Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

3/12/2015
MyersBriggsTypeIndicatorWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
MyersBriggsTypeIndicator
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
TheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator(MBTI)assessmentisa
psychometricquestionnairedesignedtomeasurepsychological
preferencesinhowpeopleperceivetheworldandmake
decisions.[1][2][3]ThesepreferenceswereextrapolatedbyKatharine
CookBriggsandIsabelBriggsMyersfromthetypologicaltheories
proposedbyCarlGustavJung,andfirstpublishedinhis1921book
PsychologicalTypes(Englishedition,1923[4]).Jungtheorizedthat
therearefourprincipalpsychologicalfunctionsbywhichwe
experiencetheworld:sensation,intuition,feeling,andthinking.[5]
Oneofthesefourfunctionsisdominantmostofthetime.
TheoriginaldevelopersofthepersonalityinventorywereKatharine
CookBriggsandherdaughter,IsabelBriggsMyers.After
extensivelystudyingtheworkofJung,theyturnedtheirinterestin
humanbehaviorintoadevotiontoturnthetheoryofpsychological
typestopracticaluse.[2][6]Theybegancreatingtheindicatorduring
WorldWarIIinthe1940s[2]throughtheirownoriginalresearch,[2]
withthebeliefthataknowledgeofpersonalitypreferenceswould
helpwomenwhowereenteringtheindustrialworkforceforthefirst
timetoidentifythesortofwartimejobsthatwouldbe"most
comfortableandeffective"[1]:xiiiforthem.Theinitialquestionnaire
grewintotheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator,whichwasfirst
publishedin1962.TheMBTIisconstructedfornormalpopulations
andemphasizesthevalueofnaturallyoccurringdifferences.[7]
RobertKaplanandDennisSaccuzzostatedthat"theunderlying
assumptionoftheMBTIisthatweallhavespecificpreferencesin
thewayweconstrueourexperiences,andthesepreferencesunderlie
ourinterests,needs,values,andmotivation."[5]
Contents
Achartwithdescriptionsofeach
MyersBriggspersonalitytypeand
thefourdichotomiescentraltothe
theory.
CarlJungin1910.IsabelBriggs
MyersandKatharineCookBriggs
extrapolatedtheirMBTItheoryfrom
Jung'swritingsinhisbook,
PsychologicalTypes
1Concepts
1.1Type
1.2Fourdichotomies
1.3Attitudes:extraversion/introversion(E/I)
1.4Functions:sensing/intuition(S/N)and
thinking/feeling(T/F)
1.4.1Dominantfunction
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator
1/24
3/12/2015
1.5Lifestyle:judging/perception(J/P)
2Historicaldevelopment
2.1DifferencesfromJung
2.1.1Judgingvs.perception
2.1.1.1Orientationofthetertiary
function
3Applications
4Formatandadministration
4.1Additionalformats
4.2Translationsintootherlanguages
5Preceptsandethics
6Typedynamicsanddevelopment
7Cognitivelearningstyles
7.1Extraversion/Introversion
7.2Sensing/Intuition
7.3Thinking/Feeling
7.4Judging/Perceiving
8Correlationstootherinstruments
8.1Keirseytemperaments
8.2BigFive
8.3Personalitydisorders
9Originsofthetheory
10Criticism
10.1Terminology
10.2Factoranalysis
10.3Correlates
10.4Reliability
11Utility
12Seealso
13Notes
14Referencesandfurtherreading
15Externallinks
Concepts
2/24
3/12/2015
AstheMBTIManualstates,theindicator"isdesignedtoimplementatheorythereforethetheorymustbe
understoodtounderstandtheMBTI".[8]:1
FundamentaltotheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatoristhetheoryofpsychologicaltypeasoriginally
developedbyCarlJung.[1]:xiiiJungproposedtheexistenceoftwodichotomouspairsofcognitivefunctions:
The"rational"(judging)functions:thinkingandfeeling
The"irrational"(perceiving)functions:sensationandintuition
Jungbelievedthatforeverypersoneachofthefunctionsareexpressedprimarilyineitheranintrovertedor
extravertedform.[1]:17FromJung'soriginalconcepts,BriggsandMyersdevelopedtheirowntheoryof
psychologicaltype,describedbelow,onwhichtheMBTIisbased.
Type
Jung'stypologicalmodelregardspsychologicaltypeassimilartoleftorrighthandedness:individualsare
eitherbornwith,ordevelop,certainpreferredwaysofperceivinganddeciding.TheMBTIsortssomeof
thesepsychologicaldifferencesintofouroppositepairs,ordichotomies,witharesulting16possible
psychologicaltypes.Noneofthesetypesarebetterorworsehowever,BriggsandMyerstheorizedthat
individualsnaturallypreferoneoverallcombinationoftypedifferences.[1]:9Inthesamewaythatwriting
withthelefthandishardworkforarighthander,sopeopletendtofindusingtheiroppositepsychological
preferencesmoredifficult,eveniftheycanbecomemoreproficient(andthereforebehaviorallyflexible)
withpracticeanddevelopment.
The16typesaretypicallyreferredtobyanabbreviationoffourletterstheinitiallettersofeachoftheir
fourtypepreferences(exceptinthecaseofintuition,whichusestheabbreviationNtodistinguishitfrom
introversion).Forinstance:
ESTJ:extraversion(E),sensing(S),thinking(T),judgment(J)
INFP:introversion(I),intuition(N),feeling(F),perception(P)
Thismethodofabbreviationisappliedtoall16types.
Fourdichotomies
Thefourpairsofpreferencesordichotomiesare
showninthetabletotheright.
CarlJung
Subjective
Objective
Notethatthetermsusedforeachdichotomyhave
Perception iNtuition/Sensing Introversion1/Extraversion1
specifictechnicalmeaningsrelatingtotheMBTI
whichdifferfromtheireverydayusage.For
Judging Feeling/Thinking Introversion2/Extraversion2
example,peoplewhopreferjudgmentover
perceptionarenotnecessarilymorejudgmentalor
MyersBriggs
lessperceptive.NordoestheMBTIinstrument
measureaptitudeitsimplyindicatesforone
Subjective
Objective
[8]:3
preferenceoveranother. Someonereportingahigh
Deductive iNtuition/Sensing Perception/Judging
3/24
3/12/2015
scoreforextraversionoverintroversioncannotbe
correctlydescribedasmoreextraverted:theysimply
haveaclearpreference.
Inductive Feeling/Thinking Introversion/Extraversion
Pointscoresoneachofthedichotomiescanvaryconsiderablyfrompersontoperson,evenamongthose
withthesametype.However,IsabelMyersconsideredthedirectionofthepreference(forexample,Evs.I)
tobemoreimportantthanthedegreeofthepreference(forexample,veryclearvs.slight).[9]The
expressionofaperson'spsychologicaltypeismorethanthesumofthefourindividualpreferences.The
preferencesinteractthroughtypedynamicsandtypedevelopment.
Attitudes:extraversion/introversion(E/I)
MyersBriggsliteratureusesthetermsextraversionandintroversionasJungfirstusedthem.Extraversion
means"outwardturning"andintroversionmeans"inwardturning".[10]Thesespecificdefinitionsvary
somewhatfromthepopularusageofthewords.NotethatextraversionisthespellingusedinMBTI
publications.
Thepreferencesforextraversionandintroversionareoftencalled"attitudes".BriggsandMyersrecognized
thateachofthecognitivefunctionscanoperateintheexternalworldofbehavior,action,people,andthings
("extravertedattitude")ortheinternalworldofideasandreflection("introvertedattitude").TheMBTI
assessmentsortsforanoverallpreferenceforoneortheother.
Peoplewhopreferextraversiondrawenergyfromaction:theytendtoact,thenreflect,thenactfurther.If
theyareinactive,theirmotivationtendstodecline.Torebuildtheirenergy,extravertsneedbreaksfrom
timespentinreflection.Conversely,thosewhopreferintroversion"expend"energythroughaction:they
prefertoreflect,thenact,thenreflectagain.Torebuildtheirenergy,introvertsneedquiettimealone,away
fromactivity.[11]
Theextravert'sflowisdirectedoutwardtowardpeopleandobjects,andtheintrovert'sisdirectedinward
towardconceptsandideas.Contrastingcharacteristicsbetweenextravertsandintrovertsincludethe
following:
Extravertsare"action"oriented,whileintrovertsare"thought"oriented.
Extravertsseek"breadth"ofknowledgeandinfluence,whileintrovertsseek"depth"ofknowledge
andinfluence.
Extravertsoftenprefermore"frequent"interaction,whileintrovertsprefermore"substantial"
interaction.
Extravertsrechargeandgettheirenergyfromspendingtimewithpeople,whileintrovertsrecharge
andgettheirenergyfromspendingtimealonetheyconsumetheirenergythroughtheopposite
process.[12]
Functions:sensing/intuition(S/N)andthinking/feeling(T/F)
Jungidentifiedtwopairsofpsychologicalfunctions:
4/24
3/12/2015
Thetwoperceivingfunctions,sensingandintuition
Thetwojudgingfunctions,thinkingandfeeling
AccordingtoJung'stypologymodel,eachpersonusesoneofthesefourfunctionsmoredominantlyand
proficientlythantheotherthreehowever,allfourfunctionsareusedatdifferenttimesdependingonthe
circumstances.
Sensingandintuitionaretheinformationgathering(perceiving)functions.Theydescribehownew
informationisunderstoodandinterpreted.Individualswhoprefersensingaremorelikelytotrust
informationthatisinthepresent,tangible,andconcrete:thatis,informationthatcanbeunderstoodbythe
fivesenses.Theytendtodistrusthunches,whichseemtocome"outofnowhere".[1]:2Theyprefertolook
fordetailsandfacts.Forthem,themeaningisinthedata.Ontheotherhand,thosewhopreferintuitiontend
totrustinformationthatislessdependentuponthesenses,thatcanbeassociatedwithotherinformation
(eitherrememberedordiscoveredbyseekingawidercontextorpattern).Theymaybemoreinterestedin
futurepossibilities.Forthem,themeaningisintheunderlyingtheoryandprincipleswhicharemanifested
inthedata.
Thinkingandfeelingarethedecisionmaking(judging)functions.Thethinkingandfeelingfunctionsare
bothusedtomakerationaldecisions,basedonthedatareceivedfromtheirinformationgatheringfunctions
(sensingorintuition).Thosewhopreferthinkingtendtodecidethingsfromamoredetachedstandpoint,
measuringthedecisionbywhatseemsreasonable,logical,causal,consistent,andmatchingagivensetof
rules.Thosewhopreferfeelingtendtocometodecisionsbyassociatingorempathizingwiththesituation,
lookingatit'fromtheinside'andweighingthesituationtoachieve,onbalance,thegreatestharmony,
consensusandfit,consideringtheneedsofthepeopleinvolved.Thinkersusuallyhavetroubleinteracting
withpeoplewhoareinconsistentorillogical,andtendtogiveverydirectfeedbacktoothers.Theyare
concernedwiththetruthandviewitasmoreimportant.
Asnotedalready,peoplewhopreferthinkingdonotnecessarily,intheeverydaysense,"thinkbetter"than
theirfeelingcounterparts,inthecommonsensetheoppositepreferenceisconsideredanequallyrational
wayofcomingtodecisions(and,inanycase,theMBTIassessmentisameasureofpreference,notability).
Similarly,thosewhopreferfeelingdonotnecessarilyhave"better"emotionalreactionsthantheirthinking
counterparts.
Dominantfunction
AccordingtoJung,peopleuseallfourcognitivefunctions.However,onefunctionisgenerallyusedina
moreconsciousandconfidentway.Thisdominantfunctionissupportedbythesecondary(auxiliary)
function,andtoalesserdegreethetertiaryfunction.Thefourthandleastconsciousfunctionisalwaysthe
oppositeofthedominantfunction.Myerscalledthisinferiorfunctiontheshadow.[1]:84
Thefourfunctionsoperateinconjunctionwiththeattitudes(extraversionandintroversion).Eachfunction
isusedineitheranextravertedorintrovertedway.Apersonwhosedominantfunctionisextraverted
intuition,forexample,usesintuitionverydifferentlyfromsomeonewhosedominantfunctionisintroverted
intuition.
Lifestyle:judging/perception(J/P)
5/24
3/12/2015
MyersandBriggsaddedanotherdimensiontoJung'stypological
modelbyidentifyingthatpeoplealsohaveapreferenceforusing
eitherthejudgingfunction(thinkingorfeeling)ortheirperceiving
function(sensingorintuition)whenrelatingtotheoutsideworld
(extraversion).
MyersandBriggsheldthattypeswithapreferenceforjudgingshow
theworldtheirpreferredjudgingfunction(thinkingorfeeling).So
TJtypestendtoappeartotheworldaslogical,andFJtypesas
empathetic.AccordingtoMyers,[1]:75judgingtypesliketo"have
matterssettled".
Thosetypeswhopreferperceptionshowtheworldtheirpreferred
perceivingfunction(sensingorintuition).SoSPtypestendto
appeartotheworldasconcreteandNPtypesasabstract.According
toMyers,[1]:75perceptivetypespreferto"keepdecisionsopen".
Adiagramdepictingthecognitive
functionsofeachtype.Atype's
backgroundcolorrepresentsits
Dominantfunction,anditstextcolor
representsitsAuxiliaryfunction.
Forextraverts,theJorPindicatestheirdominantfunctionfor
introverts,theJorPindicatestheirauxiliaryfunction.Introverts
tendtoshowtheirdominantfunctionoutwardlyonlyinmatters"importanttotheirinnerworlds".[1]:13For
example:
BecausetheENTJtypeisextraverted,theJindicatesthatthedominantfunctionisthepreferredjudging
function(extravertedthinking).TheENTJtypeintrovertstheauxiliaryperceivingfunction(introverted
intuition).Thetertiaryfunctionissensingandtheinferiorfunctionisintrovertedfeeling.
BecausetheINTJtypeisintroverted,however,theJinsteadindicatesthattheauxiliaryfunctionisthe
preferredjudgingfunction(extravertedthinking).TheINTJtypeintrovertsthedominantperceiving
function(introvertedintuition).Thetertiaryfunctionisfeelingandtheinferiorfunctionisextraverted
sensing.
Historicaldevelopment
KatharineCookBriggsbeganherresearchintopersonalityin1917.Uponmeetingherfuturesoninlaw,
sheobservedmarkeddifferencesbetweenhispersonalityandthatofotherfamilymembers.Briggs
embarkedonaprojectofreadingbiographies,andshedevelopedatypologybasedonpatternsshefound.
Sheproposedfourtemperaments:Meditative(orThoughtful),Spontaneous,Executive,andSocial.[13][14]
Then,aftertheEnglishtranslationofPsychologicalTypeswaspublishedin1923(havingfirstbeen
publishedinGermanin1921),sherecognizedthatJung'stheorywassimilarto,yetwentfarbeyond,her
own.[1]:22Briggs'sfourtypeswerelateridentifiedascorrespondingtotheIs,EPs,ETJsandEFJs.[13][14]
HerfirstpublicationsweretwoarticlesdescribingJung'stheory,inthejournalNewRepublicin1926(Meet
YourselfUsingthePersonalityPaintBox)and1928(UpFromBarbarism).
Briggs'sdaughter,IsabelBriggsMyers,addedtohermother'stypologicalresearch,whichshewould
progressivelytakeoverentirely.MyersgraduatedfirstinherclassfromSwarthmoreCollegein1919[1]:xx
andwrotetheprizewinningmysterynovelMurderYettoComein1929usingtypologicalideas.However,
neitherMyersnorBriggswereformallyeducatedinpsychology,andthustheylackedscientificcredentials
6/24
3/12/2015
inthefieldofpsychometrictesting.[1]:xiiiSoMyersapprenticedherselftoEdwardN.Hay,whowasthen
personnelmanagerforalargePhiladelphiabankandwentontostartoneofthefirstsuccessfulpersonnel
consultingfirmsintheU.S.FromHay,Myerslearnedtestconstruction,scoring,validation,and
statistics.[1]:xiii,xxIn1942,the"BriggsMyersTypeIndicator"wascreated,andtheBriggsMyersType
IndicatorHandbookwaspublishedin1944.Theindicatorchangeditsnametothemodernform(Myers
BriggsTypeIndicator)in1956.[15][16]
Myers'workattractedtheattentionofHenryChauncey,headoftheEducationalTestingService,andunder
theseauspices,thefirstMBTIManualwaspublishedin1962.TheMBTIreceivedfurthersupportfrom
DonaldT.McKinnon,headoftheInstituteofPersonalityResearchattheUniversityofCaliforniaHarold
Grant,professoratMichiganStateandAuburnUniversitiesandMaryH.McCaulleyoftheUniversityof
Florida.ThepublicationoftheMBTIwastransferredtoConsultingPsychologistsPressin1975,andthe
CenterforApplicationsofPsychologicalType(CAPT)wasfoundedasaresearchlaboratory.[1]:xxiAfter
Myers'deathinMay1980,MaryMcCaulleyupdatedtheMBTIManual,andthesecondeditionwas
publishedin1985.[9]Thethirdeditionappearedin1998.
DifferencesfromJung
Judgingvs.perception
ThemostnotableadditionofMyersandBriggstoJung'soriginalthoughtistheirconceptthatagiventype's
fourthletter(JorP)indicatesaperson'spreferredextravertedfunction,whichisthedominantfunctionfor
extravertedtypesandtheauxiliaryfunctionfortheintrovertedtypes.[1]:2122
Orientationofthetertiaryfunction
Jungtheorizedthatthedominantfunctionactsaloneinitspreferredworld:exteriorfortheextraverts,and
interiorfortheintroverts.Theremainingthreefunctions,hesuggested,operatetogetherintheopposite
world.Ifthedominantcognitivefunctionisintroverted,theotherfunctionsareextraverted,andviceversa.
TheMBTIManualsummarizesreferencesinJung'sworktothebalanceinpsychologicaltypeasfollows:
ThereareseveralreferencesinJung'swritingtothethreeremainingfunctionshavingan
oppositeattitudinalcharacter.Forexample,inwritingaboutintrovertswiththinking
dominant...Jungcommentedthatthecounterbalancingfunctionshaveanextraverted
character.[9]:29
However,manyMBTIpractitionersholdthatthetertiaryfunctionisorientedinthesamedirectionsameas
thedominantfunction.[17]UsingtheINTPtypeasanexample,theorientationwouldbeasfollows:
Dominantintrovertedthinking
Auxiliaryextravertedintuition
Tertiaryintrovertedsensing
Inferiorextravertedfeeling
7/24
3/12/2015
Fromatheoreticalperspective,psychologistHansEysenckcalledtheMBTIamoderatelysuccessful
quantificationofJung'soriginalprinciplesasoutlinedinPsychologicalTypes.[18]
Eysenck,however,alsosaid:"This(theMBTI)creates16personalitytypeswhicharesaidtobesimilarto
Jung'stheoreticalconcepts.Ihavealwaysfounddifficultieswiththisidentification,whichomitsonehalfof
Jung'stheory(hehad32types,byassertingthatforeveryconsciouscombinationoftraitstherewasan
oppositeunconsciousone).Obviouslythelatterhalfofhistheorydoesnotadmitofquestionnaire
measurement,buttoleaveitoutandpretendthatthescalesmeasureJungianconceptsishardlyfairto
Jung."[19]
Bothmodelsremainhypotheses,withnocontrolledscientificstudiessupportingeitherJung'soriginal
conceptoftypeortheMyersBriggsvariation.[20]
Applications
Theindicatorisfrequentlyusedintheareasofpedagogy,careercounseling,teambuilding,group
dynamics,professionaldevelopment,marketing,familybusiness,leadershiptraining,executivecoaching,
lifecoaching,personaldevelopmentandmarriagecounseling.
Formatandadministration
ThecurrentNorthAmericanEnglishversionoftheMBTIStepIincludes93forcedchoicequestions(there
are88intheEuropeanEnglishversion).Forcedchoicemeansthattheindividualhastochooseonlyoneof
twopossibleanswerstoeachquestion.Thechoicesareamixtureofwordpairsandshortstatements.
Choicesarenotliteraloppositesbutchosentoreflectoppositepreferencesonthesamedichotomy.
Participantsmayskipquestionsiftheyfeeltheyareunabletochoose.
Usingpsychometrictechniques,suchasitemresponsetheory,theMBTIwillthenbescoredandwill
attempttoidentifythepreference,andclarityofpreference,ineachdichotomy.AftertakingtheMBTI,
participantsareusuallyaskedtocompleteaBestFitexercise(seebelow)andthengivenareadoutoftheir
ReportedType,whichwillusuallyincludeabargraphandnumbertoshowhowcleartheywereabouteach
preferencewhentheycompletedthequestionnaire.
DuringtheearlydevelopmentoftheMBTIthousandsofitemswereused.Mostwereeventuallydiscarded
becausetheydidnothavehighmidpointdiscrimination,meaningtheresultsofthatoneitemdidnot,on
average,moveanindividualscoreawayfromthemidpoint.Usingonlyitemswithhighmidpoint
discriminationallowstheMBTItohavefeweritemsonitbutstillprovideasmuchstatisticalinformationas
otherinstrumentswithmanymoreitemswithlowermidpointdiscrimination.TheMBTIrequiresfive
pointsonewayoranothertoindicateaclearpreference.
Additionalformats
IsabelMyershadnotedthatpeopleofanygiventypeshareddifferencesaswellassimilarities.Atthetime
ofherdeath,shewasdevelopingamoreindepthmethodofmeasuringhowpeopleexpressandexperience
theirindividualtypepattern.
8/24
3/12/2015
In1987,anadvancedscoringsystemwasdevelopedfortheMBTI.FromthiswasdevelopedtheType
DifferentiationIndicator(TDI)(Saunders,1989)whichisascoringsystemforthelongerMBTI,Form
J,[21]whichincludesthe290itemswrittenbyMyersthathadsurvivedherpreviousitemanalyses.Ityields
20subscales(fiveundereachofthefourdichotomouspreferencescales),plussevenadditionalsubscales
foranewComfortDiscomfortfactor(whichpurportedlycorrespondstothemissingfactorof
Neuroticism).
Thisfactor'sscalesindicateasenseofoverallcomfortandconfidenceversusdiscomfortandanxiety.They
alsoloadontooneofthefourtypedimensions:[22]guardedoptimistic(alsoT/F),defiantcompliant(also
T/F),carefreeworried(alsoT/F),decisiveambivalent(alsoJ/P),intrepidinhibited(AlsoE/I),leader
follower(AlsoE/I),andproactivedistractible(alsoJ/P)
Alsoincludedisacompositeofthesecalled"strain."Therearealsoscalesfortypescaleconsistencyand
comfortscaleconsistency.Reliabilityof23ofthe27TDIsubscalesisgreaterthan0.50,"anacceptable
resultgiventhebrevityofthesubscales"(Saunders,1989).
In1989,ascoringsystemwasdevelopedforonlythe20subscalesfortheoriginalfourdichotomies.This
wasinitiallyknownasFormK,ortheExpandedAnalysisReport(EAR).Thistoolisnowcalledthe
MBTIStepII.
FormJortheTDIincludedtheitems(derivedfromMyersandMcCaulleysearlierwork)necessaryto
scorewhatbecameknownasStepIII.[23](The1998MBTIManualreportedthatthetwoinstrumentswere
oneandthesame[24])Itwasdevelopedinajointprojectinvolvingthefollowingorganizations:CPP,the
publisherofthewholefamilyofMBTIworksCAPT(CenterforApplicationsofPsychologicalType),
whichholdsallofMyers'andMcCaulley'soriginalworkandtheMBTITrust,headedbyKatharineand
PeterMyers.StepIIIwasadvertisedasaddressingtypedevelopmentandtheuseofperceptionand
judgmentbyrespondents.[25]
Translationsintootherlanguages
TheMBTIhasbeensuccessfullytranslatedintoover20languages,[26]coveringmanycountriesacrossthe
world.However,itismoretruetosaythatthecreationofanewquestionnairelanguageisadaptation,[27]
whichincludestranslationtheotherstagesincludereviewsbysubjectmatterexpertsfluentinthenative
language,andstatisticalanalysistocheckthatthequestionsstillmeasurethesamepsychologicalconcepts
astheoriginalUSEnglishquestionnaire.[28]
Preceptsandethics
ThefollowingpreceptsaregenerallyusedintheethicaladministrationoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator:
Typenottrait
TheMBTIsortsfortypeitdoesnotindicatethestrengthofability.Thequestionnaireallowsthe
clarityofapreferencetobeascertained(Billclearlyprefersintroversion),butnotthestrengthof
preference(Janestronglyprefersextraversion)ordegreeofaptitude(Harryisgoodatthinking).In
thissense,itdiffersfromtraitbasedtoolssuchas16PF.Typepreferencesarepolaropposites:a
9/24
3/12/2015
preceptofMBTIisthatpeoplefundamentallypreferonethingovertheother,notabitofboth.
Ownbestjudge
Individualsareconsideredthebestjudgeoftheirowntype.WhiletheMBTIquestionnaireprovidesa
ReportedType,thisisconsideredonlyanindicationoftheirprobableoverallType.ABestFit
Processisusuallyusedtoallowrespondentstodeveloptheirunderstandingofthefourdichotomies,
toformtheirownhypothesisastotheiroverallType,andtocomparethisagainsttheReportedType.
Inmorethan20%ofcases,thehypothesisandtheReportedTypedifferinoneormoredichotomies.
Usingtheclarityofeachpreference,anypotentialforbiasinthereport,andoften,acomparisonof
twoormorewholeTypesmaythenhelprespondentsdeterminetheirownBestFit.
Norightorwrong
Nopreferenceortotaltypeisconsideredbetterorworsethananother.TheyareallGiftsDiffering,as
emphasizedbythetitleofIsabelBriggsMyers'bookonthissubject.
Voluntary
ItisconsideredunethicaltocompelanyonetotaketheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator.Itshould
alwaysbetakenvoluntarily.[29]
Confidentiality
TheresultoftheMBTIReportedandBestFittypeareconfidentialbetweentheindividualand
administratorand,ethically,notfordisclosurewithoutpermission.
Notforselection
Theresultsoftheassessmentshouldnotbeusedto"label,evaluate,orlimittherespondentinany
way"(emphasisoriginal).[29]Sincealltypesarevaluable,andtheMBTImeasurespreferencesrather
thanaptitude,theMBTIisnotconsideredaproperinstrumentforpurposesofemploymentselection.
Manyprofessionscontainhighlycompetentindividualsofdifferenttypeswithcomplementary
preferences.
Importanceofproperfeedback
Individualsshouldalwaysbegivendetailedfeedbackfromatrainedadministratorandanopportunity
toundertakeaBestFitexercisetocheckagainsttheirReportedType.Thisfeedbackcanbegivenin
personor,wherethisisnotpractical,bytelephoneorelectronically.
Typedynamicsanddevelopment
Theinteractionoftwo,three,orfourpreferencesisknownastypedynamics.
Althoughtypedynamicshasreceivedlittleornoempiricalsupportto
substantiateitsviabilityasascientifictheory,[31]MyersandBriggsasserted
thatforeachofthe16fourpreferencetypes,onefunctionisthemostdominant
TheSixteenTypes
USPopulation
Breakdown
10/24
3/12/2015
andislikelytobeevidentearliestinlife.Asecondaryorauxiliaryfunction
typicallybecomesmoreevident(differentiated)duringteenageyearsand
providesbalancetothedominant.Innormaldevelopment,individualstendto
becomemorefluentwithathird,tertiaryfunctionduringmidlife,whilethe
fourth,inferiorfunctionremainsleastconsciouslydeveloped.Theinferior
functionisoftenconsideredtobemoreassociatedwiththeunconscious,being
mostevidentinsituationssuchashighstress(sometimesreferredtoasbeingin
thegripoftheinferiorfunction).
Howevertheuseoftypedynamicsisdisputed:intheconclusionofvarious
studiesonthesubjectoftypedynamics,JamesH.Reyniersewritesthat"Type
dynamicshaspersistentlogicalproblemsandisfundamentallybasedona
seriesofcategorymistakesitprovides,atbest,alimitedandincomplete
accountoftyperelatedphenomena"andthat"typedynamicsrelieson
anecdotalevidence,failsmostefficacytests,anddoesnotfittheempirical
facts".Hisstudiesgavetheclearresultthatthedescriptionsandworkingsof
typedynamicsdonotfittherealbehaviorofpeople.Hesuggestsgetting
completelyridoftypedynamics,becauseitdoesnothelpbuthinders
understandingofpersonality.Thepresumedorderoffunctions1to4didonly
occurinoneoutof540testresults.[32]
Thetableorganizingthe
sixteentypeswascreated
byIsabelMyers(anINFP
person).
ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ
11
14%
14%
13%
24%
ISTP ISFP INFP INTP

46% 59% 45%
35%
ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP

45% 49% 68%
25%
ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

812%
25%
25%
13%
Estimatedpercentagesofthe16
typesintheU.S.population.[30]
Thesequenceofdifferentiationofdominant,auxiliary,andtertiaryfunctionsthroughlifeistermedtype
development.Notethatthisisanidealizedsequencethatmaybedisruptedbymajorlifeevents.
Thedynamicsequenceoffunctionsandtheirattitudescanbedeterminedinthefollowingway:
Theoveralllifestylepreference(JP)determineswhetherthejudging(TF)orperceiving(SN)
preferenceismostevidentintheoutsideworldi.e.,whichfunctionhasanextravertedattitude
Theattitudepreference(EI)determineswhethertheextravertedfunctionisdominantorauxiliary
Forthosewithanoverallpreferenceforextraversion,thefunctionwiththeextravertedattitudewill
bethedominantfunction.Forexample,foranESTJtypethedominantfunctionisthejudging
function,thinking,andthisisexperiencedwithanextravertedattitude.Thisisnotatedasadominant
Te.ForanESTP,thedominantfunctionistheperceivingfunction,sensing,notatedasadominantSe.
TheAuxiliaryfunctionforextravertsisthesecondarypreferenceofthejudgingorperceiving
functions,anditisexperiencedwithanintrovertedattitude:forexample,theauxiliaryfunctionfor
ESTJisintrovertedsensing(Si)andtheauxiliaryforESTPisintrovertedthinking(Ti).
Forthosewithanoverallpreferenceforintroversion,thefunctionwiththeextravertedattitudeisthe
auxiliarythedominantistheotherfunctioninthemainfourletterpreference.Sothedominant
functionforISTJisintrovertedsensing(Si)withtheauxiliary(supporting)functionbeingextraverted
thinking(Te).
TheTertiaryfunctionistheoppositepreferencefromtheAuxiliary.Forexample,iftheAuxiliaryis
thinkingthentheTertiarywouldbefeeling.TheattitudeoftheTertiaryisthesubjectofsomedebate
andthereforeisnotnormallyindicatedi.e.iftheAuxiliarywasTethentheTertiarywouldbeF(not
11/24
3/12/2015
FeorFi)
TheInferiorfunctionistheoppositepreferenceandattitudefromtheDominant,soforanESTJwith
dominantTetheInferiorwouldbeFi.
Notethatforextraverts,thedominantfunctionistheonemostevidentintheexternalworld.Forintroverts,
however,itistheauxiliaryfunctionthatismostevidentexternally,astheirdominantfunctionrelatestothe
interiorworld.
Someexamplesofwholetypesmayclarifythisfurther.TakingtheESTJexampleabove:
Extravertedfunctionisajudgingfunction(TF)becauseoftheoverallJpreference
ExtravertedfunctionisdominantbecauseofoverallEpreference
Dominantfunctionisthereforeextravertedthinking(Te)
Auxiliaryfunctionisthepreferredperceivingfunction:introvertedsensing(Si)
TertiaryfunctionistheoppositeoftheAuxiliary:intuition(N)
InferiorfunctionistheoppositeoftheDominant:introvertedfeeling(Fi)
ThedynamicsoftheESTJarefoundintheprimarycombinationofextravertedthinkingastheirdominant
functionandintrovertedsensingastheirauxiliaryfunction:thedominanttendencyofESTJstoordertheir
environment,tosetclearboundaries,toclarifyrolesandtimetables,andtodirecttheactivitiesaroundthem
issupportedbytheirfacilityforusingpastexperienceinanorderedandsystematicwaytohelporganize
themselvesandothers.Forinstance,ESTJsmayenjoyplanningtripsforgroupsofpeopletoachievesome
goalortoperformsomeculturallyupliftingfunction.Becauseoftheireaseindirectingothersandtheir
facilityinmanagingtheirowntime,theyengagealltheresourcesattheirdisposaltoachievetheirgoals.
However,underprolongedstressorsuddentrauma,ESTJsmayoverusetheirextravertedthinkingfunction
andfallintothegripoftheirinferiorfunction,introvertedfeeling.AlthoughtheESTJcanseeminsensitive
tothefeelingsofothersintheirnormalactivities,undertremendousstress,theycansuddenlyexpress
feelingsofbeingunappreciatedorwoundedbyinsensitivity.
Lookingatthediametricallyoppositefourlettertype,INFP:
Extravertedfunctionisaperceivingfunction(SN)becauseofthePpreference
IntrovertedfunctionisdominantbecauseoftheIpreference
Dominantfunctionisthereforeintrovertedfeeling(Fi)
Auxiliaryfunctionisextravertedintuition(Ne)
TertiaryfunctionistheoppositeoftheAuxiliary:sensing(S)
InferiorfunctionistheoppositeoftheDominant:extravertedthinking(Te)
ThedynamicsoftheINFPrestonthefundamentalcorrespondenceofintrovertedfeelingandextraverted
intuition.ThedominanttendencyoftheINFPistowardbuildingarichinternalframeworkofvaluesand
towardchampioninghumanrights.Theyoftendevotethemselvesbehindthescenestocausessuchascivil
rightsorsavingtheenvironment.Sincetheytendtoavoidthelimelight,postponedecisions,andmaintaina
reservedposture,theyarerarelyfoundinexecutivedirectortypepositionsoftheorganizationsthatserve
12/24
3/12/2015
thosecauses.Normally,theINFPdislikesbeing"incharge"ofthings.Whennotunderstress,theINFP
radiatesapleasantandsympatheticdemeanorbutunderextremestress,theycansuddenlybecomerigid
anddirective,exertingtheirextravertedthinkingerratically.
Everytype,anditsopposite,istheexpressionoftheseinteractions,whichgiveeachtypeitsunique,
recognizablesignature.
Cognitivelearningstyles
Thetestisscoredbyevaluatingeachanswerintermsofwhatitrevealsaboutthetaker.Eachquestionis
relevanttooneofthefollowingcognitivelearningstyles.Eachisnotapolaropposite,butagradual
continuum.
Extraversion/Introversion
Thefirstcontinuumreflectswhatgenerallyenergizesaperson.Extravertedtypeslearnbestbytalkingand
interactingwithothers.Byinteractingwiththephysicalworld,extravertscanprocessandmakesenseof
newinformation.Introvertedtypespreferquietreflectionandprivacy.Informationprocessingoccursfor
introvertsastheyexploreideasandconceptsinternally.
Sensing/Intuition
Thesecondcontinuumreflectswhatapersonfocusestheirattentionson.Sensingtypesenjoyalearning
environmentinwhichthematerialispresentedinadetailedandsequentialmanner.Sensingtypesoften
attendtowhatisoccurringinthepresent,andcanmovetotheabstractaftertheyhaveestablisheda
concreteexperience.Intuitivetypespreferalearningatmosphereinwhichanemphasisisplacedon
meaningandassociations.Insightisvaluedhigherthancarefulobservation,andpatternrecognitionoccurs
naturallyforIntuitivetypes.
Thinking/Feeling
Thethirdcontinuumreflectsthepersonsdecisionpreferences.Thinkingtypesdesireobjectivetruthand
logicalprinciplesandarenaturalatdeductivereasoning.Feelingtypesplaceanemphasisonissuesand
causesthatcanbepersonalizedwhiletheyconsiderotherpeople'smotives.
Judging/Perceiving
Thefourthcontinuumreflectshowthepersonregardscomplexity.Judgingtypeswillthrivewhen
informationisorganizedandstructured,andtheywillbemotivatedtocompleteassignmentsinorderto
gainclosure.Perceivingtypeswillflourishinaflexiblelearningenvironmentinwhichtheyarestimulated
bynewandexcitingideas.Judgingtypesliketobeontime,whileperceivingtypesmaybelateand/or
procrastinate.
Correlationstootherinstruments
Keirseytemperaments
13/24
3/12/2015
DavidW.Keirseymappedfour"temperaments"totheexistingMyersBriggssystemgroupings:SP,SJ,NF
andNTthisoftenresultsinconfusionofthetwotheories.However,theKeirseyTemperamentSorterisnot
directlyassociatedwiththeofficialMyersBriggsTypeIndicator.
ISITEJ
ISIFEJ
INIFEJ
INITEJ
Inspector Protector Counselor Mastermind

ISETIP
ISEFIP
INEFIP
INETIP
Crafter Composer Healer
ESETIP ESEFIP ENEFIP
Architect
ENETIP
Promoter Performer Champion

ESITEJ
ESIFEJ ENIFEJ
Inventor
ENITEJ
Supervisor Provider
Teacher Fieldmarshal
BigFive
McCraeandCosta[33][34]presentcorrelationsbetweentheMBTIscalesandtheBigFivepersonality
construct,whichaimstoorganizethecompletesetofbasicpersonalitydomains.Thefivepersonality
characteristicsareextraversion,openness,agreeableness,conscientiousness,andemotionalstability(or
neuroticism).Thefollowingstudyisbasedontheresultsfrom267menfollowedaspartofalongitudinal
studyofaging.(Similarresultswereobtainedwith201women.)
Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism
EI
0.74
0.03
0.03
0.08
0.16
SN
0.10
0.72
0.04
0.15
0.06
TF
0.19
0.02
0.44
0.15
0.06
JP
0.15
0.30
0.06
0.49
0.11
Thecloserthenumberisto1.0or1.0,thehigherthedegreeofcorrelation.
ThesedatasuggestthatthefourMBTIscalesaresubsumedwithintheBigFivepersonalitytraits,butthat
theMBTIlacksameasureforemotionalstabilitydimensionoftheBigFive(thoughtheTDI,discussed
above,hasaddressedthatdimension).Emotionalstability(orneuroticism)isacoredomainpredictiveof
depressionandanxietydisorders.Thesecorrelationsrefertothesecondlettershown,i.e.thetableshows
thatIandPhavenegativecorrelationtoextraversionandconscientiousnessrespectively,whileFandN
havepositivecorrelationtoagreeablenessandopennessrespectively.
ThesefindingsledMcCraeandCosta,theformulatorsoftheFiveFactorModel(aBigFivetheory),[35]to
conclude,"correlationalanalysesshowedthatthefourMBTIindicesdidmeasureaspectsoffourofthefive
majordimensionsofnormalpersonality.Thefivefactormodelprovidesanalternativebasisforinterpreting
MBTIfindingswithinabroader,morecommonlysharedconceptualframework."However,"therewasno
supportfortheviewthattheMBTImeasurestrulydichotomouspreferencesorqualitativelydistincttypes,
instead,theinstrumentmeasuresfourrelativelyindependentdimensions."
Personalitydisorders
14/24
3/12/2015
OnestudyfoundpersonalitydisordersasdescribedbytheDSMoveralltocorrelatemodestlywithI,N,T,
andP,thoughtheassociationsvariedsignificantlybydisorder.Theonlytwodisorderswithsignificant
correlationsofallfourMBTIdimensionswereschizotypal(INTP)andobsessivecompulsivepersonality
disorder(ISTJ).[36]
Originsofthetheory
Jung'stheoryofpsychologicaltype,aspublishedinhis1921book,wasnottestedthroughcontrolled
scientificstudies.[20]Jung'smethodsprimarilyincludedclinicalobservation,introspectionandanecdote
methodsthatarelargelyregardedasinconclusivebythemodernfieldofpsychology.[20]
Jung'stypetheoryintroducedasequenceoffourcognitivefunctions(thinking,feeling,sensation,and
intuition),eachhavingoneoftwoorientations(extraversionorintroversion),foratotalofeightdominant
functions.TheMyersBriggstheoryisbasedontheseeightfunctions,althoughwithsomedifferencesin
expression(seeDifferencesfromJungabove).However,neithertheMyersBriggsnortheJungianmodels
offeranyscientific,experimentalprooftosupporttheexistence,thesequence,theorientation,orthe
manifestationofthesefunctions.[20]
Criticism
ThestatisticalvalidityoftheMBTIasapsychometricinstrumenthasbeenthesubjectofcriticism.Ithas
beenestimatedthatbetweenathirdandahalfofthepublishedmaterialontheMBTIhasbeenproducedfor
conferencesoftheCenterfortheApplicationofPsychologicalType(whichprovidestrainingintheMBTI)
oraspapersintheJournalofPsychologicalType(whichiseditedbyMyersBriggsadvocates).[37]Ithas
beenarguedthatthisreflectsalackofcriticalscrutiny.[37][38]ManyofthestudiesthatendorseMBTIare
methodologicallyweak.[38][39]A1996reviewbyGardnerandMartinkoconcluded:"Itisclearthatefforts
todetectsimplisticlinkagesbetweentypepreferencesandmanagerialeffectivenesshavebeen
disappointing.Indeed,giventhemixedqualityofresearchandtheinconsistentfindings,nodefinitive
conclusionregardingtheserelationshipscanbedrawn."[38][39]
Forexample,someresearchersexpectedthatscoreswouldshowabimodaldistributionwithpeaksnearthe
endsofthescales,butfoundthatscoresontheindividualsubscaleswereactuallydistributedinacentrally
peakedmannersimilartoanormaldistribution.Acutoffexistsatthecenterofthesubscalesuchthata
scoreononesideisclassifiedasonetype,andascoreontheothersideastheoppositetype.Thisfailsto
supporttheconceptoftype:thenormisforpeopletolienearthemiddleofthesubscale.[33][38][40][41][42]
"AlthoughwedonotconcludethattheabsenceofbimodalitynecessarilyprovesthattheMBTIdevelopers
theorybasedassumptionofcategoricaltypesofpersonalityisinvalid,theabsenceofempirical
bimodalityinIRTbasedMBTIscoresdoesindeedremoveapotentiallypowerfullineofevidencethatwas
previouslyavailabletotypeadvocatestociteindefenseoftheirposition."[42]
In1991,theNationalAcademyofSciencescommitteerevieweddatafromMBTIresearchstudiesand
concludedthatonlytheIEscalehashighcorrelationswithcomparablescalesofotherinstrumentsandlow
correlationswithinstrumentsdesignedtoassessdifferentconcepts,showingstrongvalidity.Incontrast,the
SNandTFscalesshowrelativelyweakvalidity.The1991reviewcommitteeconcludedatthetimethere
was"notsufficient,welldesignedresearchtojustifytheuseoftheMBTIincareercounseling
15/24
3/12/2015
programs".[43]Thisstudybaseditsmeasurementofvalidityon"criterionrelatedvalidity(i.e.,doesthe
MBTIpredictspecificoutcomesrelatedtointerpersonalrelationsorcareersuccess/jobperformance?)."[43]
Studieshavefoundthatthereisinsufficientevidencetomakeclaimsaboututility,particularlyofthefour
lettertypegivenafterthetest.[38]
TheaccuracyoftheMBTIdependsonhonestselfreportingbythepersontested.[8]:5253Unlikesome
personalitymeasures,suchastheMinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventoryorthePersonality
AssessmentInventory,theMBTIdoesnotusevalidityscalestoassessexaggeratedorsociallydesirable
responses.[44]Asaresult,individualsmotivatedtodosocanfaketheirresponses,[45]andonestudyfound
thattheMBTIjudgment/perceptiondimensioncorrelatesweaklywiththeEysenckPersonality
Questionnaireliescale.[46]Ifrespondents"feartheyhavesomethingtolose,theymayanswerasthey
assumetheyshould."[8]:53However,theMBTIethicalguidelinesstate,"Itisunethicalandinmanycases
illegaltorequirejobapplicantstotaketheIndicatoriftheresultswillbeusedtoscreenoutapplicants."[29]
TheintentoftheMBTIistoprovide"aframeworkforunderstandingindividualdifferences,anda
dynamicmodelofindividualdevelopment".[47]
Terminology
TheterminologyoftheMBTIhasbeencriticizedasbeingvery"vagueandgeneral",[48]soastoallowany
kindofbehaviortofitanypersonalitytype,whichmayresultintheForereffect,whereindividualsgivea
highratingtoapositivedescriptionthatsupposedlyappliesspecificallytothem.[20][38]Othersarguethat
whiletheMBTItypedescriptionsarebrief,theyarealsodistinctiveandprecise.[49]:1415Sometheorists,
suchasDavidKeirsey,haveexpandedontheMBTIdescriptions,providingevengreaterdetail.For
instance,Keirsey'sdescriptionsofhisfourtemperaments,whichhecorrelatedwiththesixteenMBTI
personalitytypes,showhowthetemperamentsdifferintermsoflanguageuse,intellectualorientation,
educationalandvocationalinterests,socialorientation,selfimage,personalvalues,socialroles,and
characteristichandgestures.[49]:32207
Factoranalysis
Withregardtofactoranalysis,onestudyof1291collegeagedstudentsfoundsixdifferentfactorsinsteadof
thefourusedintheMBTI.[50]Inotherstudies,researchersfoundthattheJPandtheSNscalescorrelate
withoneanother.[33]
Correlates
AccordingtoHansEysenck:"ThemaindimensionintheMBTIiscalledEI,orextraversionintroversion
thisismostlyasociabilityscale,correlatingquitewellwiththeMMPIsocialintroversionscale(negatively)
andtheEysenckExtraversionscale(positively)(EysenckandEysenck,1985).Unfortunately,thescalealso
hasaloadingonneuroticism,whichcorrelateswiththeintrovertedend.Thusintroversioncorrelates
roughly(i.e.averagingvaluesformalesandfemales).44withdominance,.24withaggression,+.37with
abasement,+.46withcounsellingreadiness,.52withselfconfidence,.36withpersonaladjustment,and
16/24
3/12/2015
.45withempathy.ThefailureofthescaletodisentangleIntroversionandNeuroticism(infactthereisno
scaleforneuroticandotherpsychopathologicalattributesintheMBTI)isitsworstfeature,onlyequalledby
thefailuretousefactoranalysisinordertotestthearrangementofitemsinthescale."[18]
Reliability
Someresearchershaveinterpretedthereliabilityofthetestasbeinglow,particularlywithregardstothe
testretestreliabilityofthetest.Studieshavefoundthatbetween39%and76%ofthosetestedfallinto
differenttypesuponretestingsomeweeksoryearslater,[38][41]andlargenumbersofindividualshavefound
thattheygetdifferentclassificationswhenretakingthetestafterjustfiveweeks.Thereisalsostrong
evidencethatthedifferentscalesarecorrelated,andnotindependentasclaimed.[38]InFortuneMagazine
onMay15,2013,anarticleonthetest,entitled"HaveweallbeendupedbytheMyersBriggsTest",said
that:
"TheinterestingandsomewhatalarmingfactabouttheMBTIisthat,despiteits
popularity,ithasbeensubjecttosustainedcriticismbyprofessionalpsychologistsforover
threedecades.Oneproblemisthatitdisplayswhatstatisticianscalllow"testretest
reliability."Soifyouretakethetestafteronlyafiveweekgap,there'sarounda50%
chancethatyouwillfallintoadifferentpersonalitycategorycomparedtothefirsttime
youtookthetest."
Theconsequenceisthatthescoresoftwopeoplelabelled"introvert"and"extravert"maybealmostexactly
thesame,buttheycouldbeplacedintodifferentcategoriessincetheyfalloneithersideofanimaginary
dividingline.[51]
OnestudyreportsthattheMBTIdichotomiesexhibitgoodsplithalfreliabilityhowever,thedichotomy
scoresaredistributedinabellcurve,andtheoveralltypeallocationsarelessreliable.Also,testretest
reliabilityissensitivetothetimebetweentests.Withineachdichotomyscale,asmeasuredonFormG,
about83%ofcategorizationsremainthesamewhenindividualsareretestedwithinninemonths,and
around75%whenindividualsareretestedafterninemonths.About50%ofpeopletestedwithinnine
monthsremainthesameoveralltype,and36%remainthesametypeaftermorethanninemonths.[52]For
FormM(themostcurrentformoftheMBTIinstrument),theMBTIManualreportsthatthesescoresare
higher(p.163,Table8.6).
Inonestudy,whenpeoplewereaskedtocomparetheirpreferredtypetothatassignedbytheMBTI
assessment,onlyhalfofpeoplepickedthesameprofile.[53]CriticsalsoarguethattheMBTIlacks
falsifiability,whichcancauseconfirmationbiasintheinterpretationofresults.
AnumberofscholarsarguethatcriticismsregardingtheMBTImostlycomedowntoquestionsregarding
thevalidityofitsorigins,notquestionsregardingthevalidityoftheMBTI'susefulness.[54]Othersargue
thattheMBTIcanbeareliablemeasurementofpersonalityitjustsohappensthat"likeallmeasures,the
MBTIyieldsscoresthataredependentonsamplecharacteristicsandtestingconditions".[55]
Utility
17/24
3/12/2015
Inherresearch,IsabelMyersfoundthattheproportionofdifferentpersonalitytypesvariedbychoiceof
careerorcourseofstudy.[1]:4051[9]However,someresearchersexaminingtheproportionsofeachtype
withinvaryingprofessionsreportthattheproportionofMBTItypeswithineachoccupationisclosetothat
withinarandomsampleofthepopulation.[38]Someresearchershaveexpressedreservationsaboutthe
relevanceoftypetojobsatisfaction,aswellasconcernsaboutthepotentialmisuseoftheinstrumentin
labelingindividuals.[38][56]
CPPbecametheexclusivepublisheroftheMyersBriggsinstrumentin1975.Theycallit"theworld'smost
widelyusedpersonalityassessment",withasmanyastwomillionassessmentsadministeredannually.[57]
CPPandotherproponentsstatethattheindicatormeetsorexceedsthereliabilityofotherpsychological
instrumentsandcitereportsofindividualbehavior.[58][59][60]
Somestudieshavefoundstrongsupportforconstructvalidity,internalconsistency,andtestretest
reliability,althoughvariationwasobserved.[61][62]However,someacademicpsychologistshavecriticized
theMBTIinstrument,claimingthatit"lacksconvincingvaliditydata",[33][40][41][63]whilesomestudies
haveshownthestatisticalvalidityandreliabilitytobelow.[38][41][64]
StudiessuggestthattheMBTIisnotausefulpredictorofjobperformance.[38][43][65]Asnotedaboveunder
Preceptsandethics,theMBTImeasurespreference,notability.TheuseoftheMBTIasapredictorofjob
successisexpresslydiscouragedintheManual.[8]:78However,theMBTIcontinuestobepopularbecause
manypeoplearequalifiedtoadministerit,itisnotdifficulttounderstand,andtherearemanysupporting
books,websitesandotherusefulsourceswhicharereadilyavailabletothegeneralpublic.[66]
Seealso
AdjectiveCheckList(ACL)
BirkmanMethod
CPI260
DISCassessment
EnneagramofPersonality
RisoHudsonEnneagramTypeIndicator
FIROB
Forereffect
FortProfile
HollandCodes
Humorism
InteractionStyles
Interpersonalcompatibility
Kingdomality
Listofpersonalitytests
18/24
3/12/2015
MinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventory(MMPI)
PearsonMarrArchetypeIndicator(PMAI)
PersonalityAssessmentSystem
Personalityclash
Personalitypsychology
RevisedNEOPersonalityInventory
Socionics
StrongInterestInventory
ThomasKilmannConflictModeInstrument
Notes
1. Myers,IsabelBriggswithPeterB.Myers(1995)[1980].GiftsDiffering:UnderstandingPersonalityType.
MountainView,CA:DaviesBlackPublishing.ISBN089106074X.
2. MBTIbasics(http://www.myersbriggs.org/mymbtipersonalitytype/mbtibasics/),TheMyersBriggs
Foundation,2014,Retrieved18June2014.
3. MyersBriggsTypeIndicator(MBTI)(https://www.cpp.com/products/mbti/index.aspx),CPP.com,MenloPark,
CA,2014,Retrieved18June2014.
4. Jung,CarlGustav(August1,1971)."PsychologicalTypes".CollectedWorksofC.G.Jung,Volume6.Princeton
UniversityPress.ISBN0691097704.
5. Kaplan,R.M.Saccuzzo,D.P.(2009).PsychologicalTesting:Principles,Applications,andIssues(7ed.).
Belmont,CA:Wadsworth.ISBN9780495506362.
6. CenterforApplicationsofPsychologicalType.(2012).ThestoryofIsabelBriggsMyers.Retrievedfrom
http://www.capt.org/mbtiassessment/isabelmyers.htm
7. Pearman,RogerR.SarahC.Albritton(1997).I'mNotCrazy,I'mJustNotYou(Firsted.).PaloAlto,
California:DaviesBlackPublishing.xiii.ISBN0891060960.
8. Myers,IsabelBriggsMaryH.McCaulley(1985).Manual:AGuidetotheDevelopmentandUseoftheMyers
BriggsTypeIndicator(2nded.).PaloAlto,CA:ConsultingPsychologistsPress.ISBN0891060278.
9. Myers,IsabelBriggsMcCaulleyMaryH.Quenk,NaomiL.Hammer,AllenL.(1998).MBTIManual(Aguide
tothedevelopmentanduseoftheMyersBriggstypeindicator).ConsultingPsychologistsPress3rdededition.
ISBN0891061304.
10. Zeisset,Carolyn(2006).TheArtofDialogue:ExploringPersonalityDifferencesforMoreEffective
Communication.Gainesville,FL:CenterforApplicationsofPsychologicalType,Inc.p.13.ISBN093565277
9.
11. nettle,Dr.Daniel."Personality:Auserguide"(http://www.open.edu/openlearn/body
mind/psychology/personalityuserguide).TheOpenUniversity.Retrieved20130417.
12. Tieger,PaulD.BarbaraBarronTieger(1999).TheArtofSpeedReadingPeople.NewYork,NY:Little,Brown
andCompany.p.66.ISBN9780316845182.
13. "CAPT:"TheStoryofIsabelBriggsMyers" "(http://www.capt.org/mbtiassessment/isabelmyers.htm).
Retrieved20090729.
19/24
3/12/2015
Retrieved20090729.
14. "TheTYPEWriter:"ItHappenedIn1943:TheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatorTurns60YearsOld" "

(https://www.cpp.com/pr/Fall03TYPEwriter.pdf).Retrieved20090729.
15. Geyer,Peter(1998)SomeSignificantDates(http://members.ozemail.com.au/~alchymia/library/dates.html).
RetrievedDecember5,2005.
16. "GuidetotheIsabelBriggsMyersPapers18851992"
(http://web.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/manuscript/guides/Myers.htm).UniversityofFloridaGeorgeA.Smathers
Libraries,DepartmentofSpecialandAreaStudiesCollections,Gainesville,FL.2003.Retrieved20051205.
17. "TypeLogic"(http://www.typelogic.com/fa.html).Retrieved20080914.
18. Eysenck,H.J.Genius:TheNaturalHistoryofCreativity(1995ed.).p.110.
19. Eysenck,H.J.Genius:TheNaturalHistoryofCreativity(1995ed.).p.179.
20. Carroll,RobertTodd(January9,2004)."MyersBriggsTypeIndicatorTheSkeptic'sDictionary"
(http://skepdic.com/myersb.html).Retrieved20040108.
21. "HierarchicalConfirmatoryFactorAnalysisoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator"
(http://harvey.psyc.vt.edu/Documents/BessHarveySwartzSIOP2003.pdf)(PDF).Retrieved20080914.
22. RebeccaL.Oxford.Languagelearningmotivation:pathwaystothenewcentury(http://books.google.com/books?
id=v7Ww2tooAs0C&pg=PA88&lpg)(GoogleBook).Retrieved20120127.
23. BriggsMyers,IsabelMcCaulley,MaryH.Quenk,NaomiL.Hammer,AllenL.Mitchell,WayneD.MBTI
StepIIIManual:ExploringPersonalityDevelopmentUsingtheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatorInstrumentp.119.
ConsultingPsychologistsPress(2009)
24. Myers,IsabelBriggsMcCaulleyMaryH.Quenk,NaomiL.Hammer,AllenL.(1998).MBTIManual(Aguide
tothedevelopmentanduseoftheMyersBriggstypeindicator)p.131.ConsultingPsychologistsPress3rded
edition.ISBN0891061304.
25. "CAPTStepIII"(https://www.capt.org/research/mbtistep3.htm).Retrieved20080914.
26. BeBetterwithSkillsOne(http://people.cpp.com/globalreports.html)
27. InternationalTestCommission(2010).InternationalTestCommissionGuidelinesforTranslatingandAdapting
Tests.[1](http://www.intestcom.org/)
28. "MBTIStepIinstrument|EuropeanDataSupplement"
(http://www.opp.eu.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/pdfs/resources/mbti_step_i_european_data_supplement.pdf).
OPPLtd,ElsfieldHall,Oxford.8March2011.Retrieved20140704.
29. "EthicsforAdministeringtheMBTIInstrument"(http://www.myersbriggs.org/myersandbriggs
foundation/ethicaluseofthembtiinstrument/ethicsforadministering.asp).Retrieved20090215.
30. "CAPTCenterforApplicationsofPsychologicalType"(http://www.capt.org/mbtiassessment/estimated
frequencies.htm).Retrieved20100619.
31. "ThePersonalityJunkie:PersonalityTypeTheory"(http://personalityjunkie.com/personalitytypetheory/).
Retrieved20091122.
32. JamesH.Reynierse,TheCaseAgainstTypeDynamics,JournalofPsychologicalType,Issue12009
33. McCrae,RRCosta,PT(1989)."ReinterpretingtheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatorFromthePerspectiveofthe
FiveFactorModelofPersonality".JournalofPersonality57(1):1740.doi:10.1111/j.1467
6494.1989.tb00759.x(https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.14676494.1989.tb00759.x).PMID2709300
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2709300).
34. Fulltext(http://leadulibrary.com/mj/2007/club/MBTI/MBTI5factor.pdf)
35. "UniversityofOregon:"MeasuringtheBigFivePersonalityFactors" "
20/24
3/12/2015
35. "UniversityofOregon:"MeasuringtheBigFivePersonalityFactors" "

(http://www.uoregon.edu/~sanjay/bigfive.html#b5vffm).Retrieved20080808.
36. "AnEmpiricalInvestigationofJung'sPersonalityTypesandPsychologicalDisorderFeatures"
(http://www.uccs.edu/Documents/dsegal/AnempiricalinvestigationJungstypesandPDfeaturesJPT2.pdf).
JournalofPsychologicalType/UniversityofColoradoatColoradoSprings.2001.Retrieved20130810.
37. CoffieldF,MoseleyD,HallE,EcclestoneK(2004)."Learningstylesandpedagogyinpost16learning:A
systematicandcriticalreview"(http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1543.pdf)(PDF).LearningandSkillsResearch
Centre.
38. Pittenger,DavidJ.(November1993)."MeasuringtheMBTI...AndComingUpShort."
(http://www.indiana.edu/~jobtalk/HRMWebsite/hrm/articles/develop/mbti.pdf)(PDF).JournalofCareer
PlanningandEmployment54(1):4852.
39. WilliamL.GardnerandMarkJ.Martinko(1996)."UsingtheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatortostudymanagers:
Aliteraturereviewandresearchagenda".JournalofManagement22:4583.doi:10.1177/014920639602200103
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F014920639602200103).
40. Stricker,LJRoss,J(1964)."AnAssessmentofSomeStructuralPropertiesoftheJungianPersonality
Typology".JournalofAbnormalandSocialPsychology68:6271.doi:10.1037/h0043580
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0043580).
41. Matthews,P(20040521)."TheMBTIisaflawedmeasureofpersonality"(http://www.bmj.com/rapid
response/2011/10/30/mbtiflawedmeasurepersonality).Bmj.comRapidResponses.
42. Bess,T.L.&Harvey,R.J.(2001)."BimodalscoredistributionsandtheMBTI:Factorartifact?".TheAnnual
ConferenceoftheSocietyforIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology,SanDiego2001.
43. Nowack,K.(1996).IstheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatortheRightTooltoUse?PerformanceinPractice
(http://www.opd.net/abstracts5.html),AmericanSocietyofTrainingandDevelopment,Fall1996,6
44. Boyle,GJ(1995)."MyersBriggsTypeIndicator(MBTI):Somepsychometriclimitations".Australian
Psychologist30:7174.doi:10.1111/j.17429544.1995.tb01750.x(https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1742
9544.1995.tb01750.x).
45. Furnham,A(1990)."Fakingpersonalityquestionnaires:Fabricatingdifferentprofilesfordifferentpurposes".
CurrentPsychology9:4655.doi:10.1007/BF02686767(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02686767).
46. Francis,LJJones,SH(2000)."TheRelationshipBetweentheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatorandtheEysenck
PersonalityQuestionnaireAmongAdultChurchgoers".PastoralPsychology48.
47. "MBTITypeatWorkl"(http://www.myersbriggs.org/typeuseforeverydaylife/mbtitypeatwork/).Retrieved
20100804.
48. "ForereffectfromtheSkeptic'sDictionary"(http://www.skepdic.com/forer.html).
49. Keirsey,David(1998).PleaseUnderstandMeII:Temperament,Character,Intelligence.DelMar,CA:
PrometheusNemesisBookCompany.ISBN1885705026.
50. Sipps,G.J.,R.A.Alexander,andL.Friedt."ItemAnalysisoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator."Educational
andPsychologicalMeasurement,Vol.45,No.4(1985),pp.789796.
51. "HaveweallbeendupedbytheMyersBriggstest?Fortune"
(http://management.fortune.cnn.com/2013/05/15/myersbriggsproblems/).management.fortune.cnn.com.
Retrieved20140704.
52. Harvey,RJ(1996)."ReliabilityandValidity,inMBTIApplicationsA.L.Hammer,Editor".Consulting
PsychologistsPress:PaloAlto,CA.p.529.
21/24
3/12/2015
53. Carskadon,TG&Cook,DD(1982)."ValidityofMBTIdescriptionsasperceivedbyrecipientsunfamiliarwith
type".ResearchinPsychologicalType5:8994.
54. Dawes,Robyn(2004)."TimeforacriticalempiricalinvestigationoftheMBTI:CaseandPhillipsonarerightto
highlighttheprescientificrootsoftheMBTI,buttheyfailtoseparatetheissueofthevalidityorusefulnessof
theMBTIfromtheissueofthevalidityofitsorigins.(MyersBriggsTypeIndicator)".EuropeanBusiness
Forum(18).
55. Capraro,RobertMargaretCapraro(2002)."MYERSBRIGGSTYPEINDICATORSCORERELIABILITY
ACROSSSTUDIES:AMETAANALYTICRELIABILITYGENERALIZATIONSTUDY".Educationaland
PsychologicalMeasurement(62):590602.
56. Druckman,D.andR.A.Bjork,Eds.(1992).IntheMindsEye:EnhancingHumanPerformance.Washington,
DC:NationalAcademyPress.ISBN0309047471.
57. "CPPProducts"(https://www.cpp.com/products/index.aspx).Retrieved20090620.
58. Schaubhut,NancyA.NicoleA.HerkandRichardC.Thompson(2009)."MBTIFormMManualSupplement"
(https://www.cpp.com/pdfs/MBTI_FormM_Supp.pdf).CPP.p.17.Retrieved20100508.
59. Clack,GillianJudyAllen."ResponsetoPaulMatthews'criticism"(http://www.bmj.com/rapid
response/2011/10/30/mbtiflawedmeasurepersonality).Retrieved20080514.
60. BarronTieger,BarbaraTieger,PaulD.(1995).Dowhatyouare:discovertheperfectcareerforyouthrough
thesecretsofpersonalitytype.Boston:Little,Brown.ISBN0316845221.
61. Thompson,BruceGloriaM.Borrello(Autumn1986)."ConstructValidityoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator".
EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurement(SAGEPublications)46(3):745752.
doi:10.1177/0013164486463032(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0013164486463032).
62. Capraro,RobertM.MaryMargaretCapraro(August2002)."MyersBriggsTypeIndicatorScoreReliability
Across:StudiesaMetaAnalyticReliabilityGeneralizationStudy".EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurement
(SAGEPublications)62(4):590602.doi:10.1177/0013164402062004004
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0013164402062004004).
63. HunsleyJ,LeeCM,WoodJM(2004)."Controversialandquestionableassessmenttechniques".Scienceand
PseudoscienceinClinicalPsychology,LilienfeldSO,LohrJM,LynnSJ(eds.).Guilford.ISBN1593850700.,
p.65
64. Kline,Paul,Thehandbookofpsychologicaltesting,PsychologyPress,2000,ISBN0415211581,ISBN9780
415211581
65. LetterstotheEditor:It'sNotYou,It'sYourPersonality."(1992,February3).WallStreetJournal(Eastern
Edition),p.PAGEA13.RetrievedNovember8,2008,fromWallStreetJournaldatabase.(DocumentID:
27836749).
66. CorieLok(2012)."Careerdevelopment:What'syourtype?"
(http://www.nature.com/naturejobs/science/articles/10.1038/nj7412545a).Nature488,545547.
Referencesandfurtherreading
Hunsley,J.Lee,C.M.andWood,J.M.(2004).Controversialandquestionableassessmenttechniques.Science
andPseudoscienceinClinicalPsychology,LilienfeldSO,LohrJM,LynnSJ(eds.).Guilford,ISBN159385
0700
22/24
3/12/2015
Bess,T.L.andHarvey,R.J.(2001,April).BimodalscoredistributionsandtheMBTI:Factorartifact?
(http://harvey.psyc.vt.edu/Documents/SIOPhandoutBessHarveyMBTI2001.pdf)PaperpresentedattheAnnual
ConferenceoftheSocietyforIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology,SanDiego.
Bess,T.L.Harvey,R.J.andSwartz,D.(2003).HierarchicalConfirmatoryFactorAnalysisoftheMyers
BriggsTypeIndicator(http://harvey.psyc.vt.edu/Documents/BessHarveySwartzSIOP2003.pdf)Paperpresentedat
theAnnualConferenceoftheSocietyforIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology,Orlando.
Bourne,Dana(2005).PersonalityTypesandtheTransgenderCommunity(http://www.webdotgal.com/html/m
b.html).RetrievedNovember14,2005
Falt,Jack.BibliographyofMBTI/TemperamentBooksbyAuthor(http://www.trytel.com/~jfalt/topics.html).
RetrievedDecember20,2004
GeorgiaStateUniversity.GSUMasterTeacherProgram:OnLearningStyles
(http://www2.gsu.edu/~dschjb/wwwmbti.html).RetrievedDecember20,2004.
Jung,CarlGustav(1965).Memories,Dreams,Reflections.VintageBooks:NewYork,1965.p.207
Jung,C.G.(1971).Psychologicaltypes(CollectedworksofC.G.Jung,volume6).(3rded.).Princeton,NJ:
PrincetonUniversityPress.FirstappearedinGermanin1921.ISBN0691097704
Krauskopf,CharlesJ.andSaunders,DavidR.(1994)PersonalityandAbility:ThePersonalityAssessment
System.Maryland:UniversityPressofAmerica.ISBN0819192821
Matthews,Paul(2004).TheMBTIisaflawedmeasureofpersonality'.'(http://www.bmj.com/rapid
response/2011/10/30/mbtiflawedmeasurepersonality).bmj.comRapidResponses.RetrievedFebruary9,2005
Myers,IsabelBriggs(1980).GiftsDiffering:UnderstandingPersonalityType.DaviesBlackPublishingReprint
edition(May1,1995).ISBN089106074X
Myers,IsabelBriggs,MaryH.McCaulley,NaomiQuenk,andAllanHammer.(1998)MBTIHandbook:AGuide
tothedevelopmentanduseoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatorConsultingPsychologistsPress,3rdedition.
ISBN0891061304
Pearman,R.Lombardo,M.andEichinger,R.(2005).YOU:BeingMoreEffectiveInYourMBTIType.
Minn.:LomingerInternational,Inc.
Pearman,R.andAlbritton,S.(1996).I'mNotCrazy,I'mJustNotYou:TheRealMeaningoftheSixteen
PersonalityTypes.MountainView,Ca:DaviesBlackPublishing.
PersonalityPlus.Employerslovepersonalitytests.Butwhatdotheyreallyreveal?
(http://www.gladwell.com/pdf/personality.pdf)
Saunders,D.(1989).TypeDifferentiationIndicatorManual:AscoringsystemforFormJoftheMyersBriggs
TypeIndicator.PaloAlto,CA:ConsultingPsychologistsPress,Inc.
SkepticsDictionary."MyersBriggsTypeIndicator"[2](http://skepdic.com/myersb.html)
VirginiaTech.TheRelationshipBetweenPsychologicalTypeandProfessionalOrientationAmongTechnology
EducationTeachers(http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/jtev7n1/wicklein.jtev7n1.html).RetrievedDecember
20,2004
ThomasG.Long(October1992)."MyersBriggsandotherModernAstrologies".TheologyToday49(3):291
95.doi:10.1177/004057369204900301(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F004057369204900301).
Externallinks
23/24
3/12/2015
Myers&BriggsFoundation(http://www.myersbriggs.org/)
CPP,Inc.(https://www.cpp.com/)
AssociationforPsychologicalTypeInternational
(http://www.aptinternational.org/)
CenterforApplicationsofPsychologicalType(CAPT)
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoMyers
BriggsTypeIndicator.
Wikiquotehasquotations
relatedto:Psychological
Type
(http://www.capt.org/)
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Myers
Briggs_Type_Indicator&oldid=648383442"
Categories: Jungiantradition Personalitytypologies MBTItypes Personalitytests
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon22February2015,at22:01.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
24/24

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

3/12/2015

Inductive Feeling/Thinking Introversion/Extraversion

ISTP ISFP INFP INTP

ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP

ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

Inspector Protector Counselor Mastermind

Promoter Performer Champion

14. "TheTYPEWriter:"ItHappenedIn1943:TheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatorTurns60YearsOld" "

35. "UniversityofOregon:"MeasuringtheBigFivePersonalityFactors" "

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen