112 OZONE IN WATER

steady-state ozone concentration is obtained (hat is .11 roost a direct

TREATMENT
function gf irradiation intensity. The system is operated under pressure

up to 60 bar (870
.
Cooling (for example, at "~2QC [~4F]) improves the yield in ozone,
A few pen> * ' nitrogen injected in the circuit does enhance the yield,
Concentrations a * high as ppm by weight or about 6 g/L (liquid) are
obtainable at an overall thermal yield of jq percent. Major problems
with the process are the difficulty of removing fission produ * and the
difficulty of conditioning a suitable gas stream containing the ozone,
making 1 technology complex.
The main nonvolatile reaction products are Cs, Da, and Sr isotopes,
which tnustb# precipitated and removed by filtration. Gaseous reaction
products
are Xe, Xr{
4
C Oa. Differential dissolution in freon 11 and 12 has been proposed for
absqrpjj0 stripping (Shah and Maxic 1966). The solubility of ozone in
freon is between that of xenon and krypton and requires a series of
three contact towers: one for absorption u, freon, one for krypton
stripping, and one for ozone stripping. Freon is recovered b* distillation.
An oxygen-separation plant to produce the process gas from air
complete the scheme.
Even with the favorable thermodynamic yield of the process and the
interesting ute of waste fission isotopes, the cheminuclear ozone
generation process has not yet become a significant application in water
or wastewater treatment. This fact is due to its complicated process
requirements.

H.E OZONE GAS TRANSFER___________________

ILL 1 Solubility of Ozone in Water

The dissolved concentration of ozone in water at saturation, Cs, can

be expressed either in terms of the solubility S or as an absorption
coefficient p. S is defined by the volume of gas dissolved per unit
volume of liquid at the temperature and pressure under consideration
and in the presence of the equilibrating gas at 1 atm pressure. An alternative expression of S is the so-called solubility ratio, which expresses
the relative concentration as milligrams per liter ozone in water to
milligrams per liter ozone in the gas. Often called the Bunsen
absorption coefficient, p is the volume of gas expressed at NTP, which
is dissolved at equilibrium by a unit volume of liquid at a given
temperature when the partial pressure of the gas is the unit atmosphere.
T his is equal to the pressure of the gas itself minus the vapor tension
of the liquid (Table 11-27),
It is generally agreed in the literature that when ozone is dissolved in
water Henry's law is obeyed. This means that the C, values are
proportional to the partial pressure of ozone Py at a given temperature.
The expression for the saturation concentration of a dissolved gas
under thermodynamic ideal conditions is as follows:
3

Cs (kg/m ) = p M x Py

FUNDAMENTAL

Tabic 1128 Selected

Solubility Data of Ozone as a Function of
f
Gas
Solubility
Ozone
Oxyge Nitroge Carbon
Chlorin Chlorin
ASPECTS
t13
Water
Temperature
n
n
Dioxid
e
e
Matro
e
Dioxid
0.049
0.0235
0.64
1.71
4.54
zov
P, v/v
60
et al.
13.3 Khadraoui
27.7 (1988)
1
0.38 Rawson
0.14
Caprio
et
P (0Temperature
)/p gas
(197
0.01
70
30
1,400
3,360
14.400
(bidistillcd) (HCar : 200
(1953)
al. (1982)
5)
C,,C~~
mg/L
180,0
for

mg/L) *

Source:
Masschelein
0.5 32.9
0.54(1982a) IPUi
' rf-r
Table 1127 Solubilities of Gases Associated With Ozonation (at NTP)

5.6
6.9
9.6
12
12.4
14.5
14.7
15.9
20.3
20.7
21
23.6
25.5
30.5
31
33.5
34.8
35
39
41
43

42.1

44.4
49.3
53.6
54.3
58.1
58.5
60.6
68.5
69.3
69.8
74.5
77.9
86.9
87.8
92.3
94.6
95.0
102.2
105.8
109.4

0.34

0.24

0.17
| *

0.12

';
0.46
0.41

0.39

0.41

Ip

0.31

0.28

'
'
f .M.

0,21

0.14
0.10

0.17
0.14

0.07

lb

''
0.16
2U, ;
0.14

0.12

0.07

0.07

0.29

0.26

0.25

0.20
'
0.18

0.10

0.39

0.17

^Solubility ratios given as S: mg/L in water to mg/L in gas. Symbols correspond to

those diagrammed in Figure 11-46.

Temperature
figure 11-46 Dissolution Energy of Ozone in Water

Where:

M = mass volume of the gas, kg gas/m gas NTP

(2.14 for ozone) Py = partial pressure of the gas in
the given gas phase

114 OZONE IN WATER

Table 1129 Henry-Dalton Constants for Ozone Residuals in

Water
(Concentration Range of 0.1-0.65 mg/L)
TREATMENT
Temperature, C (F)
0(32)
S
0.64
(water/ga 34,990
Kh*
1,945
H
a

*KH = (rii/nT)

5
(41)
0.50
45,6
2,49
0

10
(50)
0.39
59,45
3,190

15
(58)
0.31
76,18
4,200

20
(68)
0.24
100,0
5,190

25
(77)
0.19
128,6
6,555

30
(86)
0.15
164,8
8,302

35
(95
0.1
2
210
10,
375

x (nT x R x T)/(VT X Q) ; Ha - P./*

Where:
3
KH = Henrys constant, atm m /mol
Ha apparent Henry's constant, atm/03 molar fraction in the liquid Hj, nT =
fractional and total number
3 of moles in the gas phase, respectively R universal
gas constant, 82 atm m /mol,
K T = equilibrium temperature, K VT = total
3
volume3 of the gas phase, m ' CL equilibrium liquid-phase concentration,
mol/m I\ - partial pressure of ozone in the gas phase, atm x = molar fraction of
ozone in the liquid phase.

Influence of temperature. In addition to physical

dissolution, several side effects may affect the practical
equilibrium. For example, pH affects the decomposition
rates of dissolved ozone, and dissolved products can react
with ozone during the measurements (see secs. II. A, II.C).
The most important parameter is probably the effect of
water temperature; however, some controversy does exist
on this point (Morris 1988) (Table 11-28).
Most data taken from older literature are of
questionable accuracy, since less reliable analytical
methods, even those not reported, have been used.
Sampling is often an uncontrolled source of error of
measurement (see sec. II. C).
The data presented in Figure II46 provide a means
to estimate thermodynamic characteristics of ozone
dissolution (S is measured in mg/L water to mg/L gas).
The following equation can be derived from this
relationship:
d (lnS)/dT = AE/RT

where AE is the molar energy of dissolution, and

2

AE/RT = -0.048
2
and, at 20C (68F), AE293 3 (-0.048) x (8.31) x (293) =
-34.2 kj/mol or an enthalpy change of exothermic
dissolution as follows:
293 X 8 31

AH293 = AE + RT = -34.2
kj/mol

31.8

1000 J

Equivalent data are obtained with liquid film contactors

and a semibatch contact column as described in the
literature (Masschelein and Goossens 1984). Henry-Dalton
constants can be computed from the solubility ratios

115 OZONE IN WATER

reported in Figure II46; values are given in Table 11-

29.
TREATMENT

Analysis is best made immediately after sampling. If

photometric methods are used for the gas phase,
appropriate corrections for gas temperature must be made.
Corrections may be made according to IOA
standards (European IOA Standardisation Committee for
1989).
the
From the data in Table 1129, the following
equation can be computed apparent Henrys constant:
In Ha m 22.3 - 4030/T
This equation expresses the higher solubility of ozone in
water at lower temperatures.
Influence of pH and ionic strength. In addition to
temperature, several parameters can influence the Henrys
constants. The most relevant are pH and ionic strength.
PH Data from the literature (Roth and Sullivan 1981) lead to
the following equation:
7
035
Ha = 3.84 x 10~ x [OH~] exp (-2428/T)
which covers the temperature range of 3.560C (38.3140F) and pH range of 0.65
10.2.
More recently, the following two correlations have been
published (Ouederni et al. 1987) for pH 2 and pH 7 and for a
range in temperature of 2050C (68122F):
pH 2: In Ha = 20.7 3547/T pH 7: In Ha =
18.1 - 2876/T
The scatter in the experimental data is considerable. More
investigation is still necessary since the stability of ozone in
water at higher pH values is lowered, thus causing interference
with the solubility of molecular ozone.
Ionic strength. An empirical relation to account for ionic
strength on ozone partition between gas and water has been
proposed as
In H = 12.19 - 2297/T + 2.659 X I - 688 (I/T)
Where:
H = is expressed in
atm/L/mol I = the
ionic strength, mol/L
T = temperature, K
In medium-strength mineralization of drinking water (less than
1000 total dissolved solids [TDS] in mg/L) the effect of ionic
strength on ozone solubility appears to remain marginal.
Effects of thermal decomposition in the gas phase. In
experiments with semi- batch contact columns operated to reach
the equilibrium of ozone dissolution, ozone consumption or
decomposition can be observed in the gas phase even when the
dissolved ozone concentration remains stable (Matrozov et al.
1975). The drop in ozone concentration in the gas phase at the
exit of a contacting column increases with increasing temperature.

5 OZONE IN WATER

The thermal decomposition of ozone contained in dry oxygen

initiating the formation of radical oxygen is a second-order
reaction of the form

at atmospheric pressure and without any catalyst or activator

TREATMENT
O3 + O2 * O2 + o2 + O

The kinetic constant associated with the

reaction is described as: k2 jj
2
2.02 x 10~ exp (24,000/RT)
and is expressed in M |I *.

Table 1130 Data on Decomposition of Ozone In Water

6 OZONE IN Concentration
WATER
Range, Temperature,
Order
mg/L
C
TREATMENT
3.5-60
|o3|'
0.8-1.8
(38.3-140)
Batch reactor
3.5-60
0.01-2.4
(38.3-140)
Batch reactor
flow reactor 0.5-5 25 (77)
satur. vs. 0.5 g 0.27

pH
0.5

Ions

kj/mol Reference
NaO
Gordon
H
0.5-10.2
Roth
Sulliva
n
9.6Staeheli
Hoign
NaOH
10Rogozhki
1970
1241
Czapski
1968
Alder
1950
oxygen 0.5- 20-40 (685-6
62
*

(+02)
ft?
35-75
0(32)
2-4
Rothmund
Burgst
alierand
2-10
5-40
20 (68)
Acids
Gurol
,s
Singer
|o3|
14
25 (77)
0-7
HCIO4
Kilpatrick
Li al.
1977
25 (77)
2.110
jig
Sheffer
10.2
Esterson
2
1982
|o3|>|oh|>
0.7-6
20 (68)
11-13 C03 "/HC0
Forni
et
1982
2
1.2 (column) 18-27 (64.4- 8.5co3 ~/hco3 96
Rizzuti
1976
2_
112
|OJ'|OH5|
0.06-1.5
1-20 (33.8- 7.6-10
co3
Stumm
oj'+loj' X Satur. vs. 86
10-40 (50- 2.5-9
(P04) 41.3 Sotelo et
|OH fl g/L 0
1987
2
12
Stop-flow
Tomiyasu
io
noHi'
3 |OH|'
al.
*Preliminary data from
Brussels Waterboard.

For low ozone concentrations in a pseudo first-order

pure oxygen constant results:
-14 -1

~ 9 X 10 s . The reaction is strongly temperature

dependent.
When the formation of radical atomic oxygen is obtained
by an activation source, the decomposition of ozone
according 10
to the reaction 03 + -1O_1 202 is very fast H I
3.37 X 10 exp (5700/RT) M s ).
Effect of ozone decomposition in water on gas transfer.
The data from literature on ozone decomposition in water
are summarized in Table 11-30. Under conditions
representative of water treatment, that is, for low residual
concentrations, the auto-decomposition of dissolved ozone is
an apparent first-order reaction with respect to ozone. The
hydroxyl ion concentration influences the decomposition rate
in an approximately first-order relationship too.
The activation energy in such representative conditions
ranges from 100 to 40 kj/mol and is higher at lower pH
values. A classical half-life time (pH 7-8) is from 20 to 30
min for relatively pure waters. The mechanism involved in

7 OZONE IN WATER

ozone decomposition in water is discussed in more detail in

secs. II. A and II. C.

TREATMENT

FUNDAMENTAL
ASPECTS 117

Source: Masschelein (1982a)

Figure

II47 Schematic of Double-Film Transfer

II.E.2 Contacting of Ozone With Water

Diffusion of ozone in water obeys Ficks law for

molecular diffusion. At 20C
the diffusion
-9
2 (68F),
constant is D0a = 1.74 X 10 m /s, and can be corrected
for different physical conditions according to the NernstEinstein relationship, which states [(D X |x)/T] = constant,
where |X is the dynamic viscosity of water and T is the
absolute temperature. Consequently, ozone transport is
much faster in the gas phase than in the liquid phase;
the latter determines the overall transport rate.
Transfer of ozone to water without chemical reaction.
The transfer of ozone to water without reaction is
currently accepted as occurring according to the doublefilm model (Figure 1147). The driving force is (C s
C).
(dC/dt) H +kLS (Cs -C); In ((Cs- C)/Cs) ~ kLSt
In this equation, S is the specific exchange surface in the
liquid film and depends on practical conditions such as
agitation, pressure, and total gas and liquid volumes.
On the gas side, the concentration of ozone is expressed in
terms of partial pressure:
y ** (PW/PtotJ
Part of y is transferred to the liquid phase to build up
C. If y* is the part transferred, then:
Y* - (P^O^Ptotai)
and (y y*) is the driving force in the gas phase for ozone
transfer into the liquid. The practical transfer rate is given by:
(- dM/dt) g k(g) S(g) (y - m
The equilibrium condition, that is, what the gas
releases and the liquid receives, is given by:
(+ dM/dt) - + M (C, - C) - Nt

FUNDAMENTAL

(the amount transferred per unit time into

a unit volume).
In a gas-liquid system it is often ASPECTS
difficult 8to determine the
specific exchange area S; as a result, estimations for k L are
variable. By considering the total volume of a reactor V, the result
is d(Nt) = kLS (CsC) X dV for a small volume portion of the
reactor. For a total reactor, several approximations are necessary,
depending on the type of reactor (Roustan and Mallevialle 1982).
Numerous empirical, sometimes very complex, equations have
been formulated to evaluate the gas transfer constant as a function
of different operational parameters. Only a simplified model can be
given here, since few approaches concern the transfer of ozone.
The 3 most reliable value of kL for ozone is in the order 2 - 3 X
10~ m/s, which is about 2.5 times lower than for oxygen
(Mallevialle et al. 1975).
In a static water column through which ozonated air is
bubbled, the following simple equation applies (Masschelein 1982a):
Where:

kL = 1.13 VDo3 x USG/JB

USG = the superficial gas velocity, m/s

dB = the diameter of the bubble, m

Bubble column reactors. The superficial gas velocity is equal to

the gas flow per cross section of the reactor as follows:
USG | QG/A

The approximation of Hughmark can be applied to bubbles that

are free moving and not coalescent.

*G = USG/(0.3 + 2USG)
where eG is the volumic fraction of gas in
the reactor. Values of USG can be
estimated by the relation:
Where:

USG | (T X H)/(Cg X Dt)

3

T = treatment doses, g/m

H = column height, m Cg = ozone
3
concentration of gas, g/m NTP Dt = residence time of water in
reactor, s.

Various
relationships of the type shown below have been developed
atl n
for applic under several operating conditions and for practical reactor
designs.
kLS = otUlc
1
4
2
kLS (s ) | 2.32 X 10 U|G (5C) (Roustan et
4
5
1
al. 1987) kLS (s" ) = 3.26 X 10~ U$

FUNDAMENTAL

1
(12C)
(Roustan et al. 1989) kLS (s"
) = 7.91
ASPECTS
9 X
4
4

10" Ugif (20C) (Laplanche et al. 1989)

FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS

;e*. \tassOftfc\fc\rv .

gyreAX1V& hubb\e F*\se \fe\odty as a Function of

Dimensions
TYve tree YmbYAe rise velocity also depends on the bubble size
(Figure 1148). Mechanically stirred reactors. Only few equations
relate to the transfer of ozone in stirred reactors.
2

VS = 2.57 X 10"
1987)

X (QG
3

X N)

67

(Ouederni et al.

QG is expressed in 10~~ m /s, and N is the

number of rotations per second. Values of VqS ( ^ S
a p p e a r to he about four times higher in stirred
vessels than in simple bubble-rising systems. More
work is still required in this field.
Knottier relation to consider is the power
input per volume, as displayed in the following
equation*.
kxSjl F x (W/V)

1/2

1/2

x (QG/V)

F is an experimental factor, depending on the ozone concentration, and is in

the order of 0.02. under the most usual conditions (Mallevialle et al. 1975).
Packed towers. The equation of Onda et al. (1968) and Puranik et al.
(1974) is often considered to he most reliable for predicting gas transfer in
packed towers.
SX

WWDo) m

x 10_3 x

(aPdP)-

(USLpL/ap|xL)
X (g.L/ pL D0s)1/2

4/3

(USIap/g)

~''3

VThere*.

= the theoretical specific surface of the packing

material dp = the nominal diameter of the packing3
material p .the specific weight of the liquid,-1kg/m
1 yv
= the dynamic viscosity of the liquid, kg m s VJ Lsl-(
the superficial liquid velocity, m/s.

"The wet exchange surface of packed columns is increased by at least a

factor of 3 compared to bubble columns.

Alternative theories. In Higbies (1935) penetration theory, it is supposed that th

transfer is obtained by renewal of the liquid in the vicinity of the gas phase, that j s
transitional regime of mass transfer. In Danckwerts* (1970) theory of renewal of ^
interface, a variable stay of the renewed exchange liquid is considered.
These theories present considerable mathematical difficulties when considering ^
practical conditions of ozonation. Therefore, they are generally not applied to the
although they could be used as the basis when fast reactions in the liquid phase are ^
competition with the ozone transfer.
Absorption with chemical reaction. If the ozone transferred to the liquid | s consumed
by a chemical reaction, the specific transfer coefficient k L is no longer influ enced by
only the diffusivity, since a significant part of the ozone dissolved in the liquid phase is
exhausted continuously. Therefore,

kL (R) > kL and (kL(R)/kL) = B

where kL (R) is the transfer coefficient in the presence of chemical reactions. An approximation for B is given by Danckwerts (1970).
1/2

B = [1 | (D0j fe,)/kL]
B is an acceleration coefficient often called enhancement factor (E), for ozone transfer, while kx is the first-order rate constant of the oxidation.
In the practical conditions of postozonation of drinking water, the enhancement
factor is always about unity.
If4 the1 reaction is very fast, for example, oxidation of a solution of iodide ion at kj
~ 10 s , the oxidation takes place only at the bubble surface and no ozone is trans ferred into the bulk of the liquid
2
1 phase (B ~~ 2.3).
For a kx value of 10 s , which is in the range of easily oxidized organic
_1
compounds of concentrations ofO. 10.2 M, B is still about 1.2. For kt = 1 s and
slower, the direct effect of reacting dissolved compounds on the gas transfer can be
neglected and the reaction is that of predissolved ozone. Also occurring in this range
and at the pH values for drinking water, the oxidation by OH radicals enters into
competition with direct oxidation by ozone (Hoigne 1988).
Competitive inhibition effects in ozone-transfer-controlled reactions. In ozone gastransfer controlled reaction rates, the reaction kinetics observed, forex- ample, those in
a bubble column, are often of apparent zero order. This has been studied in more detail
for nitrophenols oxidized with low ozone concentrations, simulating the conditions of
preozonation (Masschelein and Goossens 1984). Compounds that do not react with
ozone in similar conditions (for example, those with low pH values) can interfere by
competitive inhibition mechanisms. Typical inhibitions studied are acetic acid, ethanol,
and ammonium chloride, all of which slow down the oxidation of picric acid in a
semibatch reactor (Masschelein et al. 1987).
Specific energy of ozone contacting. The power for ozone dissolution strongly depends
on local conditions and plant hydraulics. Numerous systems have been used. Some
general observations of these systems are summarized below (see sec. IV.D and sec.
V.B.2).
Dispersion with porous disks or rods (eventually equipped with packing material)
the system is static, but can be subject to clogging. Plug-flow patterns should
be approached in the detention zones. Average specific energy equals 2-3 Wh/g
03 .
Static mixinghas the advantage of static systems, but ozone losses occur. Average specific energy equals 45 Wh/g 03.

FUNDAMENTAL

Direct injection in a pipeis not

expensive,
ASPECTS
121 but subject to
bumping and eventually to corrosion. Dissolution of
accompanying gases such as 02 or N2 can be at
oversaturation, and subsequent degassing can be a problem.
Average specific energy equals 0-5 Wh/g 03.
Slow downflow injection shafthas no moving parts, can
be subject to channeling, and needs a given water-to-gas
flow ratio. Average specific energy equals 4 -5 Wh/g 03.
Eductor with total water flowshows high turbulence and
good mixing, but has
AFNOR
Normalisation
risk
of
clogging.
Franaise. 1987. Detection in an
Average
specific
energy
Aquatic
Medium
of
the
equals
4-5
Wh/g
0
3, but
Genotoxicity of a Substance to
can range from 10 to
Larvae of Batracians. Fascicule
AFNOR, T 90-325.
45 Wh/g 03 in high
LAir Liquide, French Patent,
counter-pressure systems.
Recirculating propeller
FR. 1,246,273.
Alder, M.G. & Hill, G.R. 1950.
or
turbineshows
The Kinetics and Mechanism of
good
mixing
and high
Hydroxide Ion Catalyzed Ozone
bubble
contacting
rate,
Decomposition
in
Aqueous
which
approaches
the
Solution. Jour. Amer. Chem.
Soc., 72:1884.
theoretical contact time,
Ames, B.N. et al. 1985. Methods
but is based on moving
for Directing Carcinogens and
construction
parts.
Mutagens With the Salmonella/
Average
specific
energy
Mammalian-Microsome
equals 5-7 Wh/g 03.
Mutagenicity Test. Mut. Res.,
31:347-363.
Packed
or
plate
columns
(substream
Anbar, M. & Neta, P. 1967. A
Compilation
of
Specific
saturation)have
a
Bimolecular Rate Constants for
good
exchange
rate
and
the Reactions of Hydrated
high ozonation yields,
Electrons, Hydrogen Atoms, and
Hydroxyl
Radicals
With
but are subject to
Inorganic
and
Organic
clogging and are waterCompounds
in
Aqueous
pressure
dependent.
Solutions. Inti. Jour. Appi.
Average specific energy
Radiation & Isotopes, 18:493.
equals 15-40 Wh/g 03.
Anderson, F.G.L.Q. 1977.
Ozonation of High Levels of
Summary. Ozone-to-water
Phenol in Water. AIChE
contacting
is
important
Symp. Seer., 73:166-265.
because
of
the
relatively
low
Anderson, L.J. et al. 1986. Extent partial pressure of ozone in
of Ozones Reaction with
process
gas.
The
Isolated Aquatic Fulvic Acid. the
Envir. Sci. Technol, 20:7:739. dissolution of ozone in water
Andrews, T. & Tait, P.G. 1856. is slightly exothermic, and a
On the Volumetric Relations of large variety of gas transfer
Ozone, and the Action of the systems are applicable.
Electrical Discharge on Oxygen
and Other Gases. Philosophical References
Transactions, 113.
P. et al. 1985.
Anselme, C. et al. 1988. Backlund,
Activity in Humic
Development of an Integrated Mutagenic
and Alum Flocculated
Analytical Approach for Water
Water Treated With
Evaluating Toxic Compounds Humic
Alternative
Seif.
Removal From Groundwa- bv Total Envir., Disinfectants.
47:257.
Ozone Hydrogen Peroxide.

FUNDAMENTAL

____ 1988. Formation of Ames Mutagenicity

and of the Strong Bacterial Mutagen ASPECTS
3-chloro- 122
4-(dichloromethyl)5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone and Other Halogenated Compounds
During Disinfection of Humic Water. Chemo sphere, 17: 1329-36.
Bader, H. & Hoign, J. 1979. Analysis of Ozone in Water and
Wastewater by an Indigo Method. 4th Ozone World Congress,
IOA, Houston, Texas.
____1981. Determination of Ozone in Water
by the Indigo Method. Wtr. Res., 15:449.
____ 1982a. Determination of Ozone in Water
by the Indigo Method: A Submitted Standard Method. Ozone Sci.
Engrg., 4:169.
____ 1982b. Colorimetric Method for the
Measurement of Aqueous Ozone Based on the Decolorization of
Indigo Derivatives. In Ozo- nization Manual for Water and
Wastewater Treatment. Edited by W.J. Masschelein. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York.
Bailey, P.S. 1978. Ozonation in Organic Chemistry. Academic Press,
Inc., New York.
Benot-Guyot, J. et al . 1984. Chlorophenols: Degradation and Toxicity.
Jour. Franais dHy- drologie, 15:3:249.
Block, J.C. 1982. Mcanismes dInactivation des Microorganismes
par les Oxydants. TSM VEau, 77:11:521.
Bonnet, M.L. 1988. Contribution lEtude de
IO \T olAt'IC'lfl AM

T OFHA^AlIlllACimiAC