Photosynthesis is a two-stage process that takes place in the chloroplasts.

Oxygen is a product of photosynthesis, and is used in respiration. Carbon dioxide is a

product of respiration, and is used in photosynthesis. The two processes are very similar.
Both autotrophs and heterotrophs respire. Respiration depends on photosynthesis as
chemical potential energy is released from the complex organic molecules made in
photosynthesis.

The Importance of Photosynthesis.

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The importance of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process whereby light energy from the sun is transformed into chemicak
energy and used to synthesise large organic molecules from inorganic substances.
Light energy is used to produce complex organic molecules.
Autotroph: organisms that use light energy or chemical energy and inorganic molecules to
synthesise complex organic molecules.
Heterotroph: organisms that ingest and digest complex organic molecules releasing the
chemical potential energy stored in them.

 The Grana are flattened stacks called thylakoids. These are the sites of light absorption
and ATP synthesis during the light dependant stage.
The Stroma is the fluid filled matrix where the light independant stage takes place as it
contains all the necessary enzymes. The stroma also contains ribosomes, DNA, starch
grains and lipid droplets.
There are two distinct regions in the cholorplasts: Stroma and Grana.
Regions:

The Structure and Function of Chloroplasts

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Structure and Function of Chloroplasts

Structure:

vary in shape and size but are mainly disc shaped between 2-10um long.
Each chloroplast is surrounded by a double membrane (envelope)
There is an intermembrane space (10-20nm wide)
The outer membrane is permeable to small ions
The inner membrane is less permeable and has transport proteins embedded in it. It is
folded into lamellae, which are stacked. Each stack of lamellae is called a granum.
Between grana are intergranal lamellae.

 Inner membrane with its transport proteins control the entry and exit of substances
between the cytoplasm and stroma.
The many grana provides a large surface area for photosynthetic pigments, electron
carriers and ATP synthase enzymes for the light dependant reaction.
Photosynthetic pigments are arranged into Photosystems allowing maximum absorption
of light.
Proteins in the grana hold these photosystems in place.
The stroma contains the enzymes necessary to catalyse the reactions of the light
independant stage.
The grana are surrounded by the stroma so that the products of the light dependant
reaction which are needed for the light independant reaction can be readily transferred.

How cholorplasts are adapted to their role.

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Photosynthetic Pigments
Photosynthetic pigments: molecules that absorb light energy . Each pigment absorbs different
wavelengths and other wavelengths are reflected.
There are many different pigments that act together to capture as much light energy as
possible. They are in the thylakoid membranes arranged in funnel shaped structures called
photosystems.

Chlorophyll: is a mixture of pigments. All have a similar structure consisting of a hydrocarbon

chain and a magesium atom. Light hits the chlorophyll causing the elcetrons associated with the
magneisum to become excited. There are two forms of chlorophyll: P680 and P700 which both
appear yellow-green. Both are found at the centre of photosystems and are known as the primary
pigment reaction centre.
Accessory Pigments (Cartenoids): they absorb light wavelengths that are not well absorbed by
chlorohylls and pass the energy to the chlorophyll at the base of the photosystem. They do not
have a magnesium group and absorb blue light, reflecting orange and yellow.

 Uses only photosystem 1.

The excited electrons pass to an electron acceptor and back to the chlorophyll
molecule from which they were lost.
There is no photolysis of water and no generation of reduced NADP but small
amounts of ATP are made.
Cyclic

Cyclic Photophosphorylation
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Light Dependant Stage

The Light Independent stage takes place on the thylakoid membranes, where the photosystems
(with the photosynthetic pigments) are embedded. The pigments trap light energy to be converted
into chemical energy (ATP)
Photosphosphorylation
A photon hits a chlorophyll molecule and the energy is transferred to two electrons which
become excited. These electrons are captured by electron acceptors and passed along a
series of electron carriers embedded in the thylakoid membranes.
Energy is released when the electrons pass along the elcetron carriers, pumping protons
across the thylakoid membrane to create a gradient. The protons flow down their gradient
through channels associated with ATP synthase enzymes (chemiosmosis). This produces
a force that combines Pi with ADP to form ATP.

 Hydrogen ions which are used in chemiosmosis to produce ATP. These protons are
accepted by NADP which becomes reduced NADP to be used in the calvin cycel to reduce
CO2 and create organic molecules.
Electrons which replace those lost by the oxidised chlorophyll.
Water is a source of:
Some of the oxygen produced in this way in used by the plant for respiration but most diffuses
out of the leaves.
Photosystem 2 contains an enzyme that in the presence of light can split water into protons
electrons and oxygen. The splitting of water is called photolysis.

Role of Water
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Non-cyclic Photosphosphorylation
Involves photosystem 1 and 2
Light strikes PS2 exciting a pair of electrons that leave the chlorophyll from the primary
pigment reaction centre.
These electrons pass along a chain of electron carriers and the energy released is used
to synthesise ATP
Light has also struck photosystem 1 and a pair of electrons has been lost.
These lectrons along with protons join NADP to create reduced NADP
The electrons from oxidised PS2 replace the electrons lost from PS1
Electrons from photolysed water take part in chemiosmosis to make ATP and are then
captured by NADP in the stroma. They will be used in the light-independant stage.

 Is the source of carbon and oxygen for the production of large organic molecules.
These molecules are used as structures or act as energy stores/ sources for all the carbon
based life forms on the planet.
The role of Carbon Dioxide:
The light-independant stage takes place in the stroma of the cholorplasts.

Role of Carbon Dioxide

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The Calvin Cycle

Carbon Dioxide diffuses into the leaf via the stomata, then through the spongy mesophyll,
the cellulose cell walls, the cytoplasm and through the chloroplast envelope into the
stroma.
Carbon Dioxide combines with RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate) a carbon dioxide acceptor.
The reaction is catalysed by the enzyme rubisco.
RuBP becomes carboxylated.
An intermediate compound is formed.
Two molecules of a 3-carbon compound are formed: GP (glycerate phosphate)
GP is reduced and phosphorylated to TP (triose phosphate) ATP and reduced NADP are
used in this process.
5 out of every 6 molecules of TP are recycled by phosphorylation using ATP from the lightdependant reaction to 3 RuBP.

How the products of the calvin cycle are used:

GP is used to make amnio acids and fatty acids.
pairs of TP form hexose sugars which can be polymerised to other sugars
TP also can be made into glycerol to combine with fatty acids to make lipids.

Decreasing Light Intensity

Increasing Light Intensity

Increasing and Decreasing Light intensity

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Limiting Factors: Light Intensity

Light intensity provides the energy needed in the light dependent stage, though it is linked
to the light independent stage also. Light is trapped by cholorphyll molecules to excite
electrons and splits water molecules to provide protons both used in photophosphorylation
to create ATP and reduce NADP

If Carbon Dioxide concentration drops, the levels of RuBP will rise. GP and TP will decrease. This
is because if CO2 is limited, rubisco will fix oxygen instaed (photorespiration)
Decreasing CO2
More carbon dioxide fixation leads to more molecules of GP being created. Thus, more GP can
be converted to TP and more RuBP can be regenerated. This is because if levels of CO2 are high,
rubisco has a higher affinity to bind with CO2
Increasing CO2
Carbon Dioxide is essential for the functioning of the light independant stage.If the levels of CO2
rise, so will the rate of photosynthesis as long as there are no other limiting factors.

Limiting Factors: Carbon Dioxide concentration

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Limiting Factors: Temperature

Tempterature doesn't really impact on the photochemical reactions of the light dependent stage,
but does impact the enzyme catalysed reactions of the Calvin cycle.

Between 0 and 25 degrees, the rate of photosynthesis doubles for every 10 degree
increase as enzyme activity increases (more enz\yme-substrate complexes/ kinetic
energy/ collisions)
Once the temperature rises above optimum the rate of photosynthesis plateaus and
eventually falls as enzyme activity decreases and they begin to denature.
Oxygen begins to compete for the active site of rubisco, preventing it from combining with
CO2, causing photorespiration to exceed photosynthesis, thus ATP and reduced NADP
are wasted.
High temperatures cause water loss from the stomata, leading to a stress response in
which the stomata close and CO2 is prevented from entering the leaf to be used in the
calvin cycle (effects RuBP, GP and TP)

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Limiting Factors: Water

If the amount of water increases, more NADP can be reduced and more electrons can replace
those lost. The rate of photosynthesis will increase.
If water decreases, less NADP is resuced and the electrons lost cannot be replaced. The rate of
photosyntehsis will decrease.
If the plant does not have enough water, the stomata will close preventing CO2 from entering
the leaf, effecting the calvin cycle and therefore the production of GP, TP and the regeneration
of RuBP.