Function

Assumed mode of displacement
u = y
v = x
d
w=
( x, y )
dz
All sections rotate in a rigid manner

Warping function of x and y co-ordinate only
zx
d
=
dz
zy
d
=
dz
+ x
y
+ x x
T = ( zy x zx y ) dxdy = G
y y dxdy
z y
x

+ x x
J =
y y dxdy
x

y
103
Bending, Shear and Torsion

Of Thin-Walled beams
104

P
E, L, I
Shearing
Bending
M
dw
=
dx
d
M
dM
=
=V
dx EI
dx
M
E
= =
I
y
Assumptions
dV
=q
dx
105
Bending of Beam in two Mutually Perpendicular Directions

Resolution of BM
= 1 + 2 ?
106
Bending of Beams of Arbitrary Cross-section

z =
M x (I yy y I xy x )
I xx I yy I
2
xy
Section with symmetry
M y (I xx x I xy y )
I xx I yy I xy2
M x or M y = 0
M yx
M xy M yx
Mxy
z =
z =
+
or
I xx
I yy
I xx
I yy
tan =
M y I xx M x I xy
M x I yy M y I xy
Neutral Axis
Through centroid
107
Bending Deflection of Beams of Arbitrary Cross-section

S x 2 M x
wy =
=
z
z 2
dw
w
=
dx
(q V M)
d
M
=
dx EI
wx =
dM
=V
dx
S y
2M y
z
z 2
dV
=q
dx
Deflection
2u
u = 2
z
2v
v = 2
z
d2y M
=
2
dx
EI
I xy
u
1
=
2
I yy
v
E
I
I
I

xx yy
xy
I xx M x
I xy M y
108
Approximations for Thin-walled Cross-section

Wall thickness is much smaller than cross-sectional dimensions
Stress is constant across thickness
Small contributions in I are neglected
10
Exact
% Diff
Approx.
3.5
3
7
2.5
6
5
1.5
3
1
2
0.5
1
0
0.0125
0
0.1375
0.2625
0.3875
109
Bending Moment Variation and Shear Stress

w
dw
=
dx
Shear
d
M
=
dx
EI
dM
=V
dx
dV
=q
dx
Shear+Rotation
110
Shear in Open Section Beams

q = t
Shear Flow
q
z
+t
=0
z
z
s
q
+t
=0
s
s
M y
z
qs =
I xx I yy I
2
xy
M x
= Sy
z
= Sx
S x I xx S y I xy
txds
0
S y I yy S x I xy
I xx I yy I
2
xy
tyds
0
111
Shear Centre
Sx = 0
Shear
Centre
qs =
Sy
I xx
tyds
0
S y e = 2 q lower
0
h
ds1
2
I xx
h 3t
6b
=
1 +
12
h
q lower
6S y
=
s1
6b
2
h 1 +
3b 2
e=
h (1 + 6b / h )
112
Shear in Closed Section Beam
Load need not be on shear centre
Shear and Torsion
Point at which shear flow is known is difficult/impossible to find
qs =
S x I xx S y I xy
I xx I yy I
2
xy
q s ,0
txds
0
S y I yy S x I xy
I xx I yy I
2
xy
tyds + q
s ,0
= qb + q s ,0
An unknown reference value
113
Shear in Closed Section Beam
qb =
S x I xx S y I xy
I xx I yy I
2
xy
txds
S y I yy S x I xy
I xx I yy I
2
xy
tyds
0
Internal moment of this shear flow and external moment in equilibrium
pqds = pq ds + q pds
S = pq ds + 2 Aq
S x 0 S y 0 =
S x 0
s ,0
s ,0
Moment about intersection of Sx and Sy

0=
pq
ds + 2 Aq s , 0
find
114
Twisting and Warp of Closed Section Beams

Shear loads not acting through shear center
Rotation of the cross-section
+
Axial displacement of the cross-section
w vt
q s = Gt
+
s z
vt = p + u cos + v sin
s
w s w0 =
qs
A0
ds
0 Gt
A
w0 = w s tds
qs
Gt ds
tds
115
Torsion of Closed Section Beams

s
q
+t
=0
z
s
q
z
+t
=0
s
s
Pure torque loading

q
=0
s
q=C
q
=0
z
Constant shear flow in the beam wall

Shear stress variation depends on variation of t
T =
pqds = 2 Aq
Bredt-Batho Formula
116
Displacements in Closed Section Beams

w vt
q = Gt
+
s z
Pure torsion
(q constant)
q
=0
z
No direct stress
(z=0 constant)
d 2 d 2 u
d 2v
p 2 + 2 cos + 2 sin = 0
dz
dz
dz
2 vt
=0
2
z
= Az + B
s
qs
A0
ws w0 = ds
Gt
A
0
ds
=
Gt
u = Cz + D
qs
Gt ds
v = Ez + F
T Os AOs
w s w0 =
2A
A
s
Os
ds
=
Gt
0
117
Torsion of Open Sections Beams
s >> t
Torsion of thin rectangular strip
zs
d
= 2Gn
dz
zs , max
J =
st 3
3
zs , max
zn = 0
d
= Gt
dz
1
J = t 3 ds
3 sec t
tT
=
J
118
Warping of the Cross-section

d
wt = ns
dz
Waarping of a thin rectangular strip

Waarping of a thin rectangular beam
w vt w
=
+
=
+ pR
s z
s
z
zs = G zs = 0
At mid-line of a section wall
d
ws =
dz
zs
Secondary
Small
p R ds
Primary, constant over t
d
T
w s = 2 AR
= 2 AR
dz
GJ
119
Structural Idealisation
( Ast + Asp ) A part << 1

Variation in stress in st and sp 0
(stringer centroid,Skin) is very small
Direct stress over stringer area is constant
Boom
All direct stresses are carried by booms
120
Idealisation
Panel direct stress carrying boom + shear stress carrying skin
121
Theory of Elasticity
122
Mechanics of Materials
M
= Mc / I
P
= P/A
r =
ro ri 2
2
p i ri p o ro + ri ro p o p i ) / r
2
t =
= Tr / J
p i ri p o ro ri ro p o p i ) / r
2
ro ri 2
2
123
Mechanics of Materials and Theory of Elasticity
Mechanics of materials
Strain distribution is assumed
(simplified, unidirectional)
Theory of elasticity
No simplifying assumption is
made about strain distribution
Hookess law for one component of

strain is used (=E)
General statement of Hookess

law is used
Equilibrium in terms of applied

forces
Equilibrium in terms of internal

reactions
Compatibility Condition
Same material assumptions are used in both

Bodies are perfectly elastic
Body is homogenoeous
Body is isotropic (mostly)
124
State of Stress in a body

Equilibrium Condition
External and Internal forces
P2
Over every small part of the body

Over the surface of the body
P5
P6
Z
r
n
P4
P3
P1
125
Elasticity Equations of Equlibrium
F =0
M
=0
BC
126
2D Problem Equation of Equilibrium

( + ( y ))dx
( + ( y ))dx
( + ( x ))dy
dy
y
yx
yx
xy
xy
dy
x dy
xy
( x + ( x
x ))dy
dx
y dx
yx dx
M = 0 xy = yx
Differential equations of equilibrium:
Fx = 0 ( x x ) + ( xy y ) + X = 0
F y = 0 ( xy x ) + ( xy y ) + Y = 0
Condition on rates of changes in stresses for equilibrium (internal)
Stresses must satisfy the force equilibrium on the boundary also
127
Components of Strains
Assuming small strains
u
x = ((u + (u x )dx ) u ) / dx =
x
v
y = ((v + (v y )dy ) v ) / dy =
y
u v
xy =
+
y x
z =
w
,
z
yz =
v w
+
,
z y
zx =
u w
+
z x
128
x
x =
1
x = x ( y + z )
E
1
y = y ( x + z )
E
1
z = z ( x + y )
E
x
E
y = z =
x
E
(Poissons effect)
xy
yz
zx
1
= xy
G
1
= yz
G
1
= zx
G
E
G=
2 (1 + )
Under the action of numerous forces, if the deformations are small and do not
affect the action of other forces, these deformations are neglected. Under this
condition, the resultant displacements can be obtained by superposition in the
form of linear functions of external forces.
129
Define
e = x +y +z
and
= x + y + z
(hydrostatic
3(1 2 )
e=
p loading)
E
Result
1 2
e=
E
x =
e+
x = e + 2G x
(1 + )(1 2 ) (1 + )
E
y =
e+
y = e + 2G y
(1 + )(1 2 ) (1 + )
E
Z =
e+
z = e + 2G z
(1 + )(1 2 ) (1 + )
130
Strain Compatibility
Number of equations of equilibrium < Number of unknowns
Statically indeterminate problem
Use elastic deformation condition

u
x =
x
y =
v
y
xy =
u v
+
y x
u and v cannot be selected arbitrarily

u and v must satisfy the condition of compatibility
2 y
2 xy
x
=
+
2
2
y
x
xy
2
131
Compatibility Conditions in terms of Stresses

For general case
For plane stress
2
2 x 2 y
2 x y
+

+
2
2
2
2
y
x
2 xy
= 2 (1 + )
xy
2
2
2 + 2
y
x
X Y
( x + y ) = (1 + )
+
x y
2
2
2 + 2
y
x
1 X Y
( x + y ) =
+
(1 ) x y
For plane strain
Boundary conditions
y
xy
X
$
Y
xy
X = l x + m xy
X
Y = m x + l xy
Y
132
2D Problems Stress Function

For a two dimensional problems with weight being the only body force, the solution
to the problem is obtained by solving the following equations, along with satisfying
the prescribed boundary conditions
( x
x ) + ( xy y ) = 0
2
2
2 + 2
y
x
xy
x ) + ( y y ) + g = 0
( x + y ) = 0
Define a function such that
2
2
2
x = 2 gy , y = 2 gy , xy =
y
x
xy
satisfies the equilibrium equation, and will satisfy compatibility condition if
4
4
4
+2 2 2 + 4 =0
4
x
x y
y
133
2D Problems Stress Function

For a more general case of body forces, assuming these have potential
X =
V
,
x
Y =
V
y
Define a function such that
2
x V = 2 ,
y
2
y V = 2 ,
x
xy
2
=
xy
This leads to compatibility condition
2V 2V
4
4
4
+ 2 2 2 + 4 = (1 ) 2 +
4
2
x
x y
y
134
2D Problem in Rectangular Coordinates

2
x V = 2 ,
y
2
x = 2 ,
y
2
y V = 2 ,
x
xy
2
y = 2 ,
x
2
=
xy
xy
With
2
=
xy body force
For a given polynomial expression for stress function

Corresponding variation of stresses can be found
135

=
a2 2
c
x + b2 xy + 2 y 2
2
2
x = c2 ,
y = a2 ,
xy = b2
a 3 3 b3 2
c
d
x + x y + 3 xy 2 + 3 y 3
3* 2
2
2
3* 2
x = c3 x + d 3 y , y = a 3 x + b3 y , xy = b3 x c3 y
If all coefficients other than d3=0, pure bending
If all coefficients other than a3,d3=0, pure bending
by normal stress on y = c
If all coefficients are non zero, both normal and
shearing stresses on the sides of the plate.
136

a4 4
b4 3
c4 2 2
d4
e4
3
=
x +
x y+
x y +
xy +
xy 3
3* 4
2*3
2
3* 2
4*3
e4 = (2 c 4 + a 4 )
y = a 4 x 2 + b4 xy + c 4 y 2
xy =
b4 2
d
x 2 c 4 xy 4 y 2
2
2
If all coefficients other than d4=0
x = d 4 xy ,
y = 0,
xy
d4 2
=
y
2
137

=
a5 5
b
c
d
e
f
x + 5 x 4 y + 5 x 3 y 2 + 5 x 2 y 3 + 5 xy 4 + 5 y 5
5* 4
4*3
3* 2
3* 2
4*3
5* 4
c5 3
1
2
2
x = x + d 5 x y (2 c5 + 3a 5 )xy (b5 + 2 d 5 ) y 3
3
3
d5 3
3
2
2
y = a5 x + b5 x y + c5 xy +
y
3
b5 3
1
2
2
xy = x c5 x y d 5 xy + (2 c5 + 3a 5 ) y 3
3
3
138
St. Venants Principle
In the solutions presented, there is a correlations between the pattern of

variation of boundary loads and resulting stress variation.
A change in the pattern of variation of boundary loads will result in the change
of pattern of stress variation.
If the boundary loads are replaced by a
statically equivalent load system, the
effect on the pattern of stress variation
is localised to the region where such
change has been made.
Determination of Displacements
Once stresses are known, use stress-strain relations to find strains.
u v
v
u
Use strain displacement relations
=
+
=
x =
xy
y
y x
y
x
to find displacement components
Displacements are obtained but not unique
139
Example Bending of a Cantilever

y = c faces are free of forces
Resultant of shear force on x=0 is P
d4 2
x = d 4 xy , y = 0, xy = ( b2 )
y
2
d4 2
2 b2
xy y = c = 0 ( b2 ) c = 0 d 4 = 2
2
c
2 b2 2
3P
+c
c
c xy dy = P -c b2 2 y dy = P b2 =
c
4c
3P
Pxy
x = 3 xy =
,
2c
I
y = 0,
xy
3P
y2
1 2
=
4c
c
140
Example Bending of a Cantilever

Pxy
x =
,
EI
y =
Pxy
EI
Px 2 y
u=
+ f(y) ,
2 EI
xy
v=
P
=
c2 y2
2 IG
Pxy 2
2 EI
+ f1(x)
Substitute this in the third component, separate out functions of x and y,

apply boundary conditions (at y=0) to obtain
Px 2 y Py 3 Py 3 Pl 2 Pc 2
u=
+
+
2 EI
6 EI 6GI 2 EI 2GI
Pxy 2
Px 3 Pl 2 x Pl 3
v=
+
+
+
2 EI
6 EI 2 EI 3 EI
141
Example Bending of a Beam with UDL

xy
y=c
= 0, y
y=c
= 0, y
y=c
= q
+c
c xy
+c
+c
dy
=
m
ql
,
dy
=
0
,
c x
c x ydy = 0
x = d 5 (x 2 y 2 y 3 3 )
y = a 2 + b3 y + d 5 y 3 3
q 2
x =
x y 2 y3 3
2I
q
y =
2c 3 3 c 2 y + y 3 3
2I
q 2
xy =
c y2 x
2I
xy = d 5 xy 2 b3 x
To satisfy last condition, add another term d3y
) (
q 2
x =
l x 2 y + 2 y 3 3 2c 2 y 5
2I
142
2D Problem in Polar Coordinates

Equilibrium equations
r 1 r r
+
+
+R=0
r
r
r
1 r 2 r
+
+
+S =0
r
r
r
For the case when R=S=0, the stress function is defined by
1 1 2
r =
+ 2
r r r 2
2
= 2
r
1
=
r r
Resulting in
2 1
1 2 2 1 1 2
2 +
2 +
=0
+ 2
+ 2
2
2
r r r r
r r r
r
u 1 v
u
1 u v v
= +
Strain components r =
r =
+
r
r r
r r r
143
2D Problem in Polar Coordinates

For axi-symmetric problems, equation to be solved is
d 2 1 d d 2 1 d
2 +
2 +
= 0
r dr dr
r dr
dr
d 4 2 d 3 1 d 2 1 d
+
2
+ 3
=0
4
3
2
dr
r dr
r dr
r dr
= A log r + Br 2 log r + Cr 2 + D
A
r = 2 + B (1 + 2 log r ) + 2C
r
A
= 2 + B (3 + 2 log r ) + 2C
r
r = 0
144
Example Cylinder Under Internal Pressure

Inner radius=a
Outer radius=b
Internal pressure=pi
External pressure=po
The solution is given by
A
r = 2 + 2C
r
Boundary conditions
A
+ 2C = p i
2
a
A
+ 2C = p o
2
b
r =a
A
= 2 + 2C
r
= pi
r =b
= po
a 2b 2 ( po pi )
A=
b2 a2
pi a 2 po b 2
C=
2 b2 a2
145
Example Cylinder Under Internal Pressure

2
( po pi )
a b
r =
b2 a2
pi a po b
1
+
2
r
b2 a2
2
a 2b 2 ( po pi ) 1
pi a 2 p o b 2
+
=
2
2
2
b a
r
b2 a2
Radial displacement can be found using the relations
u
E = E = r
r
146
Example Pure Bending of Curved Bars

Boundary conditions
r =a
=r
dr = 0
b
a
A
+ B (1 + 2 log a ) + 2C = 0
2
a
and
r =b
r = 0
=0
rdr = M
b
a
A
+ B (1 + 2 log b ) + 2C = 0
2
b
b
rdr =
r a
dr =
r
rdr =
2
r
r a
r
r a
2
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
= M
147
Example Pure Bending of Curved Bars

Q = A log r + Br 2 log r + Cr 2 + D
b
A log + B b 2 log b a 2 log a + C b 2 a 2 = M
a
4M 2 2
b
4M 2
M 2
2
A=
a b log , B =
b a , C =
b a 2 + 2 b 2 log b a 2 log a
$
a
$
$
$ = b2 a
2 2
4 a 2 b 2 log
a
)]
b
r
a
4 M a 2b 2
2
2
2 log + b log + a log
r =
$ r
a
b
r
4 M a 2b 2
b
r
a
2
2
2
2
2 log + b log + a log + b a
=
$
r
a
b
r
r = 0
148
Example Rotating Disk

r 1 r r
(r r )
+
+
+R=0
+ 2 r 2 = 0
r
r
r
r
Using stress-strain relations and strain-displacement relations
2
2
u
1
2 r 3
r2 2 + r
u =
r
r
E
1
u=
E
1 1 2
2 3
r
(1 )Cr (1 + )C1
r
8
1 3 +
r = C + C1 2
2 r 2
r
8
1 1 + 3
2 2
= C C1 2
r
8
r
149
Example Plate with a Hole

Consider conditions on a circle with radius b (b>>a)
r =b
S (1 + cos 2 )
, r
2
r =b
S sin 2
2
= f (r ) cos 2
d2 1 d
4 d 2 f 1 d 4 f
2 +
2 2 +
2 = 0
r dr r dr
r dr
r
dr
= (Ar 2 + Br 4 + (C r 2 ) + D )cos 2
Find stresses, apply boundary conditions to find integration constants
150
Example Plate with a Hole

S
a2 S
3a 4 4 a 2
r = 1 2 + 1 + 4 2 cos 2
2
r 2
r
r
S
a2 S
3a 4
= 1 + 2 1 + 4 cos 2
2
r 2
r
S 3a 4 2 a 2
= 1 4 + 2
2
r
r
151
Miscellaneous Applications
152
Energy Methods
153
Energy Principles for P- Characteristics

Purpose of a structure to support loads
Response of the structure to loading deflection or deformation
Need a relationship between Load and Deflection
When extent of deformation/deflection is limited
For solving statically indeterminate problems
l1
S1
S2
P
l2
P = K
P
Can the load-deflection
characteristics be used?
154

l1
S2
S1
Energy Methods
l2
Strain Energy approach
W = Pd P = U = U 1 + U 2
(Ext.)
dP
(Int.)
U 1 = S1de1
(work=energy)
U 2 = S 2 de 2
de1 and de 2 Functions of P

dU ( P )
P=
d P
If both horizontal and vertical forces are applied
dU
PH =
d H
dU
PV =
d V
155

Complementary Energy approach
P
W c = P dP = = 1 + 2
d
(need to know
P =
the forces)
dP
dP
If both horizontal and vertical forces are applied
d
=
dPH
1 = e1dS 1
d
V =
dPV
2 = e2 dS 2
For applicability
Force-deformation relationship is single valued
Force system is conservative
No unloading of components takes place in inelastic region
156
Example (Strain Energy):
VB
HB
C`
VB
B
HB
C`
e AB = 0 .5 * HB 3 VB / 2
e BC = 3 VB / 2 0 .5 * HB + 0 .5 * HC
e AC = HC
HB =
HC
1
1
1
S AB e AB + S BC e BC + S CA eCA
2
2
2
1 AE 2
1 AE 2
e CA
+
e BC +
2 l
2 l
U =
U ( HB , VB , HC ) =
1 AE 2
e AB
2 l
4 AE
U
(2 HB HC )
=
l
HB
VB =
AE 3
3
U
VB
HC
=
l 2
4
VB
(2 equations
3 unknowns)
157
Example (Strain Energy) (contd):

Write an equation in terms of a dummy force at C
U
AE
3
1
5
HB =
=
+
HC
VB
HB
HC
l 4
4
4
From these three equations, given the geometry and material property of the
bars, and the applied loads, the three deflections can be found.
158
Example (Complementary Energy):
VB
HB
VB
HB
C`
S AB = H B V B / 3
C`
S BC = V B / 3 H B
S AC = V B /( 2 3 ) + H B / 2
S AB V B = 1 / 3
S BC V B = 1 / 3
S CA V B = 1 /( 2 3 )
S AB H B = 1
S BC H B = 1
S CA H B = 1 / 2
S AB
S BC
S CA
e AB dS AB +
eBC dS BC +
eCAC dS CA
HC
1 l
1 l
1 l
S 2 AB +
S 2 BC +
S 2 CA
2 AE
2 AE
2 AE
l 3
1
=
=
HB
VB +
V B
AE 4
4 3
( S AB , S BC , S CA ) =
VB
HC = ?
HB =
l 9
1
=
VB
HB +
H B
AE 4
4 3
159
Energy Methods
Both methods can be used for both linear and non-linear problems (restricted)
Assumptions:
No buckling
Rigid supports (W=0)
Perfectly fitting joints
Applicable for forces and moments
Applicable beyond pin jointed structures
Strain Energy
Complementary Energy
Energy is expressed first in terms of

deformation and then in terms of
deflection
Energy is expressed first in terms of

forces in the members and then in
terms of external loads
Require use of geometry and

deformation, not of equilibrium eq.
Equations of equilibrium are used and

geometry of deformation is not used
More suitable for statically

indeterminate structures where known
displacements are many.
Cumbersome for highly statically

indeterminate structures.
Requires more effort to get deformation

(solution of simultaneous equations
involving redundant variables)
Easier to use
160
Energy Methods
P
CE
CE = SE
SE
Castiglianos Theorem
In a structure subjected to external forces, with small deflections and linear

relation between loads and deflections, the deflection in the direction any one
force is equal to the partial derivative of internal strain energy with respect to
the force.
U
= P
P
161
Example (Castiglianos Theorem):

P
l/2
l/2
P
M = x , for 0 < x < l / 2
2
P
= x P ( x l / 2 ), for l / 2 < x < l
2
x
1 M 2 dx
1
U =
=
2
EI
2 EI
2
l/2
1
Px
0 2 dx + 2 EI
1 M dx
1
U =
=2
2
EI
2 EI
l/2
(
l
x
)
dx
l / 2 2
1 P 2l 3
Px
0 2 dx = 96 EI
(Symmetry)
U
1 2 Pl 3
1 Pl 3
=
=
=
P 96 EI
48 EI
162
Energy Methods
Minimum Energy
If a system consisting a structure and bodies that exert forces on it, is completely
isolated such that no energy is transferred in or out of it (rigid supports) total potential
energy of the system remains constant.
Total potential energy = Strain energy in the members + Energy of the load
U + E = constant
As work is done in deforming the body, the strain energy of the body will increase
(U + E )
=0
(kinematically admissible)
Condition of max/min energy
d i
U E
E
E
+
=0
Pi +
=0
= Pi
d i d i
d i
d i
(equilibrium)
163
Example (Min. Potential Energy):
w ( x ) = B sin (x / 2l )
u ( z ) = z w( x ) = Bz ( / 2l ) cos (x / 2l )
( z ) = z w( x ) = Bz ( / 2l )2 sin (x / 2l )
P
l
( z ) = E ( z )
1
1
1
2
2
2
E = PB
dV
=
E
dV
=
Ez
w
dV
2
2
2
4
4
B 2 E ( / 2l )
B 2 EI ( / 2l )
2
2
2
(
)
(x / 2l )dx
sin
/
2
=
x
l
dx
z
dA
=
sin
2
2
U =
(U V ) = 0 =
BEI ( / 2l ) l
P
2
2
4
Pl 3
B =
3 .044 EI
164
Energy Methods
Virtual Displacements
If a system of structure and bodies exerting loads is in equilibrium, increase in
its internal energy because of small virtual displacement is equal to the
work done on the system by the forces.
U + U + E E = 0
U E = 0
U = E
Expressions for strain energy
Axially loaded members
P 2 l /( 2 EA )
Members subjected to shear
V 2 l /( 2GA )
Members subjected to bending
Members subjected to torsion
M 2 /( 2 EI )
T 2 /( 2GJ )
165
Energy Methods
Dummy Load Method
l/3
l/3
2l/3
2l/3
2l/9
M = ( wlx / 2 ) ( wx 2 / 2 )
l /3
Mm 1
Mm 2
dx +
dx
EI
EI
l /3
l
wlx wx 2 2 x
wlx wx 2 2 x
l
EI =
dx +
x dx
2
2 3
2
2 3
3
l / 3
0
l /3
wl 4 2 wl 4 wl 4
EI =
+
=
324
243
972
166
Example :
M = Px
l
1 M2
1 ( Px ) 2
1 P2
U =
dx =
dx =
2 EI
2 0 EI
2 EI
2 3
P
l
2
0 x dx = 6 EI
U
Pl 3
=
=
P 3 EI
P
l1
l1
M = Qx
l1
0
+ (Qx + P ( x l1 )) l
Q2x2
(Qx + P ( x l1 )) 2 x 2
U =
dx +
dx
2 EI
2 EI
0
l1
U
1 1
Pl1 2
3
2
3
=
(
P
l
l
l
l
1
1 )
Q EI 3
2
167
Session Summary
In this session the topics below were covered
Basic principles and concepts of Mechanics of Materials
Classification of structural components based on their
structural behaviour
Analytical approaches for modelling different structural
behaviours
Modes of structural failure and assessment of design for
these
Theory of Elasticity approach for analysing structural
behaviour
Energy Methods to solve structural problems
168

ACD504 Session 01 BasAnalTech

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Session I

Basic Analytical Techniques

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Structure: arrangement of elements for carrying loads

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

What controls the response of the structure?

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Act on each element volume of the body

Act on surface or area elements of the body

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Concept of force what causes things to move?

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Equilibrium & Free Body Diagram

Free (isolate) the body of its interaction (Constraints)

(accelerating to equivalent static)

Equivalent Force system

St. Venants Principle

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Equilibrium & Free Body Diagram

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Equilibrium & Free Body Diagram

Equivalent Force System

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Equivalent Force System

Moment about the same point

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Equivalent Force System

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Equivalent Force system Center of Mass

Extension to Systems of Particles

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Influences material strength

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

A measure of internal force distribution (reaction of one part

Stress at a point or Stress on an area?

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Force Components Stress Components

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Magnitude, Direction and Orientation

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Notation for Stress

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

State of Stress at a Point

All the components of stresses at a point

Equilibrium in Tangential direction

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

nn = xx sin + yy cos + 2 xy sin cos

nt = ( yy xx ) sin cos + xy (sin 2 cos 2 )

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Normal Stress, Pure Shear and Principal Stress