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LearningGoal:Toderivetheexpressionfortheworkdonebyanexpandinggas,
tounderstandhowitfollowsfromtheexpression
,and
formechanicalwork.
Especiallyfromthehistoricallyimportantperspectiveofmakingenginestoconvertheatenergyinto
work,theworkinthermodynamicsisdefinedastheworkdonebythesystemontheexteriorworld,
andnotviceversaasisdoneintherestofclassicalmechanics.Inclassicalmechanics,onealways
considerstheworkdoneonasystembytheoutsideworld.Rarelydoesonethinkabouttheworkdone
bythesystem.Supposeyoupushalargeblockwithacertainforceofmagnitude oversomedistance.
Youhavedoneworkontheblock;hencetheenergyoftheblockshouldincrease.Accordingto
Newton's3rdlaw,theblockexertsthesamemagnitudeofforce ,butintheoppositedirection(i.e.,
directedbackatyou).Hence,theworkdonebytheblock(onyou)isnegative,sincethedirectionof
motionopposesthedirectionoftheforce.Insummary,youhavetobecarefulaboutthesignofthe
work:thesamesituationgivesoppositesignsoftheworkdependingonwhetherourperspectiveis
classicalmechanicsorthermodynamics.
Inthermodynamics,oneoftendealswithliquidsandgasesthatexertforcesontheircontainers(i.e.,the
fluidsexertpressureoveranarea).Ifthecontainerchangesvolume,thenthisforceactsthrougha
distanceandhencedoeswork.
Forasteamengine,theexamplepictured
here,the"container"isacylinderwhose
volumechangesasthepistonslidesinor
out.Supposeagasisconfinedwithinthe
cylinder.Thepressureofthegasis ,and
theareaofthecylinderis .Considerthe
workdoneasthegasexpands,pushingthe
pistontotheright.Calltheinfinitesimal
distancethepistonmoves
A. Whatforce doesthegasexert
onthepiston?(Notethatthe
positivexaxisistotherightinthe
figure.)
Expresstheforceintermsof , ,andanyconstants,
= p*A
B. Ifthepistonmovesadistance
,whatis
,theworkdonebythegas?
Expresstheworkdonebythegasintermsofgivenquantities.
= p*A*dx
C. Whatis
,theincreaseinvolumeofthegas?
Expressthedifferentialincreaseintermsof
= A*dx
andothergivenquantities.
D.
Nowfindtheworkdonebythegasintermsofthethermodynamicvariables.
Expressthedifferentialwork
intermsofthermodynamicvariablessuchasthegas's
= p*dV
is
donebythegas?
Expresstheworkintermsof
,and
= p_0*(V_1V_0)
F.
Istheworkyoujustcomputedpositiveornegative?
positive
negative
G. Assumenowthatthediameterofthepistonisreducedbyafactorof2.Whatistheamountof
work
donebyagasofpressure
Expressyouranswerintermsof
inexpandingfrom
,
to
,andsimplenumericalfactors.
= p_0*(V_1V_0)
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WorkIntegralinthepVPlane
Thediagramshowsthepressureand
volumeofanidealgasduringonecycleof
anengine.Asthegasproceedsfromstate1
tostate2,itisheatedatconstantpressure.
Itisthencooledatconstantvolume,untilit
reachesstate3.Thegasisthencooledat
constantpressuretostate4.Finally,thegas
isheatedatconstantvolumeuntilitreturns
tostate1.
A. Find
,theworkdonebythe
gasasitexpandsfromstate1to
state2.
Expresstheworkdoneinterms
of
and
= 9*p_0*V_0
B. Find
,theworkdonebythegasasitcoolsfromstate2tostate3.
Expressyouranswerintermsof
= 0
and
C. Find
,theworkdonebythegasasitiscompressedfromstate3tostate4.
Expressyouranswerintermsof
and
= 3*p_0*V_0
D. Find
,theworkdonebythegasasitisheatedfromstate4tostate1.
Expressyouranswerintermsof
and
= 0
E. Whatis
,thetotalworkdonebythegasduringonecycle?
Expressyouranswerintermsof
and
= 6*p_0*V_0
F. Whenthegasisinstate1,itstemperatureis
instate3.(Remember,thisisanidealgas.)
Express
intermsof
.Findthetemperature
ofthegaswhenitis
= (4/3)*T_1
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VariousGasExpansions:pVPlotsandWork
Anidealmonatomicgasiscontainedinacylinderwithamovablepistonsothatthegascandowork
ontheoutsideworld,andheatcanbeaddedorremovedasnecessary.Thefigure
showsvariouspathsthatthegasmight
takeinexpandingfromaninitialstatewhosepressure,volume,andtemperatureare
respectively.Thegasexpandstoastatewithfinalvolume
,and
.Forsomeanswersitwillbeconvenient
togeneralizeyourresultsbyusingthevariable
volumes(equalto4fortheexpansionsshowninthefigure.)
,whichistheratiooffinaltoinitial
ThefigureshowsseveralpossiblepathsofthesysteminthepVplane.Althoughthereareaninfinite
numberofpathspossible,severalofthoseshownarespecialbecauseoneoftheirstatevariables
remainsconstantduringtheexpansion.Thesehavethefollowingnames:
Adiabiatic:Noheatisaddedorremovedduringtheexpansion.
Isobaric:Thepressureremainsconstantduringtheexpansion.
Isothermal:Thetemperatureremainsconstantduringtheexpansion.
A. Whichofthecurvesinthefigurerepresentsanisobaricprocess?
A
B
C
D
B. Whathappenstothetemperatureofthegasduringanisobaricexpansion?
Temperatureincreases.
Temperatureremains
constant.
Temperaturedecreases.
C. Whichofthecurvesinthefigurerepresentsanisothermalprocess?
A
D. Graphically,theworkalonganypathinthepVplot____________.
istheareatotheleftofthecurvefrom
istheareaunderthecurvefrom
to
to
requiresknowledgeofthetemperature
E. Calculate
Express
,theworkdonebythegasasitexpandsalongpathAfrom
intermsof
,and
= p_0*V_0*(R_v1)
F.
Calculatethework
Express
intermsof
donebythegasduringtheisothermalexpansion.
,
,and
= p_0*V_0*ln(R_v)
G. Whichofthecurvesshownrepresentsanadiabaticexpansion?
A
D
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Fastvs.SlowTirePumping
to
Imaginethefollowingdesignforasimpletirepump.Thepumpisfilledwithavolume
atmosphericpressure
andambienttemperature
ofairat
.Whenyoupushthepumphandle,theairis
compressedtoanew(smaller)volume ,raisingitspressure.Avalveisthenopened,allowingairto
flowfromthepumpintothetireuntiltheremainingairinthepumpreachesthepressureoftheairin
thetire, .
Inthisproblem,youwillconsiderwhetheryoucangetmoreairintothetireperpumpcyclebypushing
thepumphandlequicklyorslowly.
Wewillmakethefollowingsimplifyingassumptions:
Thepressureoftheairinthetire, ,doesnotchangesignificantlyasairflowsintothetire
fromthepump.
Thetemperatureoftheairinthepumpdoesnotchangesignificantlywhileairisflowinginto
thetire(i.e.,thisisanisothermalprocess).
Theairismainlycomposedofdiatomicmoleculeswith
A. Firstimaginethatyoupushthepumphandlequickly,sothatthecompressionofairinthe
pumpoccursadiabatically.Findtheabsolutetemperature
rapidcompressionfromvolume
tovolume
Expressyouranswerintermsof
=
B.
oftheairinsidethepumpaftera
,assuminganambienttemperatureof
,and
T_a*(V_i/V_f)^(gamma1)
or
T_a*(V_i/V_f)^(0.40)
,and .Thetemperatures
and
1(p_t/p_a)*(V_f/V_i)^gamma
or
=
1(p_t/p_a)*(V_f/V_i)^(1.40)
C. Nowimaginethatyoupushthepumphandleslowly,sothatthecompressionofairinthe
pumpoccursisothermally.Findtheabsolutetemperature
assuminganambienttemperatureof
oftheairinsidethepump
= T_a
D.
,and .Thetemperatures
and
E. Assumethat
and
.Whichmethod,fastpumping(adiabaticprocess)or
slowpumping(isothermalprocess)willputalargeramountofairintothetireperpump
cycle?
fastpumping
slowpumping
CarnotCycle
AfterCountRumford(BenjaminThompson)andJamesPrescottJoulehadshowntheequivalenceof
mechanicalenergyandheat,itwasnaturalthatengineersbelieveditpossibletomakea"heatengine"
(e.g.,asteamengine)thatwouldconvertheatcompletelyintomechanicalenergy.SadiCarnot
consideredahypotheticalpistonenginethatcontained molesofanidealgas,showingfirstthatitwas
reversible,andmostimportantlythatregardlessofthespecificheatofthegasithadlimited
efficiency,definedas
,where
isthenetworkdonebytheengineand
ofheatputintotheengineata(high)temperature
necessarilyputanamountofheat
isthequantity
.Furthermore,heshowedthattheenginemust
backintoaheatreservoiratalowertemperature
ThecycleassociatedwithaCarnotengineisknownasaCarnotcycle.ApVplotoftheCarnotcycleis
showninthefigure.Theworkinggasfirst
expandsisothermallyfromstateAtostate
B,absorbingheat
fromareservoirat
temperature .Thegasthenexpands
adiabaticallyuntilitreachesatemperature
,instateC.Thegasiscompressed
isothermallytostateD,givingoffheat .
Finally,thegasisadiabaticallycompressed
tostateA,itsoriginalstate.
A. Indicatewhetherthefollowing
statementsaretrueorfalse:
1. Forthegastodopositive
work,thecyclemustbe
traversedinaclockwisemanner.
2. PositiveheatisaddedtothegasasitproceedsfromstateCtostateD.
3. Thenetworkdonebythegasisproportionaltotheareainsidetheclosedcurve.
4. TheheattransferredasthegasproceedsfromstateBtostateCisgreaterthanthe
heattransferredasthegasproceedsfromstateDtostateA.
Usetfortrueorfforfalse.Separateyouranswerswithcommas.
t , f , t , f
B. Findthetotalwork
donebythegasafteritcompletesasingleCarnotcycle.
Expresstheworkintermsofanyorallofthequantities
,and
Q_hQ_c
or
=
Q_h*(1T_c/T_h)
C. Supposethereare molesoftheidealgas,andthevolumesofthegasinstatesAandBare,
respectively,
stateB.
and
.Find
,theheatabsorbedbythegasasitexpandsfromstateAto
Expresstheheatabsorbedbythegasintermsof ,
reservoir
,thetermperatureofthehot
,andthegasconstant .
= n*R*T_h*ln(V_B/V_A)
D. ThevolumeofthegasinstateCis
(thetemperatureofthecoldreservoir),
and .
= n*R*T_c*ln(V_C/V_D)
E. Now,byconsideringtheadiabaticprocesses(fromBtoCandfromDtoA),findtheratio
intermsof
and
= V_B/V_A
F. Usingyourexpressionsfor
and
findasimplifiedexpressionfor
(foundinPartsCandD),andyourresultfromPartE,
.
Novolumevariablesshouldappearinyourexpression,norshouldanyconstants(e.g.,
or ).
= T_c/T_h
G. Theefficiencyofanyengineis,bydefinition,
.Carnotprovedthatnoenginecan
haveanefficiencygreaterthanthatofaCarnotengine.Findtheefficiency
ofaCarnot
engine.
Expresstheefficiencyintermsof
and
= 1T_c/T_h
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IsothermalEngine
Considerathermalenginefilledwith
cyclictransformation,asshown.
moleculesofamonatomicidealgas.Thegasundergoesa
ProcessesABandCD
areisothermal(constanttemperature),andprocessesBCandDAareisochoric(constantvolume).
Thequantities
haspressure
given.
,and
andvolume
aredefinedinthefigure.Forexample,whenthegasisinstateA,it
;whenthegasisinstateB,ithasvolume
Workdonebythegas
A. Find
,theworkdonebythegasduringprocessAB.
Expresstheworkintermsof
,and/or
= p_2*V_1*ln(V_2/V_1)
B. Find
,theworkdonebythegasduringprocessBC.
Expressyouranswerintermsof
,and/or
= 0
C. Find
,theworkdonebythegasduringprocessCD.
Expressyouranswerintermsof
,and/or
= p_1*V_2*ln(V_2/V_1)
D. Find
,theworkdonebythegasduringprocessDA.
Expressyouranswerintermsof
,and/or
,butthepressureisnot
= 0
Theinternalenergy
Now,youwillinvestigatethechangeinthegas'sinternalenergyduringeachofthefoursegmentsofits
cycle.Youmayfindithelpfultorecallthat,foramonatomicidealgas,
theheatcapacityofthegasatconstantvolume.
A. Whatisthechangeininternalenergy
,where
is
duringtheprocessAB?
Expressthechangeininternalenergyintermsof
,and/or
= 0
B. Whatisthechangeininternalenergy
duringtheprocessBC?
Expressthechangeininternalenergyintermsof
,and/or
= (3/2)*(p_1*V_2p_2*V_1)
C. Whatisthechangeininternalenergy
Expressyouranswerintermsof
duringtheprocessCD?
,
,and/or
= 0
D. Whatisthechangeininternalenergy
Expressyouranswerintermsof
duringtheprocessDA?
,
,and/or
= (3/2)*(p_1*V_2p_2*V_1)
E. Whatisthetotalchangeinthegas'sinternalenergyafterithascompletedacycle?
= 0
Heat
Finally,considertheheatabsorbedbythegasduringitscycle.Define
tobeheatabsorbedbythe
gasinprocessAB,etc.Ifaprocessisexothermic(i.e.,heatisgivenoffbythegasduringtheprocess),
thenthequantityofheatabsorbedwillbenegative.
A. Indicatetheprocessesinthiscycleduringwhichheatisflowingintothegas.Thatis,indicate
thesegmentswhere ispositive.
DAonly
CDandDA
DAandAB
ABandBC
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HeatPumpsandRefrigerators
LearningGoal:Tounderstandthataheatenginerunbackwardisaheatpumpthatcanbeusedasa
refrigerator.
Bynowyoushouldbefamiliarwithheatenginesdevices,theoreticaloractual,designedtoconvert
heatintowork.Youshouldunderstandthefollowing:
1.
2.
Heatenginesmustbecyclical;thatis,theymustreturntotheiroriginalstatesometimeafter
havingabsorbedsomeheatanddonesomework).
Heatenginescannotconvertheatintoworkwithoutgeneratingsomewasteheatinthe
process.
Thesecondcharacteristicisarigorousresultevenforaperfectengineandfollowsfrom
thermodynamics.Aperfectheatengineisreversible,anotherresultofthelawsofthermodynamics.
Ifaheatengineisrunbackward(i.e.,witheveryinputandoutputreversed),itbecomesaheatpump
(aspicturedschematically
).Work
mustbeputintoaheatpump,anditthenpumpsheatfromacoldertemperature
toahotter
temperature ,thatis,againsttheusualdirectionofheatflow(whichexplainswhyitiscalleda"heat
pump").Thebigsurpriseisthatthelawsofthermodynamicsseemtoallowmorethan100%efficiency:
Theheatcomingoutthehotside ofaheatpumportheheatgoingintothecoldside ofa
refrigeratorismorethantheworkputin;infactitcanbemanytimesaslarge.Forthisreason,theratio
oftheheattotheworkinheatpumpsandrefrigeratorsiscalledthecoefficientofperformance.Ina
refrigerator,thisistheratioofheatremovedfromthecoldside
toworkputin:
.
Inaheatpumpthecoefficientofperformanceistheratioofheatexitingthehotside
in:
totheworkput
.
A. Whatistherelationshipof
Express
= W
intermsof
totheusualthermodynamicdefinitionofwork
andotherquantitiesgivenintheintroduction.
B. Find
,theheatpumpedoutbytheidealheatpump.
Express
intermsof
and
= W_in+Q_c
C. Aheatpumpisusedtoheatahouseinwinter;theinsideradiatorsareat
andtheoutside
heatexchangerisat .Ifitisaperfect(e.g.,Carnotcycle)heatpump,whatis
coefficientofperformance?
Giveyouranswerintermsof
and
,its
= T_h/(T_hT_c)
D. Theheatpumpisdesignedtomoveheat.Thisisonlypossibleifcertainrelationshipsbetween
theheatsandtemperaturesatthehotandcoldsidesholdtrue.Indicatethestatementthatmust
applyfortheheatpumptowork.
and
and
and
and
E. Assumethatyouheatyourhomewithaheatpumpwhoseheatexchangerisat
,and
whichmaintainsthebaseboardradiatorsat
.Ifitwouldcost$1000toheatthe
houseforonewinterwithidealelectricheaters(whichhaveacoefficientofperformanceof
1),howmuchwoulditcostiftheactualcoefficientofperformanceoftheheatpumpwere
75%ofthatallowedbythermodynamics?
Expressthecostindollars.
Cost= 187.5 dollars
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